Plastic Products

Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of

products:

Molded parts
Extruded sections
Films
Sheets
Insulation coatings on electrical wires
Fibers for textiles
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Plastic Shaping Processes

are Important
Almost unlimited variety of part geometries

Plastic molding is a net shape process

Further shaping is not needed
Less energy is required than for metals due to much
lower processing temperatures
Handling of product is simplified during production
because of lower temperatures
Painting or plating is usually not required
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Two Types of Plastics

1. Thermoplastics
Chemical structure remains unchanged during
heating and shaping
More important commercially, comprising more
than 70% of total plastics tonnage.
2. Thermosets
Undergo a curing process during heating and
shaping, causing a permanent change
(cross-linking) in molecular structure
Once cured, they cannot be remelted
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Classification
of
Shaping Processes
Extruded products with constant cross-section
Continuous sheets and films
Continuous filaments (fibers)
Molded parts that are mostly solid
Hollow molded parts with relatively thin walls
Discrete parts made of formed sheets and films

Castings
Foamed products
4

Die Swell
Extruded polymer "remembers" its previous shape when in the larger
cross section of the extruder, tries to return to it after leaving the die
orifice

Figure 12.3 Die swell, a manifestation of viscoelasticity in polymer melts,

as depicted here on exiting an extrusion die.
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Extrusion
Compression process in which material is forced to flow
through a die orifice to provide long continuous product
whose cross-sectional shape is determined by the
shape of the orifice;

Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to

mass produce items such as tubing, pipes, hose,
structural shapes, ..
Carried out as a continuous process;
extrude is then cut into desired lengths
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Extrusion of Solid Profiles

Regular shapes such as
Rounds
Squares
Irregular cross sections such as
Structural shapes
Door and window moldings
Automobile trim
House siding panels
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Extrusion Die
for
Solid Cross Section
Figure 12.8 (a) Side view cross-section of an extrusion die for solid
regular shapes, such as round stock; (b) front view of die, with profile of
extrude. Die swell is evident in both views.

Hollow Profiles
Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other
cross-sections containing holes
Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
Mandrel held in place using a spider
Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the
mandrel to reunite into a monolithic tube wall
Mandrel often includes an air channel through which
air is blown to maintain hollow form of extrude during
hardening
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Extrusion Die for Hollow Shapes

Figure 12.10 Side view cross-section of extrusion die for shaping hollow cross-sections
such as tubes and pipes; Section A-A is a front view cross-section showing how the
mandrel is held in place; Section B-B shows the tubular cross-section just prior to exiting
the die; die swell causes an enlargement of the diameter.

10

Extrusion Die for Coating Wire

Figure 12.11
Side view
cross-section
of die for
coating of
electrical wire
by extrusion.

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Polymer Sheet and Film

Film - thickness below 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)
Packaging - product wrapping material,
grocery bags, and garbage bags
Stock for photographic film
Pool covers and liners for irrigation ditches
Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)
to about 12.5 mm (0.5 in.)
Flat window glazing
Thermoforming stock
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Blown-film Process

Figure 12.16;
Blown-film process
for high production
of thin tubular film.

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Calendaring

Figure 12.17 A typical roll configuration in calendaring

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Injection Molding
Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to
flow under high pressure into a mold cavity where it
solidifies and the molding is then removed from cavity;
Produces discrete components almost always to net
shape
Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one
minute or more are not uncommon
Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple
moldings are produced each cycle
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Injection Molded Parts

Complex and intricate shapes are possible
Shape limitations:
Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the
same geometry as part
Shape must allow for part removal from mold
Part size from 50 g (2 oz) up to 25 kg (more than
50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold
16

Injection Molding Machine

Two principal components:
1. Injection unit
Melts and delivers polymer melt
Operates much like an extruder
2. Clamping unit
Opens and closes mold each injection cycle

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Injection Molding Cycle

(1) mold is closed

(2) polymer-melt is injected

(3) Screw is retracted

(4) Part is released

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Shrinkage
Reduction in linear size during cooling from molding to room
temperature
Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients,
so significant shrinkage occurs during solidification
and cooling in mold

Typical shrinkage values:

Plastic
Nylon-6,6
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
PVC

Shrinkage, mm/mm (in/in)

0.020
0.025
0.004
0.005
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Compensation
for
Shrinkage
Dimensions of mold cavity must be larger than
specified part dimensions:
Dc = Dp + DpS + DpS2

Where:
Dc = dimension of cavity;
Dp = molded part dimension, and
S = shrinkage value
Third term (DpS2 ) on right hand side corrects for
shrinkage in the shrinkage.
20

Compression Molding

Figure 12.28 Compression molding for thermosetting plastics: (1) charge is

loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4) part is ejected
and removed.

21

Molds for Compression Molding

Simpler than injection molds.
No sprue and runner system in a compression mold.
Process itself generally limited to simpler part geometries
due to lower flow capabilities of TS materials.
Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance,
steam, or hot oil circulation.

Typical compression-molded products:

Electric plugs, sockets, and housings;
pot handles, and dinnerware plates
22

Extrusion Blow Molding

Figure 12.30 Extrusion blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at the top and
sealed at the bottom around a metal blow pin as the two halves of the mold come together; (3) the tube
is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is opened to remove the solidified
part.

23

Injection Blow Molding

Figure 12.32 Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected molded around a
blowing rod; (2) injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold;
(3) soft polymer is inflated to conform to the blow mold; and (4) blow mold is
opened and blown product is removed.

24

Vacuum Thermoforming

(1) a flat plastic sheet is softened by heating

(3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity

(2) the softened sheet is placed over a concave mold cavity

(4) the part is removed

25

Product Design Guidelines

Wall thickness (Should be uniform, and as thin as possible)
Hollow sections complicate die design and plastic flow
Sharp corners, inside and outside, should be avoided in part
design
Thick cross sections are wasteful of material, more likely to
cause warping due to shrinkage, and take longer to solidify
Reinforcing ribs (ribs thickness should be less than the wall thickness)
26

Product Design Guidelines,

Contd.

Corner radii and fillets (no inside or outside sharp corners are desirable)

Holes are quite feasible in plastic moldings, but

(they complicate mold design and part removal)

Recommended draft:
For thermosets, ~ 1/2 to 1
For thermoplastics, ~ 1/8 to 1/2

Tolerances (Should be considered by drafts, shrinkage)

Strength and stiffness (not as stiff as metals, strength-to-weight ratio)
27

Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which
is removal of material from a starting work part so the
remaining part has the desired geometry;
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting tool, (e.g.,
turning, milling, drilling)
Abrasive processes material removal by hard, abrasive
particles, (e.g., grinding, polishing)

Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other than

sharp cutting tool to remove material
(e.g., Laser, water-jet, etching)
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Material Removal Processes

The family tree

29

Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to
form a chip, and as chip is removed, new surface is exposed:
(a) positive and (b) negative rake tools

30

Disadvantages
with
Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material

At least in the unit operation

Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes longer to
shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes
31

Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning

Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and Surfacing

Broaching
Sawing
32

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating work piece to form a cylindrical shape

33

Drilling
Used to create a round
hole, usually by means
of a rotating tool (drill
bit) with two cutting
edges

34

Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across
work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: (c) peripheral milling and (d) face milling

35

Cutting Conditions in Machining

Three dimensions of a machining process
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below
original work surface
For certain operations (e.g., turning),
material removal rate RMR can be computed as:

RMR = v f d
36

Cutting Conditions in Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in a turning operation

37

Roughing vs. Finishing Cuts

In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken
on a part, followed by one or two finishing cuts.
Roughing: removes large amounts of material
from starting work part

Some material remains for finish cutting

High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry

Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish

Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
38

Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately

39

Chip Thickness Ratio

where;

r = chip thickness ratio,

to = thickness of the chip
(prior to chip formation)
tc = chip thickness after separation
Chip thickness after cut is always
greater than before, so chip ratio is
always less than 1.0

to
r
tc
40

Determining Shear Plane Angle

Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle
can be determined as:

r cos
tan
1 r sin
Where; r = chip ratio, and = rake angle
41

Four Basic Types of Chip

in Machining

1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-Up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

42

Forces Acting on Chip

(a) Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
(b) Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

43

Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip

N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as

tan
44

Shear Stress

Shear stress acting along the shear plane

Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane

t ow
As
sin

Shear stress = shear strength of work material

during cutting
45

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn
cannot be directly
measured
Forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured are;

Cutting force Fc
Thrust force Ft
46

Forces in Metal Cutting

Equations to relate the forces that cannot be
measured to the forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos

N = Fc cos - Ft sin

Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
47

The Merchant Equation

Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation
can occur, the work material will select a shear plane
angle that minimizes energy:

45

Derived by Eugene Merchant

Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to

3-D machining
48

What
the Merchant Equation
Tells Us

45

To increase shear plane angle

Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle
(or reduce the coefficient of friction)

49

Effect
of
Higher Shear Plane Angle
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force, cutting forces, power, and
temperature

50

Power & Energy

Relationships
A machining operation requires power.

The power to perform machining can be computed

from:

Pc = Fc v

where;
Pc = cutting power;
Fc = cutting force; and
v = cutting speed

51

Power & Energy

Relationships
In U.S. customary units,
power is traditionally expressed as horsepower
(dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)

Fcv
HPc
33,000
Where;
HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
52

Power & Energy

Relationships
Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is
given by:

Pc
Pg
E

or

HPc
HPg
E

where; E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Typical E for machine tools 90%
53

Unit Power in Machining

Useful to convert power into power per unit volume
rate of metal cut.
Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc
PU =
RMR

or

HPc
HPu =
RMR

where RMR = material removal rate

54

Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc
Fcv
U = Pu =
=
RMR vtow
Where; Units for specific energy are typically
N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 or (in-lb/in3)
55

Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is
converted into heat

This can cause temperatures to be very high at the

tool-chip

The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as

elastic energy in the chip
56

Cutting Temperatures
are
Important
High cutting temperatures will;
1. Reduce tool life

2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to

the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material
57

Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from
dimensional analysis using experimental data for various
work materials;

0.4U vt o
T

C K

0.333

Where; T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface;

U = specific energy; v = cutting speed;
to = chip thickness before cut;
C = volumetric specific heat of work material;
K = thermal diffusivity of work material
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