Introto Fire Det Technology

e ida.
com
excellence in dependable automation
Introduction to
Fire Detection Technology
On-line Lesson
Welcome to the exida.com on-line lesson Introduction to Fire Detection

Technology. The objective of this lesson is to provide a practical introduction
to fire technology.
Copyright exida.com 2002
e ida.com
Companion Lessons
Introduction to Fire Detection Systems

Addressable and Analog Fire Detection
Systems
Introduction to Gas Detection Systems
Copyright exida.com 2001-2002
It is recommended that this exida on-line lesson be taken as part of the set
of lessons covering Fire Detection Systems.
The first part presented here covers Fire Detection Technology the
products of fire that allow it to be detected and how those products are
detected.
The second part addresses the fire detection systems and the system
components that provide the required operational functionality.
The third part covers Addressable and Analog Fire Systems.
Other related lessons are available including a lesson on Gas Detection
Systems.
e ida.com
Fire Detection Systems

Part 1 Overview
Part 1 Topics:
Fire Detection Concepts
Types of Fire Detectors
Smoke Detectors
Heat Detectors
Manual Call Point
CO Detectors
Flame Detectors
This lesson first presents some important basic concepts for fire detection.
The bulk of the lesson then describes the different types of fire detectors that
can be used and their basic principles of operation.
e ida.com
Risk Management
Fire Detection systems are an

integral part of risk management in
a typical process plant.
Those responsible for plant safety
must have a good understanding of
these systems, how Fire Detection
Systems operate and how they fit
into overall plant risk management.
Fire detection systems are an integral part of risk management in a

typical process plant. As such, it essential that people concerned with
the safety of the plant should have a good understanding of what these
systems are, how they operate, and where they fit in the larger picture
of risk management.
e ida.com
Function and Zones

Products of Combustion
Smoke, heat, flames and gases such as carbon
monoxide
False Alarms
Important fire detection concepts relate to the function of fire detection

system, the various products of combustion, and the nature of false
alarms.
e ida.com
Concepts:
Function and Zones
Function of a fire detection system

To locate a fire a precisely as possible
To achieve this
Divide the area to be protected into smaller
areas called zones, with detectors in each zone
Zones can be separated by
Firewalls, floors, or by physical areas of a plant
The main function of a fire detection system is to locate the fire as

precisely as possible. For this reason, fire detectors are grouped into
fire zones. The concept of a fire zone came into practice as a method
of localizing fire detection into the smallest practicable compartment
within a building, enclosure or area. Each of these compartments is
called a zone.
The division of a building into zones can be by firewalls and floors to
impede the spread of fire between zones. Industrial process plants,
chemical storage areas, etc. often cannot be compartmentalized in the
same way, and are divided into locations such as process units, tanks,
etc., bounded only by physical area.
e ida.com
Concepts:
Products of Combustion
Combustion products
Smoke, heat, flames and gases such as carbon
monoxide. These are known as products of
combustion.
Match detectors with the type of fire
Different types of fires produce these products
in different quantities, so select a detector to
match the type of fire expected.
Most fire detection technology focuses on detecting smoke, heat, and

flame. More recently, detection of carbon monoxide has received
considerable attention. These are all products of combustion.
Not all fires generate the same proportion of these products depending
on what is burning and the environment in which it is burning. It is thus
important to match the type of detector with the type of fire that is
expected, in order to ensure the required speed of response.
e ida.com
Concepts:
Smoke
Smoke is a visible suspension of carbon or

other particles in the air. These are called
particulates. Very fine particulates are called
aerosols.
When a fire starts it immediately changes the environment around it,

and it is these changes that help to make its presence known.
Smoke is generally present in the early stages of a fire, so smoke
detectors give better early warning of a fire. As the fire develops it emits
detectable heat, so where rapid spread of fire is not expected, and the
environment is not suitable for smoke detectors, heat detectors are the
best choice. Carbon Monoxide detectors are more suitable for slow,
smoldering fires.
e ida.com
Concepts:
Heat and Flame
Heat is a form of energy released by

combustion.
Flame is burning gas or vapor released in
combustion; energy in the form of light.
Where flammable liquids, such as alcohol and paint thinner, are the
prime source of fuel for a fire, flame is likely to be the first indication that
a fire has started. In cases like this, an infrared flame detector would be
most suitable. Flame detectors operate on a line-of-sight basis and
therefore need an unobstructed detection path.
e ida.com
Concepts:
False Alarms
False alarms
Other sources of these products of combustion
can produce interference and false alarms
Dust particles
Heat from steam pipes
Sunlight
Electric arcs
All of these may activate fire detectors

10
It is important to realize that these products of fire also have benign

sources other than fire. Heat from steam pipes, particulates from dust
or aerosols, and light from the sun or electric arcs can all generate false
alarms.
Other factors can also interfere with the process of fire detection by
masking the detected product. Air temperature can affect heat
detectors, and moving air can affect both heat and smoke detectors.
Smoke and heat from fires in large buildings with high ceilings, or in
outdoor applications, may dissipate too rapidly or accumulate too slowly
for effective detection.
10
e ida.com
Fire Detectors
Fire detectors fall into several categories

Smoke Detectors
Heat Detectors
Manual Call Points
Carbon Monoxide Detectors
11
Because the different products of combustion provide different forms of

evidence that a fire may be present, there are correspondingly different
ways to detect a fire.
11
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors
Smoke Detectors
Photoelectric and ionization most common
Different components of smoke can be detected
Lower temperature fires make High temperature fires make smaller,
larger, more visible particles
often invisible particles
12
Various types of smoke detectors are available, each designed to

respond to different components of smoke. The most common are the
photoelectric and ionization types. Smoke is usually produced from the
earliest stages of a fire, but it is the type of material that is burning and
the condition of burning that determines the color and density of smoke.
Smoke particulates vary in size from the invisible to larger visible
particles. A fire with low temperature decomposition will produce a
larger quantity of large (visible) particles. Conversely, the hotter the fire
the higher the number of small (invisible) smoke particles.
12
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors:
Ionization
Principle of Operation
A radioactive source produces a stable
voltage through ionization. When smoke is
introduced it destabilizes the ionization
process, increasing the voltage.
Chamber
10
Collector
Chamber Cover
Collector Potential
Characteristic
Responds well to small, or invisible
particles, but is slow to respond to visible
ones.
Radioactive
Source
0.5
Smoke/Aerosol Density
1.0
13
A single-chamber ionization smoke detector uses a small radioactive

source (e.g. Americium 241) at the closed end of a sampling chamber,
and ionizes the volume of air enclosed in the chamber. The ionization
causes a small current to flow between the source and a perforated
outer chamber cover, which have a fixed voltage applied between them.
Within the sampling chamber is a perforated electrode called the
collector. Under clean air conditions, the collector assumes a potential
relative to the chamber cover. This potential is due to the radioactive
emissions ionizing the air, and is relatively stable.
If combustion products such as smoke aerosols (invisible particles)
enter the sampling chamber they decrease the conductance of the air
by attaching themselves to the ions, causing a reduction in ion mobility.
This increases the potential on the collector, which is used to indicate
smoke density. The voltage on the collector is fed to a high impedance
amplifier which scales the signal. The scaled signal is processed and an
appropriate alarm action is initiated.
13
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors:
Ionization
A radioactive source produces a stable
voltage through ionization. When smoke is
introduced it destabilizes the ionization
process, increasing the voltage.
Chamber
10
Collector
Chamber Cover
Collector Potential
Characteristic
Responds well to small, or invisible
particles, but is slow to respond to visible
ones.
Radioactive
Source
0.5
Smoke/Aerosol Density
1.0
14
Ionization smoke detectors respond well to the small (invisible)

particles, but rather slowly to the larger (visible) particles of dense
smoke.
Dual-chamber ionization smoke detectors are more common as they
provide greater stability. One chamber is a sample chamber; the other
is a reference chamber. Combustion products enter the sample
chamber and disturb the balance between reference and sample
chambers. This imbalance is then processed, and if severe enough
triggers an alarm.
14
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors:
Photoelectric Light Scattering
Characteristic
Responds well to larger, or visible
particles, but almost ignore the invisible
ones.
A light source emits light which is hidden
from a light detector. When smoke is
introduced it scatters the emitted light.
The scattered light is detected by the light
detector and initiates an alarm.
Emitter
Baffles
Detector
Insect
Screen
Smoke
Path
Sample Chamber
Light-scattering
photoelectric smoke
detector
15
Photoelectric smoke detectors respond well to the larger (visible)

particles of smoke, but almost ignore the smaller (invisible)
particles/aerosols. There are two types of photoelectric smoke detector,
both working on the principle of the combustion process affecting the
propagation of a light beam. One type works on a light-scattering
principle, and the other on a light-obscuration principle.
15
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors:
Photoelectric Light Scattering
Characteristic
ones.
A light source emits light which is hidden
from a light detector. When smoke is
introduced it scatters the emitted light.
The scattered light is detected by the light
detector and initiates an alarm.
Emitter
Baffles
Detector
Insect
Screen
Smoke
Path
Sample Chamber
Light-scattering
photoelectric smoke
detector
16
The light-scattering photoelectric smoke detectors work on the principle

of detecting scattered light from visible smoke particles. The optical
system comprises an emitter that generates light, and photo-detector
that detects light. The emitter is physically offset from the photodetector so that their optical axes cross in the sampling chamber. The
emitter uses a lens to produce a narrow beam of light that is shielded
from reaching the detector by baffles. To reduce quiescent current
consumption the emitter is pulsed every 10 sec.
Under normal conditions light from the emitter does not reach the
photo-detector. However, when large smoke particles enter the
sampling chamber, some of the light is scattered and reaches the
detector. Light reaching the detector is proportional to the density of the
smoke. The output from the detector is amplified, scaled and processed
to initiate an alarm signal.
16
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors:
Photoelectric Obscuration
Characteristic
ones.
A light source emits a collimated beam of
light which is detected by a light detector.
When smoke is introduced it obscures the
emitted light and initiates an alarm.
Light Path
Light Source
Light Detector
Light Source
Light Detector
Light-obscuration
photoelectric smoke
detector
17
Photoelectric smoke detectors respond well to the larger (visible)

particles of smoke, but almost ignore the smaller (invisible)
particles/aerosols. There are two types of photoelectric smoke detector,
both working on the principle of the combustion process affecting the
propagation of a light beam. One type works on a light-scattering
principle, and the other on a light-obscuration principle.
17
e ida.com
Smoke Detectors:
Photoelectric Obscuration
Characteristic
ones.
A light source emits a collimated beam of
light which is detected by a light detector.
When smoke is introduced it obscures the
emitted light and initiates an alarm.
Light Path
Light Source
Light Detector
Light Source
Light Detector
Light-obscuration
photoelectric smoke
detector
18
The light-obscuration photoelectric smoke detectors work on the

principle of detecting a decrease in the amount of light being detected
by a photosensitive device. These detectors consist of a light source, a
light collimating system, and a photosensitive device. When combustion
products obscure part of the light beam, the amount of light reaching
the photosensitive device is reduced. If the amount of light reaching the
photosensitive devices reduces sufficiently, an alarm is triggered.
18
e ida.com
Heat Detectors
Heat Detectors
Less sensitive than smoke detectors
Three main types
Rate of rise
Fixed temperature
Line
19
For many applications, heat detectors are only considered if it is not

possible to use smoke detectors, or where both the risk of fire is low
and the protected material value is low. They provide an acceptable, but
less sensitive alternative to smoke detectors. There are three types of
heat detector Rate of Rise, Fixed Temperature, and Line (integrating
and non-integrating). Many of the more recent heat detectors
incorporate both rate of rise and fixed temperature functionality.
19
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Fixed Temp. Fusible Element
Characteristic
Designed to respond to a specified
temperature. Must be replaced after
activation.
Base Plate
Contacts
Spring
Heat Collector
The fusible element melts at the specified
temperature and the spring closes the
contacts, initiating an alarm.
Fusible Element
Fixed Temperature Heat Detector

(Fusible Element)
20
Fixed-temperature heat detectors are designed to respond to a

predetermined value of temperature. The air temperature at the time of
alarm is usually considerably higher than the rated temperature of the
detector because of thermal lag. Thermal lag is due to the time it takes
the operating element of the detector to reach the temperature of the
surrounding air. Fixed-temperature heat detectors are available to cover
a wide range of operating temperatures, from around 135F (57C)
upward. Higher temperature heat detectors are available for use in
areas that are usually subject to high ambient temperatures.
There are various types of fixed-temperature heat detectors. They can
be very simple mechanical devices using a fusible element, or bimetallic
strip, or they can be electronic using a single thermistor, or even utilize
the same thermistor bridge circuitry as a rate-of-rise heat detector, but
respond only to a fixed temperature.
A fixed-temperature heat detector is used where frequent, wide
temperature variations are normal, such as in kitchens, boiler rooms,
etc. where other types of detector such as rate-of-rise detectors would
cause false alarms.
20
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Fixed Temp. Fusible Element
Characteristic
temperature. Must be replaced after
activation.
Base Plate
Contacts
Spring
Heat Collector
The fusible element melts at the specified
temperature and the spring closes the
contacts, initiating an alarm.
Fusible Element

(Fusible Element)
21
This type of fixed-temperature heat detector uses eutectic metals

(alloys of bismuth, lead, tin and cadmium) that melt rapidly at a
predetermined temperature. The eutectic metal is used as a form of
solder to secure a spring under tension. When the element melts, the
spring action closes contacts and initiates an alarm. This type of
element must be replaced after it has operated.
21
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Fixed Temperature Bimetallic
Characteristic
temperature. Self restoring after
temperature drops to normal.
When the bimetallic disc is heated it
snaps into a concave shape and the
spring closes the contacts, initiating an
alarm.
Base Plate
Spring
Heat Collector
Contacts
Bimetallic Disc

(Bimetallic Disc)
22
As with the other detectors in this class, bimetallic devices also respond
to the sensor environment reaching a specific temperature.
One important difference is that heat detectors using bimetallic
elements restore automatically after the ambient temperature drops
sufficiently below the operating point.
22
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Fixed Temperature Bimetallic
Characteristic
temperature. Self restoring after
temperature drops to normal.
When the bimetallic disc is heated it
snaps into a concave shape and the
spring closes the contacts, initiating an
alarm.
Base Plate
Spring
Heat Collector
Contacts
Bimetallic Disc

(Bimetallic Disc)
23
This type of fixed-temperature heat detector uses a bimetallic element

that deforms as temperature increases. When two metals with different
coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded together and then heated,
the differential thermal expansion of the two metals causes bending or
flexing towards the metal having the lower expansion rate. This flexing
is used to close normally open contacts, initiating an alarm. The highexpansion metal used in the bimetallic assembly is generally an alloy
such as manganese-copper-nickel, or nickel-chromium-iron. The lowexpansion metal used in the bimetallic assembly is typically an alloy of
nickel and iron.
As the temperature rises, the bimetallic element deforms towards a
contact point, which means that the alarm temperature is related to the
distance between the contacts. The wider the gap; the higher the
operating temperature. Some bimetallic elements are in the form of
convex discs that snap into a concave shape when the temperature
reaches the operating point. This causes a rapid positive action that
closes alarm contacts.
23
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Rate of Rise
Characteristic
The measuring thermistor also provides a
fixed temperature backup feature if rate of
rise is slow.
The measuring thermistor is exposed to air
temperature and responds to changes
quickly. The reference thermistor is
insulated and responds slowly to
temperature changes. The difference over a
set period is the rate of rise.
Base Plate
Reference
Thermistor
Reference
Chamber
Measuring
Thermistor
Rate of Rise Heat Detector
24
The Rate of Rise detector is definitely the most popular type of heat
detector. One of the effects that a flaming fire has on its surroundings is
a rapid increase in temperature in the area immediately above the fire.
Rate-of-rise detectors function when the rate of temperature increase
exceeds a certain value typically around 12 to15F (7 to 8C) per
minute. Fixed temperature heat detectors will not respond to this rapid
temperature increase, and dont respond until the air temperature at the
location of the detector has reached the detectors alarm temperature.
However, many rate-of-rise detectors are designed with a fixedtemperature backup feature. In the event that the rate-of-rise in
temperature is less than required for the detector to respond, the fixed
temperature backup will still respond when the exposed thermistor has
reached the predetermined fixed temperature.
24
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Rate of Rise
Characteristic
The measuring thermistor also provides a
fixed temperature backup feature if rate of
rise is slow.
The measuring thermistor is exposed to air
temperature and responds to changes
quickly. The reference thermistor is
insulated and responds slowly to
temperature changes. The difference over a
set period is the rate of rise.
Base Plate
Reference
Thermistor
Reference
Chamber
Measuring
Thermistor
Rate of Rise Heat Detector
25
Although there are many ways to measure the rate of rise of

temperature, one of the most common is to use matched thermistors in
a bridge circuit. One of the thermistors, the reference thermistor, is
lagged and is less sensitive to changes in temperature. If the
temperature is constant or changing very slowly, the matched
thermistors track each other and the bridge remains balanced.
In the event of a rapid change in temperature, the exposed sensing
thermistor will respond faster than the reference thermistor resulting in
the bridge becoming unbalanced. Any out-of-balance condition in the
bridge adds to the bridge voltage and compensates for the finite
response time of the sensing thermistor. This imbalance is therefore a
function of absolute temperature and the rate-of-rise of temperature.
The output of the bridge is amplified and processed to give an alarm if
appropriate. It is the bridge imbalance being a function of absolute
temperature that provides the backup fixed-temperature feature
mentioned earlier.
25
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Line
Characteristic
Sense conditions along a line (wire) rather than at a single point
Come in both Integrating and Non-Integrating versions
Actuators
Center
Conductor
Ceramic
Thermistor Core
Stainless Steel
Tubing
B. Integrating Line Heat Detector
Heat-Sensitive
Material
Protective
Tape
Outer
Covering
Approx 1/8 in (3mm)
A. Non-Integrating Line Heat Detector
26
Line heat detectors are not common, but can be useful in certain
applications. The other types of heat detectors discussed are point
detectors and are designed to sense conditions near a fixed point. Line
type detectors are most often in the form of a long wire, and are
designed to sense conditions near the line. The most common
applications for line detectors are cable ducts, cable trays, risers, etc.
There are two types of line heat detector available non-integrating and
integrating.
26
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Non-Integrating Line
Heat-sensitive material melts, actuator
wires connect and initiate an alarm.
Melted section must be replaced.
Actuators
Heat-Sensitive
Material
Protective
Tape
Outer
Covering
Approx 1/8 in (3mm)
A. Non-Integrating Line Heat Detector
27
One type of non-integrating line heat detector is in the form of a wire

with a fixed melting point, suspended over the area to be protected. If a
section of the wire is heated (due to a fire) and exceeds the melting
point, the wire breaks and causes an alarm.
Another type of non-integrating line heat detector is in the form of a pair
of wires in a normally open circuit, with the conductors held apart by a
heat-sensitive insulation. The wires, under tension, are enclosed in a
braided sheath forming a single cable assembly. When the design
temperature is reached, the insulation melts and the two conductors
contact each other initiating an alarm. Following an alarm the fused
section of cable must be replaced to restore the system to normal
operation.
27
e ida.com
Heat Detectors:
Integrating Line
As temperature rises thermistor core
resistance decreases; current increases
and initiates an alarm. Resets when
temperature returns to normal.
Center
Conductor
Ceramic
Thermistor Core
Stainless Steel
Tubing
B. Integrating Line Heat Detector
28
The integrating line heat detector is similar to the non-integrating type

except that the temperature is taken as an average over the complete
length of the wire rather than separate sections. This means that a
particular part of the line would need to receive a large amount of heat
to generate an alarm.
One type of integrating line heat detector uses a semiconductor
material and a stainless steel capillary tube. This type of line detector
has a coaxial structure with a center conductor that is separated from
the stainless steel tube wall by a temperature-sensitive glass
semiconductor material (or ceramic thermistor) core. Under normal
conditions a small current, below the alarm threshold, flows in the
circuit. As the temperature increases, the resistance of the
semiconductor material decreases, allowing the circuit current to
increases and initiate an alarm.
28
e ida.com
Manual Call Points
Manual Call Points

Personnel activated Break Glass
Simple manual switches
Often held as open circuits by springs until
glass is manually broken, activating the
alarm
29
There are occasions when a fire is detected by an operator before fire

detectors go into alarm. When this happens, the operator needs a
means to alarm the fire. This is the purpose of the manual call point.
Manual call points (breakglass) are simple manually operated switches.
They usually comprise a robust box with a breakable window at the
front. Inside there is a switch, usually held in the open position by
means of a spring-steel arm positioned against the window. When the
window is broken the spring switch mechanism is released and the
contacts close, initiating an alarm.
29
e ida.com
Manual Call Points:

Characteristics
Characteristic
Require positive manual force to activate
Located near hazards and on main emergency exit routes
SW1
Basic Changeover Switch

Wiring Diagram
30
Manual call points are simple electrical switch devices that require
manual activation to operate (hence manual). There are a number of
different mechanisms for operation, but a common attribute is the
requirement to use positive force for activation. The use of positive
force is required to prevent spurious alarms resulting from accidental
operation.
These manual activation devices are usually placed in the main
emergency exit routes from the facility or location. Main locations are in
the exit route from the immediate vicinity of a hazardous location,
periphery evacuation routes, and points of muster. Being located in
close proximity to hazardous locations generally means that these
switches are built into housings suitable for hazardous locations.
30
e ida.com
Manual Call Points:

Break Glass
Principle of Operation (A)

When the glass plate is broken the contacts
close, initiating an alarm.
Principle of Operation (B)

Use hammer to break glass. This action
closes the contacts, initiating an alarm.
SW1

Wiring Diagram
31
One type of manual call point uses a switch whose contacts are held
apart by a spring under tension between the contacts and a thin glass
or plastic plate. To activate the call point the glass must be broken
(hence breakglass). Breaking the glass releases the tension on the
spring, which allows the switch contacts close and initiates an alarm.
31
e ida.com
Manual Call Points:

Guarded Pushbutton
Lift the flap and push the button to initiate an
alarm. Use key to unlatch the button and
reset the switch.
SW1

Wiring Diagram
32
Another type of manual call point uses a guarded pushbutton. Some

types require an operator to lift a spring-loaded cover to access a
pushbutton (or pull-button). This action closes the switch contacts and
initiates an alarm.
32
e ida.com
Carbon Monoxide
Detectors
Carbon Monoxide detectors

CO is product of incomplete combustion
Produced early in fire event so CO detectors
can detect fires earlier than other options
CO is odorless, colorless and toxic
33
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas produced by fires and is

responsible for a high proportion of fire fatalities. CO is a colourless,
odorless gas that is neutrally buoyant in air, making it almost impossible
for people to be aware of its presence. Increased CO concentration is
normally indicative of under ventilated combustion, especially in slow
developing and smoldering fires. In these sorts of fires, CO is produced
well before traditional detectable smoke (aerosols and particulates, and
therefore CO fire detectors can detect fires significantly earlier than
ionization or optical smoke detectors.
33
e ida.com
Carbon Monoxide Detectors:

Characteristics
Characteristics
Fast response to under-ventilated combustion. Does not require the
presence of oxygen
200
CO ppm
160
120
Carbon Monoxide
80
Alarm Level
40
Optical
Ionization
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
Minutes
Development of Carbon Monoxide
240
34
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas produced by fires and is

responsible for a high proportion of fire fatalities. CO is a colourless,
odorless gas that is neutrally buoyant in air, making it almost impossible
for people to be aware of its presence. Increased CO concentration is
normally indicative of under ventilated combustion, especially in slow
developing and smoldering fires. In these sorts of fires, CO is produced
well before traditional detectable smoke (aerosols and particulates, and
therefore CO fire detectors can detect fires significantly earlier than
ionization or optical smoke detectors. Being a toxic gas, its
concentration is measured in parts-per-million (ppm).
CO detectors generally use one of five technologies depending on the
performance required and cost constraints: colorimetric; semiconductor;
electrochemical; pellistor; and optical absorption. Currently, battery
operated colorimetric or mains powered semiconductor sensors
dominate the domestic market, while industrial applications use mainly
electrochemical cells.
34
e ida.com
Carbon Monoxide Detectors:

Principles
The electrolyte is gas-specific. Presence of gas through the membrane
causes an electrochemical reaction which is electronically processed
to initiate an alarm.
Electrolyte Reservoir
Counter Electrode
Reference Electrode
Sensing Electrode
O-Ring Seal
Signal to
Electronic
Processing
Gaseous Diffusion Barrier
Gas-Permeable Membrane
Electrochemical Cell
35
Many toxic gases are detected using electrochemical cell detectors.

The electrochemical cell is similar to a battery in structure, but has a
gas-permeable membrane through which air can contact the electrolyte.
Electrolytes are specific to the gas to be detected, and when air
containing the gas contacts the electrolyte an electrochemical reaction
takes place, creating a small current flow. The current is proportional to
the concentration of the gas being detected, and is then processed and
an alarm initiated if the gas concentration is above a predetermined
level. Typically, the life of these sensors is two to three years and then
they need to be replaced.
As CO is a gas and fills space easily by diffusion, it is much more
mobile than smoke which is constrained by convection currents caused
by the fire. This means that the detector need not be located near the
seat of a fire to be effective, and therefore CO detectors are far more
flexible in their placement
35
e ida.com
Flame Detection
Respond to Ultraviolet or Infrared

portions of the electromagnetic
energy produced by a flame
Usually consist of a detector and
rack-mounted controller.
Flame system controller functions
processes detector signal
provides alarm and fault outputs
provides alarm and bypass
handling.
36
A flame detection system usually consists of a detector mounted in the

field, and a rack-mounted controller in the instrument room or control
room. A system can comprise a single or multiple detector/controller
pairs.
The controller processes the signal received from the detector and
provides contact outputs for alarm and fault. The faceplate of the
controller usually has indicators for normal operation, alarm and fault,
as well as maintenance functions like bypass.
There are two main types of flame detectors ultraviolet (UV) and
infrared (IR). Both will be discussed in this section.
36
e ida.com
Flame Detection Systems

Context
Flame is a product of fire.

UV
CO2 Spike
Solar Radiation Reaching Earth's Surface
Intensity
Flame detectors use optical

technology to detect the
electromagnetic radiation of
flame
IR
Visible Light
UV
Detection
Region
0
0.2 0.29
0.4
0.8
2.7
4.3
Wavelength (m)
37
At this point, it is worth revisiting the products of a fire. We have looked

at smoke, heat and carbon monoxide, but have yet to look at flame. The
energy radiated from a fire serves as a major factor in its detection
analysis, with some 30%-40% of this energy dissipated in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (light) at various spectral ranges such as
ultraviolet (UV), visible and infrared (IR) bands. Because flame
detectors are optical devices, they can respond to flames in less than a
second.
37
e ida.com

Limitations
Some fires dont have

much flame
IR
Visible Light
CO2 Spike
Intensity
Other lights sources

can interfere
UV
UV
Detection
Region
Detection band chosen

to reduce interference
0
0.2 0.29
0.4
0.8
2.7
4.3
Wavelength (m)
38
The optical technology used in flame detectors does have its own
limiting factors. Smoldering fires have no flame, and alternative sources
of light such as the sun and electric arcs also serve to mask the
effectiveness of accurate flame detection. There are portions of the light
spectrum where solar radiation does not penetrate and where flames
can be detected.
38
e ida.com

Spectral Detection Bands
UV
Visible Light
IR
CO2 Spike
Intensity
UV
Detection
Region
0
0.2 0.29
0.4
0.8
2.7
4.3
Wavelength (m)
39
The picture above illustrates a typical hydrocarbon fire emission

spectrum where UV and IR spectral bands are highlighted to show the
spectral ranges that are usually selected for flame detectors. The flame
radiation spectral pattern provides a unique signature allowing several
spectral ranges to be employed in flame detectors. Flame detectors use
optical sensors operating at specific, narrow band spectral ranges that
measure radiation levels at the selected wavelengths.
39
e ida.com

Signal Analysis
UV
IR
Visible Light
CO2 Spike
Intensity
Several signal analysis

techniques
Flickering frequency
Threshold energy
Multi-signal correlation
Logical comparison
Database correlation
UV
Detection
Region
0
0.2 0.29
0.4
0.8
2.7
4.3
Wavelength (m)
40
The signals measured by the sensor are then analysed by one or more
of the following techniques
Flickering frequency analysis
Threshold energy signal comparison
Mathematical correlation between several signals
Comparison techniques (Ratio, AND gate, OR gate techniques)
Correlation to memorized spectral analysis (look-up table in firmware)
Flame detectors using several of these techniques promise to be the
most reliable with respect to detection sensitivity versus immunity to
false alarms.
40
e ida.com

Ultraviolet Detectors
Uses an ultraviolet phototube

Responds to radiation in the
0.185m to 0.26m range
Produces a current pulse
proportional to UV intensity.
Cen
tr
Ultraviolet
Detector
e Lin
e
50ft Range
1ft2
0.1m2
41
Most UV detectors are based on an ultraviolet phototube that responds

to radiation in the 0.185m - 0.26m region. When radiation from a
flame strikes the cathode plate of the UV detector tube, electrons are
ejected from the cathode plate. These electrons are accelerated
towards the positively charged anode of the tube, and collide with
molecules of ionizable gas creating an avalanche condition. More
electrons are released which creates a momentary electron flow (pulse)
from cathode to anode. This current pulse occurs at a rate proportional
to the intensity of the UV radiation.
41
e ida.com

Line of sight devices.

Have specific cones of
vision
Tested to respond to a 1ft
square fire at 50ft within 5
secs (Factory Mutual).
Depend on being able to
see the fire through the
ambient medium
Cen
tr
Ultraviolet
Detector
e Li
ne
50ft Range
1ft2
0.1m2
42
A UV detector is a line-of-sight device, and most have a 90 degree cone

of vision. Some UV detectors have an asymmetrical cone of vision
where the horizontal field of view may be 90 120 degrees, and the
vertical field of view may be 60 90 degrees. The industry standard
(FM) for testing is the detection of a 1ft x 1ft square fire at a distance of
50ft within a 5 second period. Some detectors have a longer range, but
ultimately range depends on the signal reaching the detector and the
type of fuel and size of fire. The presence of UV-absorbing gases and
vapors can attenuate the UV radiation from a fire, adversely affecting
the ability of the detector to detect a flame. Also, the presence of oil
mist in the air, or oil film on the detector viewing window will also reduce
the signal reaching the detector. The viewing windows are usually made
of quartz, as UV signals will not pass through glass or plastic.
42
e ida.com

UV absorption partly absorbed

in solar blind region below
0.3 m
False alarms generally less
frequent
Very fast detection (few msec)
Cen
tr
Ultraviolet
Detector
e Lin
e
50ft Range
1ft2
0.1m2
Random UV sources can

produce false alarms.
43
Because of its shortwave characteristics, the UV spectral band is partly

absorbed and dispersed in the surrounding atmosphere by air, smoke,
dust, gases and various organic materials especially at wavelengths
shorter than 300nm (0.3m, or microns). Due to this absorption
characteristic, this wavelength band is called the solar blind spectral
band, and flame detectors designed to operate within this spectral band
are not prone to false alarms from this band. Due to the high energy UV
radiation emitted by fires and explosions at the instant of ignition, UV
detectors based on this technology can detect flames at very high
speeds (3-4 msec).
However, the occurrence of random UV radiation from sources such as
lightning, arc welding, radiation and solar radiation (not absorbed by the
atmosphere, but due to holes in the ozone layer and solar bursts) cause
false alarms in these detectors.
43
e ida.com

Infrared Detectors
Uses photovoltaic or
photoresistive cell
Sensitive to IR in the 4.1 m to
4.4m range
Low frequency (1Hz 10Hz) filter
characteristic of a flickering flame
Cen
Infrared
Detector
tre L
ine
4 0 ft R a n g e
1ft2
0.1m2
44
Infrared detectors are made from a lens and filter designed to screen
out unwanted wavelengths and focus the incoming energy on a
photovoltaic or photoresistive cell sensitive to infrared energy. The most
common cells are made from silicon or lead sulfide, but arsenide and
lead selenide are also used.
Infrared radiation is present in most flames. The flame temperature and
its mass of hot gases (fire products) emit a specific spectral pattern that
can be recognized by IR sensors. Most single band IR detectors are
based on pyroelectric sensors with a 4.4m optical filter (the
predominant emission band for hydrocarbon fuelled fires), and a low
frequency (1Hz 10Hz) electronic bandpass filter (characteristic of a
flickering fire).
44
e ida.com

Infrared Detectors
Line of sight devices.

Have specific cones
of vision
Tested to respond to
a flame 1ft2 (0.1m2)
fire at 40ft within 5
secs (Factory Mutual).
Cen
Infrared
Detector
t re L
in e
4 0ft R a n ge
1ft2
0.1m2
45
An IR detector is a line-of-sight device, and most have an 80 degree

cone of vision. The industry standard (FM) for testing is the detection of
a 1ft x 1ft square fire at a distance of 40ft within a 5 second period.
Some detectors have a longer range, but ultimately range depends on
the signal reaching the detector. The build-up of ice or water film on the
detector viewing window will greatly reduce its sensitivity, and hence its
range. IR detectors are less affected by smoke, oil and certain gases
than UV detectors.
45
e ida.com

Infrared Detectors
Can be affected by other IR

radiation
Ovens and furnaces
Incandescent and halogen lighting
Solar radiation
Flicker analysis and narrow band

thresholds reduce interference
Cen
Infrared
Detector
tre L
ine
4 0 ft R a n g e
1ft2
0.1m2
False alarms still relatively

prevalent
46
However, flames are not the only source of IR radiation. Any hot
surface such as ovens, incandescent lamps, halogen lamps, furnaces
and solar radiation, emit IR radiation that coincides with the flame IR
radiation wavelengths. In order to differentiate between the spectral
signature of a flame and other IR sources, math techniques are used to
analyze these other spectral parameters. The most accepted are flicker
analysis and narrow band IR threshold signals that are produced in the
4.1m 4.6m wavelength region. These IR flame detectors are still
subject to false alarms caused by blackbody radiation from heaters,
incandescent lamps, halogen lamps, etc.
46
e ida.com

UV/IR Detectors
Dual spectrum devices to reduce

false alarms
Solar blind UV sensor combined
with narrow band IR sensor
Presence of both flame indications
discriminates against many false
alarms
47
In order to minimize or eliminate false alarms, dual wavelength

technology has been adopted for optical flame detection. There are two
major types of this dual wavelength technology, UV/IR and IR/IR. In
recent years this dual spectrum detection technology was considered
the most advanced method to cope with the problem of false alarms.
The dual spectrum UV/IR technology employs a solar blind UV sensor
with a high signal-to-noise ratio, and a narrow band IR sensor. The UV
sensor itself is a good flame detector, but is subject to false alarms from
arc welding, solar bursts, etc. In order to prevent false alarms caused
by these sources an IR sensor is added. The IR sensor is looking for a
different spectral signature in the flame, and when combined with the
UV sensor forms a very reliable flame detector able to discriminate
against many sources of false alarm.
47
e ida.com

UV/IR Detectors
Still subject to false alarms in the

presence of strongly unbalanced
radiation
Strong UV source fires (hydrogen)
Strong IR source fires (coal).
Some potential for undetected fires

since both signals usually required
for alarm
48
However, even this technology has its limitations, since each type of fire
has its own specific ratio of UV to IR output. For example, a hydrogen
flame generates a large amount of UV radiation with very little IR
radiation; whereas a coal fire will generate only a small amount of UV
radiation and a large amount of IR radiation. Since the UV/IR detector
uses both UV and IR signals in its detection algorithm, it is possible for
certain fires to go undetected.
48
e ida.com

UV/IR Detectors
Discrimination circuitry added to

improve detection reliability
Analyzes thresholds, ratios and flicker
Still possible for false alarm but

much less likely
Strong background UV sources
require additional compensation
methods
49
To ensure reliability in detecting the flame signal, a discriminating circuit

is added to compare the UV threshold signal, the IR threshold signal,
the ratio between the two, and their flickering mode. Only when all
parameters satisfy the detection algorithm is a fire confirmed. However,
in industrial environments, this is sometimes still not enough. For
example, when an IR source, such as sunlight, and a UV source, such
as welding, are present at the same time, it would be possible to
generate a false alarm.
In some detectors a serious problem may arise when a very strong UV
source is present and a fire occurs. The strong UV signal could mask
the UV/IR comparison circuit in the detector and impair its ability to
annunciate the fire. Further discrimination relating to the percentage of
time each signal is present, using time-slices or windows where the UV
signals are counted continuously, enable elimination of strong signals
that are not emitted by fire.
49
e ida.com

Dual Spectrum IR Flame Detection
Hydrocarbon fires emit peak radiation at 4.3-4.5m from hot

CO2 as well as broad band IR
Two configuration options for dual systems:
Two narrow band IR sensors in the 0.9m and 4.3m
bands
One sensor in the 4.3m band (strong signal) and another
in the 4.9m background band.
50
Another dual wavelength technology combines two narrow band IR

sensors. Since hydrocarbon fires emit energy of a continuous nature in
the near IR (0.9m 3.0m) band, and a unique peak in the 4.3m
4.5m band (caused by hot CO2 product), detection within these two
bands can be used by dual IR (IR2) detectors. Many dual band IR
detectors use the 0.9m and 4.3m bands for fire signal analysis.
50
e ida.com

Hydrocarbon fires emit peak radiation at 4.3-4.5m from hot

CO2 as well as broad band IR
Two sensor configuration options:
Two narrow band IR sensors in the 0.9m and 4.3m
bands
One sensor in the 4.3m band (strong signal) and another
in the 4.9m background band.
51
However, another approach to dual band IR detection has emerged in

recent years, for applications where a fires main spectral characteristic
at 4.3m 4.5m is analyzed. The basis of this analysis is the
differential spectral approach, where two special bands are analyzed
one spectral range is emitted strongly by the fire, while the second
spectral range is emitted weakly by the surrounding. The ratio between
these tow signals provides a good math tool for fire signal processing.
This type of IR2 detector senses the radiation in these two ranges and
processes the signals based on flickering, radiation intensity above a
certain threshold, and the ratio between both signals. Since most of
these detectors use the 4.3m sensor as the main channel for fire
recognition (where the CO2 peak exists), they suffer from atmospheric
attenuation, especially on long range detection applications.
51
e ida.com

Detection range limited because the

radiation intensity of the fire decreases
rapidly with distance around the 4.3m peak.
Signal can be too weak
Ratio of two signals can change
Can be addressed with careful signal
characterization
52
There are actually two factors that limit the detection range of IR2
detectors
The radiation intensity of the fire decreases rapidly as the distance
increases around the 4.3m peak, and the input signal received by the
sensor is very weak (the more CO2 in the atmosphere, the higher the
absorption of this wavelength, and the lower the signal received). If the
signal is too weak it may not be recognized as a fire.
The ratio between the 4.3m spectral band and the second IR
channel (the background 4.9m spectral band) approaches 1:1 over
greater distances and ceases to be typical of the ratio existing in fires.
Once the ratio approaches 1:1 the algorithm processing the fire signals
will give a no-fire indication, although a fire could occur at that moment.
The first limiting factor could be reduced by choosing a sensor with a
wide spectral band. This will enhance the input signal, but will not solve
the problem of the second limiting factor. In order to address both
limiting factors, a narrow band spectral filter is used. The use of this
narrow band filter in addition to the second IR channel provides a
typical fire ratio at longer distances. If the appropriate spectral band is
chosen, detection range limitation is no longer due to atmospheric
attenuation, but to the sensitivity of the specific sensor.
52
e ida.com


characterization
53
The ratio between the 4.3m spectral band and the second IR channel
(the background 4.9m spectral band) approaches 1:1 over greater
distances and ceases to be typical of the ratio existing in fires. Once the
ratio approaches 1:1 the algorithm processing the fire signals will give a
no-fire indication, although a fire could occur at that moment.
53
e ida.com


characterization
54
The first limiting factor could be reduced by choosing a sensor with a

wide spectral band. This will enhance the input signal, but will not solve
the problem of the second limiting factor. In order to address both
limiting factors, a narrow band spectral filter is used. The use of this
narrow band filter in addition to the second IR channel provides a
typical fire ratio at longer distances. If the appropriate spectral band is
chosen, detection range limitation is no longer due to atmospheric
attenuation, but to the sensitivity of the specific sensor.
54
e ida.com

Triple Spectrum IR Flame Detection
Three spectral bands sometimes used for further

improvement
Within the CO2 emission band

Outside the CO2 emission band
Over a broad background
Processing the signals from the three sensors allows

the detector to distinguish between a fire and
interfering IR sources.
55
To overcome the limiting factors inherent in dual spectrum designs, the

triple spectrum IR (IR3) detector was developed. The triple spectrum
detectors consider fire as an alternating infrared source, that emits
strongly in the CO2 emission band, and weakly in the background
emission band. Most of the IR sources that give rise to false alarms,
including the sun, incandescent and halogen lamps, arc discharge,
heaters, etc., do not posses this unique characteristic.
55
e ida.com


improvement

Processing the signals from the three sensors allows

the detector to distinguish between a fire and
interfering IR sources.
56
The three spectral bands chosen for this flame detection technique are
Within the CO2 spectral emission band

Outside the CO2 spectral emission band
Over a broadband background
56
e ida.com


improvement

Processing the signals from the three sensors

allows the detector to distinguish between a fire
and interfering IR sources.
57
Each IR source has its own IR spectral signature and gives a different
signal ratio at the three sources. Processing the signals from the three
sensors allows the detector to distinguish between a fire and interfering
IR sources. Looking at the ratio between the three IR signals a fire can
be detected with almost no false alarms.
Recent improvements to this IR analysis technique has enabled the
accurate detection of smoldering fires, where radiating emissions are
hidden, but the hot mass of CO2 gases are emitted. Using correlation
techniques, where each IR signal is auto-correlated to a predetermined
value, and by using the ratio between the specific IR signals, further
discrimination between fire and false alarm is possible. It is interesting
to note that this increased discrimination has caused very little decrease
in sensitivity, allowing fire detection over longer distances (>50m).
57
e ida.com

Optical Beam Flame Detection
Consists of a transmitter
and receiver separated
by up to 100m.
Designed for large open
interior space where
multiple point detectors
are impractical
Ceiling
Infrared Beam Centre Line
Transmitter
0m
Receiver
25m
50m
Distance
75m
100m
58
Optical beam detectors consist of two units, a transmitter and a receiver

which can be separated by a distances of 10 metres to 100 metres.
This type of detector is specifically designed for interior use in large,
open areas such as warehouses, manufacturing plants, aircraft
hangers, etc. where the installation of multiple point detectors would be
difficult or impractical. They are also ideally suited for installation in art
galleries, museums, cathedrals, etc. where, due to the typically ornate
ceilings, point detectors and associated wiring would be unsuitable.
58
e ida.com

Optical Beam Flame Detection
The transmitter emits a

modulated IR beam at
the receiver
Rising smoke particles
deflect the light beam
and the signal strength at
the receiver decreases.
Decreased signal for
longer than a
predetermined period
initiates an alarm.
Ceiling
Infrared Beam Centre Line
Transmitter
0m
Receiver
25m
50m
Distance
75m
100m
59
During operation, the transmitter emits a modulated infrared beam

directly at the receiver unit. The receiver converts the light beam into a
signal that is continuously monitored by the detector. If a fire breaks out
in an area protected by the beam detector, the smoke particles rising
upward and interrupt or partly deflect the light beam, thereby reducing
the strength of the light reaching the receiver. If the signal in the
receiver unit is proportional to the strength of the light received. If the
light received is reduced by 40%-90% for a period longer than 5
seconds, the detector will initiate an alarm.
For correct operation the transmitter and receiver units must be
mounted in the roof space or just below the ceiling, whichever is
appropriate.
59
e ida.com

Flame Detector Comparison
Technology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Applications
Ultraviolet (UV)
Highest speed
High sensitivity
Low cost
Affected by UV sources
Subject to false alarms
Blinded by thick smoke and vapors
Indoors
Infrared (IR)
High speed
Moderate sensitivity
Low cost
Affected by temperature
Subject to false alarms
Indoors
UV/IR
High speed
High sensitivity
Low false alarm rate
Affected by specific UV/IR ratio created by

false signals
Affected by thick smoke
Moderate cost
Outdoors/Indoors
IR2
Moderate speed
Moderate sensitivity
Low false alarm rate
Limited operation by temperature range

Affected by IR sources
Moderate cost
Outdoors/Indoors
IR3
High speed
Highest sensitivity
Lowest false alarm rate
Moderate cost
Outdoors/Indoors
60
With all of the different types of flame detectors operating in different

parts of the spectrum, it is useful to summarize their advantages,
disadvantages and primary applications.
60
e ida.com

Recommended Uses
Potential Type of Fire Hazard

Possible
sources of
false alarms
Gasoline
JP4/JP8
Oils
Diesel
Paints
Solvents
Alcohol Propane
Methane
Hydrogen and
other non-organic
materials
Plastic
Wood
Paper
Arc Welding
UV/IR
IR3
UV/IR
IR3
IR3
UV/IR
UV/IR
IR3
X-Rays
UV/IR
IR3
UV/IR
IR3
IR3
UV/IR
UV/IR
IR3
Hot Surfaces
UV, UV/IR
IR3
UV, UV/IR
IR3
UV
IR3
UV, UV/IR
UV, UV/IR
IR3
Incandescent and
fluorescent lights
UV, UV/IR
IR3
UV, UV/IR
IR3
UV
IR3
UV, UV/IR
UV, UV/IR
IR3
Halogen and other

industrial lights
UV/IR
IR3
UV/IR
IR3
IR3
UV/IR
UV/IR
IR3
61
Selecting the right detection system for the right job depends on both
the kind of fire most likely to occur and on the potential sources for false
alarms. Fortunately with the range of flame detection systems available
there is often more than one option in a given case.
61
e ida.com

Maximum Distance of Flame Detectors
Type of Detector
Type of Fire
30ft
40ft
50ft
100ft
200ft
1sq ft (0.1sq m)
Gasoline
All
All
All
IR3, UV
IR3
1sq ft (0.1sq m)
Diesel
All
UV, IR3
UV, IR3
IR3
IR3
1sq ft (0.1sq m)
n-Heptane
All
All
All
UV, IR3
IR3
1sq ft (0.1sq m)
Alcohol
All
UV, IR3
UV, IR3
IR3
IR3
4sq ft (0.4sq m)
JP4/JP8
All
All
All
All
IR3
62
The different types of detection systems have different ranges which

also depend on the kind of fire to be detected.
62
e ida.com
Fire Detection Technology

Summary
Part 1 Topics:
Types of Fire Detectors
Smoke Detectors
Heat Detectors
Manual Call Point
CO Detectors
Flame Detectors
63
This lesson first presented some important basic concepts for fire detection.
The bulk of the lesson then described the different types of fire detectors that
can be used and their basic principles of operation. The student is advised to
review the material again before proceeding to the quiz if any material is not
clear.
63
e ida.com
Any Questions?
Questions: please send any questions to
info@exida.com. We will respond as soon as possible.
Additional Resources:
Free articles are available to download from the
exida.com website. These can be reached at
http://www.exida.com/articles.asp.
Additional resources including books, tools, and reports
are available from the exida on-line store. A product
listing is available at http://www.exida.com/products2/.
64
If you have any questions, please send them via email to info@exida.com.
Please refer to this particular lesson: Introduction to Fire Detection
Technology.
Additional resources are available from the exida.com website, including a
series of free articles that may be downloaded. Books, reports, and
engineering tools are available at the exida on-line store.
exida.com is a knowledge company focused on system reliability and safety.
We provide training, tools, coaching, and consulting. For general information
about exida, please view our detailed website at www.exida.com.
Thank you for your interest. Please consider other lessons in the on-line
training series from exida.com.
64

Introto Fire Det Technology

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Introto Fire Det Technology

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

e ida.

Welcome to the exida.com on-line lesson Introduction to Fire Detection

Copyright exida.com 2002

Introduction to Fire Detection Systems

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Copyright exida.com 2002

Fire Detection Systems

Copyright exida.com 2002

Fire Detection systems are an

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Fire detection systems are an integral part of risk management in a

Copyright exida.com 2002

Fire Detection Concepts

Function and Zones

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Important fire detection concepts relate to the function of fire detection

Copyright exida.com 2002

Function of a fire detection system

The main function of a fire detection system is to locate the fire as

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Most fire detection technology focuses on detecting smoke, heat, and

Copyright exida.com 2002

Smoke is a visible suspension of carbon or

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

When a fire starts it immediately changes the environment around it,

Copyright exida.com 2002

Heat is a form of energy released by

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Copyright exida.com 2002

All of these may activate fire detectors

It is important to realize that these products of fire also have benign

Copyright exida.com 2002

Fire detectors fall into several categories

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Because the different products of combustion provide different forms of

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Various types of smoke detectors are available, each designed to

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

A single-chamber ionization smoke detector uses a small radioactive

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Ionization smoke detectors respond well to the small (invisible)

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Photoelectric smoke detectors respond well to the larger (visible)

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

The light-scattering photoelectric smoke detectors work on the principle

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Photoelectric smoke detectors respond well to the larger (visible)

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

The light-obscuration photoelectric smoke detectors work on the

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

For many applications, heat detectors are only considered if it is not

Copyright exida.com 2002

Copyright exida.com 2001-2002

Fixed Temperature Heat Detector