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MAE 103 Lecture 16, Fall 2016

Audrey Pool ONeal, Ph.D.


11/22/16

Compressible Flow or Gas Dynamics

Review of Thermodynamic Relations


No we will consider what happens when density ()
continuously (or abruptly) changes in a fluid flow
Most often such flows involve high speed flows of
gases
o So it is important to understand the Thermodynamics of
gases

The local thermodynamic state of a system is described


or fixed by 2 independent thermodynamic variables,
e.g.,
o = ( p, T ) p absolute pressure and T absolute
temperature
o p = p(v, T ) v specific volume = 1/

u
=
u
(
v
,
T
)
u
o
internal energy

o h = h ( p, T ) h enthalpy h= u + p (1)

Ideal Gases
An ideal gas is one where intermolecular forces are negligible (so
that gas molecules are widely separated)
Universal gas constant

p = RT (2) R specific gas constant R =


M gas Molecular weight
of ideal gas

When an ideal gas is not chemically reacting, it is called thermally


perfect and:
(2)

o du = cv dT (3) cv specific heat at constant volume


T2


u2 u1 =
cv dT u2 u=1 cv (T2 T1 )


u = u (T ) only and therefore cv(T) = in general

o dh = c p dT (4) cp specific heat at constant pressure



T2
h2 h1 =
T c p dT h2 h=1 c p (T2 T1 )
(1)
1
h = h (T ) only and therefore cp(T) = in general
T1

More Thermodynamic & Ideal Gas Relations


Energy and enthalpy are related to temperature changes


by: h= u + RT and
w.r.t. Temperature gives:
differentiating

dh du
=
+ R cp cv = R
dT dT
cp
k=
We will define the ratio of specific heats, k, as:
cv
kR
R ( )
It then follows that c p = k 1 (*) and cv = k 1 **

Another important thermodynamic property is entropy,


and entropy per unit mass is known as, s, with units J/kgK
in SI, ft-lb/slugR in BG and Btu/lbmR in EE

Adiabatic, Reversible, & Isentropic Processes

Recall the 1st law of thermodynamics:


E = Q +W

Change in the energy of


the system

Work done on the system


by surroundings
Heat added to the system

or dividing each term by mass (m) yields de = q + w

Thermodynamic processes can take place in a variety of


ways:
1) Adiabatically: No heat is added to or taken away from the
system (q = 0)
2) Reversibly: The fluid system remains in equilibrium during
the entire process, i.e., where no dissipative phenomena occur
(e.g., viscous dissipation, species diffusion, chemical reaction)
3) Isentropically: Both reversibly & adiabatically

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics


Entropy does not change in any process with no friction
and no heat transfer Isentropic process
o It can be shown that entropy is mathematically defined as:
2
qreversible , where 1 and 2 are the endpoints of the process
s2 s1 =
1 T
o Friction loss of available energy causes the entropy change in a
flow process to equal or exceed the actual heat transfer divided
by the temperature: ds q
heat added = if reversible
T
Abs. Temp. > if irreversible
entropy/mass
1

For any pure substance, including ideal gases: Tds


= du + pd (5)

1
1

du + pd + dp (6)
Differentiating (1) gives: dh =

1
Combining (5) and (6) gives: Tds
= dh dp (7)

Entropy Change in a Flowing Ideal Gas


For an ideal gas, Eqs. 2, 3 and 5 combine to yield:
dT
R 1
ds cv
d
=
+
T 1

For an ideal gas, Eqs. 2, 4 and 7 also combine to yield:


dT
dp
=
ds c p
R
T
p

If cp and cv are assumed constant for a given ideal gas,


then Eqs. 6 and 7 can be integrated to yield Eqs. 8 and 9,
respectively:
T2
1
s2 =
s1 cv ln + R ln
(8)
T1
2

T2
p2
s2 =
s1 c p ln R ln
T1
p1 (9)

Eqs. 8 and 9 allow us to solve for the change in entropy of an ideal gas
from one section to another, with constant cp and cv

Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas


For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas, with constant cp
and cv , Eqs. 8, and 9 combine to yield:
T2
T2
p1
1
cv ln + R ln
= c p ln R ln
= 0 (10)
T1
T1
p2
2

By combining Eq. 10 with Eqs. (*) and (**) we get:


k ( k 1)

T2
2 p2
= =
(11)
T1
1 p1

From Equation 11, we conclude:


p

= constant

Steady Flow of a Compressible Fluid (1D)

1D Steady Flow of Compressible Fluid


Consider flow in a channel with slowly varying area A(x):
p(x)
A(x)

(x)
u(x)

this is 1D Euler flow:


frictionless, adiabatic flow
(isentropic), (reversible) with no
work done

Momentum equation for steady, 1D Euler flow:


A1

A2
p2

p1

1
u1

u2

Continuity (steady flow):

V n dA = 0

Uniform flow at each end (1D)


1u1 A1 + 2u2 A2 =
0 or uA=constant
mass conservation
or continuity

Momentum Conservation in 1D Euler Flow


Momentum conservation (steady)

+ Fbody ignore body forces


n dA ndA
s V V=
s
F surface

Because we have frictionless flow, viscous effects are


neglected; therefore the surface forces are due to
pressure only: ndA
pndA

Momentum becomes: V V n dA = pndA

Applied to CV
1u12 A1 + 2u22 A2 =p1 A1 p2 A2

p1 A1 + 1u12 A1 =p2 A2 + 2u22 A2

Energy Conservation in 1D Euler Flow


Energy conservation (steady)

1 2
=
p V n dA
s u + 2 V V ndA
s

No heat added
No body forces
No shaft work

Flow work W f
Applied to CV

1
1

2
1u1 + 1u1 u1 A1 + 2u2 + 2u22 u2 A2 = p1u1 A1 p2u2 A2
2
2

Divide both sides by 1u1A1 = 2u2A2


1 2 p2 1 2
+ u1 + u1 =
+ u2 + u2
2
2
1
2

Where h = enthalpy
h1
h2
p1

Static Condition and Stagnation State


Thermodynamic properties are called static properties
o Values that would be measured by instruments that are static
w.r.t. fluid flow
o Represent the molecular structure of the fluid and obey
All equations of state
Other property related laws
Thermodynamic equations

Stagnation state is reached by a fluid if it is brought to rest


reversibly, adiabatically, and without work
This figure shows a (possibly imaginary)
process that brings a fluid particle to rest
and zero elevation

Stagnation Properties
Applying the energy equation to the
streamline between 1 and 0 gives:

V02 V12
q + ws = h0 h1 +

+ gz0 gz1
2
2
Wshaft net in
Q net in
where q =
and ws =
m
m
By definition, q, ws, V0, and z0 are all zero which yields:

V12

h0 =h1 +
+ gz1 where h0 is called the stagnation enthalpy
2
Gravity and potential energy are negligible for compressible flow, and the
subscript 1 is dropped to obtain a general definition:

V2
(12)
h0 h +
2

V2
T0 c pT +
For an ideal gas with constant cv & cp Eq. 12 becomes: c p=
2
2
V
(13)
T
=
T
+
Re-arrange to find the stagnation temperature: 0
2c p

More Stagnation Properties


For an isentropic, ideal gas, the stagnation pressure and density are given by
Eqs. 14 and 15, respectively:

p0 T0
=
p T

k ( k 1)

1 ( k 1)

(14)

0 T0
=
T

T0
V2
= 1+
Dividing Eq. 13 by T yields:
T
2c pT

(15)

(16)

Substituting Eq. 16 into Eqs. 14 and 15 gives:

V
=
p0 p 1 +
2c T
p

k ( k 1)

V
=
0 1 +
2c T
p

(17)

1 ( k 1)

(18)

Stagnation properties are determined by the static properties of the fluid


and the fluid velocity

Mach Number and the Speed of Sound


The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the local flow velocity, V, to the
local speed of sound, c
V

Ma

For isentropic flow of an ideal gas, it can be shown that the speed of sound is
given by:

c = kRT

The speed of sound is tabulated in textbook, Tables B.1 and B.2 for water
and Tables B.3 and B.4 for air
If we square the Mach number and assume an ideal gas we obtain:
2
2
V

V
2
Ma
=
=
kRT
kp

Eqs. 16, 17, & 18, can be written in terms of the Mach numbers as:
k ( k 1)
1 ( k 1)
T0
k 1
k 1
2 p0

0
Ma
= 1+
= 1 +
Ma 2
= 1 +
Ma 2
2
T
p
2

2

See Appendix D, Table D.I in the textbook Page 764

Property Ratios as Functions of Mach Number


Appendix D in the textbook has both graphs and brief
tables for a gas with k = 1.4
p
p0

refers to the static-to-stagnation ratio of the 2 quantities

p
k 1
2
Ma
[ Ma=] 1 +
p0
2

k
k 1

refers to the Mach number function

p
refers to a single number from the graph or table for argument z
p0 z
p
= 0.528

p0 Ma=1
This notation applies to other ratios T/T0, /0, and A/A* (explained later)

References
All images and equations used to prepare this lecture are
from Munson, Young and Okiishi's Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 8th Edition: by authors Philip M. Gerhart
Andrew L. Gerhart John I. Hochstein
Copyright 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.

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