Me461notes PDF

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, NIGERIA

Website: www.unn.edu.ng
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
lecture notes on ME 461 Applied Thermodynamics

prepared by
Prof. S. O. Enibe
FREE NOT TO BE SOLD

May be photocopied freely
June, 1997
Revised January 2000, March 2001, Dec. 2007, April 2010, January 2011, 11/11/2011, 23/10/2012
Last revised 17/10/2016
Contents
Lecture Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommended Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Submission of Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
1
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Basic thermodynamic analysis . .
1.1.2 Minimising the compressor power
1.2 Effect of Clearance Volume . . . . . . . .
1.3 Multi-stage Compression . . . . . . . . .
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ROTARY COMPRESSORS
19
2.1 The Roots Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Vane type rotary compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
GAS TURBINE PLANT

3.1 The Basic Gas Turbine Cycle . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Improvements to the Basic Cycle . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Intercooling between compressor stages
3.2.2 Reheat between turbine stages . . . . .
3.2.3 Use of heat exchanger . . . . . . . . .
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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Indicated power, ip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Brake power, (bp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Friction power (fp) and mechanical efficiency, (m ) . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), thermal efficiency and specific fuel
consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5 Volumetric efficiency, v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 The Morse Engine Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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44
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45
45
. 46
. 46
. 49
CONTENTS
COMBUSTION PROCESSES
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Conservation of Mass . . . .
5.4 Typical Fuel . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Flue & Exhaust Gas Analysis
5.6 First Law analysis . . . . . .
5.7 Adiabatic temperature . . . .
5.8 Dissociation . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
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53
53
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58
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64
66
81
A Computer Progammes
85
A.1 SCILAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016
iii of 88
List of Tables
4.1
Performance data for a two-stroke engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
Representative dry ultimate analysis of Coals . . . . . . . .

Ultimate analysis of some petroleum oils . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumetric analysis of common gaseous fuels . . . . . . . .
Wet and dry analysis of combustion products for example 5.1
Wet and dry analysis for example5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumetric analysis of dry products . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantities of reactants for example 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantities of products for example 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical values of enthalpy of combustion for gases . . . . .
Specific heats of some gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results of calculations using SCILAB code in listing 5.2 . .
Specific heats of common gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific heats of some gases at 300 and 1000K . . . . . . .
Coefficients a and b for for example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . .
Specific heats of some gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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54
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75
77
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
Simple reciprocating compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Schematic and indicator diagram for a simple reciprocating compressor with clearance neglected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Indicator diagram showing possible compression processes . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Isentropic, polytropic and isothermal processes on a T-s diagram . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Effect of clearance volume on ideal indicator diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Indicator diagram showing the effect of increasing the delivery pressure on the
volumetric efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Indicator diagram for two-stage compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Schematic diagram of a two-stage compressor with intercooling . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Intercooler between compressor stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 PV diagram for a reciprocating compressor with clearance . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9
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14
2.1
2.2
The Roots Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

PV diagram for a Roots blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
Basic gas turbine cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T-s diagram for the basic gas turbine cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plant layout and T-s diagrams for a gas turbine plant with separate power turbine
Variation of thermal efficiency with pressure ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open cycle gas turbine with intercooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open cycle gas turbine with reheat between turbine stages . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open cycle gas turbine with exhaust gas heat exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Practical open cycle gas turbine with exhaust gas heat exchange . . . . . . . . .
Plant lay-out and T-s diagrams for example 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure for Exercise 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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35
37
38
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
The spark-ignition (SI) engine . . . . . . .

Timing diagram for a four-stroke SI engine
PV diagram for a four-stroke CI engine . .
Timing diagram for a four-stroke CI engine
Indicator diagram for an IC engine . . . . .
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LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
4.6
Performance curve for a two-stroke engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.1
Schematic representation of Reactants and products for first law analysis of combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure for solution of example 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2
vi of 88
LECTURE PLAN
Topic
Lectures
Multistage reciprocating compressors
3
The Rotary compressors centrifugal and axial
1
flow, stagnation properties
Simple gas turbine plant
3
The steam power plant
2
Combustion of fuels; chemistry of common hy3
drocarbon fuels; combustion with deficiency or
excess air. Thermochemistry; Hess law of heat
summation; heats of combustion and reaction;
ideal adiabatic flame temperature
Reciprocating internal combustion engines
3
Total
15
Assignments Tests
Recommended texts
1. Eastop T. D. and McConkey A. (2001) Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists (5th edition), Longman Group Ltd, Essex, U. K.
2. Rogers G. F. C and Mayhew Y. R. (2001) Engineering Thermodynamics, work and heat
transfer, Longmans, London
3. Spalding D. B. and Cole E. H. (1958) Engineering Thermodynamics, Edward Arnold, London
Submission of Exercises
There are a total of three (3) exercises distributed throughout this lecture note. Every
student is required to personnaly do each of the exercises and submit in a folder at
least two weeks before the date of the examination. The following statement must
appear boldly on the front page of the folder: I hereby confirm that I have personnaly
completed all the exercises herein submitted. I have not copied them from someone
Name
Regn No.
else.
Signature
Date
Chapter 1
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
1.1
Introduction
Compressors are commonly used to raise the pressure of a working fluid from a low to a higher
value. They have very wide applications in engineering, especially in the circulation or transfer of
fluids.
Two types of compressors may be identified, namely reciprocating and rotary compressors. In
general, reciprocating compressors handle a fluid contained in a piston using the basic connecting
rod, crank and cylinder arrangement. They are characterised by low fluid mass flow rates and
high pressure ratios, and are ideal for sustained high-pressure work even up to 500 bar. On the
other hand, rotary compressors are characterised by high fluid mass flow rates and low pressure
ratios. They are commonly applied in low pressure operations ( 9 bar), such as scavenging,
engine supercharging, exhausting, vacuum pumping, etc. Since the operation is continuous in
action, the rotary compressor is smaller in size for a given mass flow rate in comparison with the
reciprocating type. It is also lighter in weight, mechanically simpler and therefore cheaper. This
will be considered in greater detail later.
1.1.1
Basic thermodynamic analysis
Consider the simple single-stage reciprocating compressor shown in figure 1.1. The indicator
diagram is shown in figure 1.2.
We shall assume that the clearance volume is negligible for simplicity. We shall also assume that
the working fluid is a perfect gas. As the piston moves steadily to the right, the effective volume of
the cylinder increases, thereby causing the induction valve to open in order to induce the working
fluid. At the maximum displacement of the piston, the induced fluid at temperature T1 has the
volume V1 (see the indicator diagram, fig 1.2). Compression of the working fluid now commences
and continues until the fluid volume reduces to V2 and the pressure and temperature rise to P2 , T2
respectively. The delivery valve then opens and the compressed fluid is expelled.
The cycle d-a-b-c represents the processes on a pV diagram. The induction stroke, d-a, is essentially an adiabatic constant pressure process. Similarly, the delivery or exhaust stroke, b-c, is a
constant pressure process. The compression stroke, a-b, is generally a polytropic process which
may be represented by the expression
1.1. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
(a) Single-acting
(b) Double-acting
Figure 1.1: Simple reciprocating compressor
Figure 1.2: Schematic and indicator diagram for a simple reciprocating compressor with clearance
neglected
3 of 88
1.1. INTRODUCTION
pV n = C
(1.1)
where n, the polytropic index, is a real number and C = constant. In most practical cases involving
air as the working fluid, n lies in the range 1 n 1.4. Recall that the temperature at the end of
the compression is given by
T2 = T1 (P2 /P1 )(n1)/n
(1.2)
Work done
Recall that from the definition of work, dW = pdV , and hence
Z
W = pdV
(1.3)
Thus, the work done is the area enclosed by the indicator diagram on a pV axes, that is the area
abcd. By inspection, it can be seen that
W =
=
area abcd
area abef + area bcoe area adof
Now, recall that for a polytropic compression of a fluid initially at pressure P1 , volume Va and
temperature T1 to pressure P2 , volume Vb and temperature T2 , the work done is given by
Z
Wab =
Z
pdV = C
V n dV
C n+1 b
V
=
a
n + 1
C 1n b
=
V
a
1n
n 1n
Pb Vb Vb
+ Pa Van Va1n
=
1n
Pb Vb + Pa Va
=
1n
P1 Va + P2 Vb
=
n1
Thus, we have
W =
=
= W =
P2 Vb P1 Va
+ P2 Vb P1 Va
n1

1
(P2 Vb P1 Va )
+1
n1

n
(P2 Vb P1 Va )
n1
But, for a perfect gas,

P2 Vb = mRT
2
P1 Va = mRT
4 of 88
1.1. INTRODUCTION
where m
is the mass of fluid induced per cycle. Substituting, we have
W =
n
mR(T
2 T1 )
n1
(1.4)
Note that if m
indicates the fluid mass flow rate per second, rather than per cycle, the expression
for W now gives the rate of work done on the fluid, or the indicated power.
In practical systems, the actual work input to the compressor is larger than the indicated work since
it is necessary to overcome friction and other losses. Thus, we can write
shaft power = indicated power + friction power
Hence,
comp mech efficiency =
1.1.2
indicated power
shaft power
Minimising the compressor power
In practical applications, it is desirable to minimise the total power input to the compressor. Apart
from the reduction of friction losses, it is possible to reduce the compressor power by optimising
the polytropic index, n.
Consider the indicator diagram in figure 1.3
Figure 1.3: Indicator diagram showing possible compression processes

Since the indicated power is related to the area of the indicator diagram, minimising the area also
minimises the indicated power.
5 of 88
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Assuming that the induction pressure and volume, P1 , V1 as well as the delivery pressure, P2 are
fixed, it is clear that the indicated power can be modified only through the compression process,
ab. As shown on the diagram, the limiting compression processes are the isothermal and isentropic
processes. These processes are illustrated in figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: Isentropic, polytropic and isothermal processes on a T-s diagram

The isentropic process, P V = C, gives the maximum compression work. Here, no heat exchange
is permitted between the working fluid and the surroundings during the compression process. The
isothermal process, P V = C, gives the minimum work input to the compression process. This
implies that some means of cooling the working fluid must be devised to ensure that its temperature
is as near the inlet temperature as possible. This may be achieved by circulating a cold fluid (eg air
or water) around the cylinder.
Recall that for the isothermal compression of a fluid initially at P1 , Va to P2 , Vb1 , we have
P1 Va = P2 Vb1
and the isothermal compression work (area ab1 ef ) is given by
area ab1 ef = P2 Vb1 log(P2 /P1 )
Hence, the indicated work is given by
W = P2 Vb1 log(P2 /P1 ) + P2 Vb1 P1 Va
But P2 Vb1 = P1 Va . Hence,
6 of 88
1.2. EFFECT OF CLEARANCE VOLUMECHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
W = P2 Vb1 log(P2 /P1 )

= P1 Va log(P2 /P1 )
= W = mRT
log(P2 /P1 )
Isothermal efficiency
This may be defined as
isothermal work
indicated work
Most actual compressors will operate between the isothermal and isentropic compression processes.
isothermal efficiency =
1.2
Effect of Clearance Volume
In the preceding analysis, we ignored the effect of clearance volume on the performance of reciprocating compressors. In practical compressors, it is essential to have some clearance in order to
allow the necessary space for valve operations.
Consider figure 1.5 which shows an ideal indicator diagram with the clearance volume, Vc , included.
Figure 1.5: Effect of clearance volume on ideal indicator diagram
7 of 88
1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION
At the end of the delivery stroke, the clearance volume Vc is full of compressed gas at temperature
T2 , pressure P2 and mass mb . During the next induction stroke, the air in the clearance volume first
expands until the pressure P1 is reached and induction of fresh gas begins. We note that mb = ma
and mc = md . The mass mc of gas is retained in the compressor throughout its operation. Its
effect is to reduce the volume of air induced at P1 and T1 from Vs to (Va Vd ). The work done on
compressing the mass of gas mc (or md ) during the process a-b is returned as gas expands during
the process c-d. In effect, the work done per unit mass of air delivered is not affected by the size
of the clearance volume. This may be shown as follows:The indicated work = area abcd = area abef - area cefd
Since the power for polytropic compression is given by
n
mR(T
Wp =
2 T1 )
n1
it follows that the indicated power is given by
n
n
ma R(T2 T1 )
Md R(T2 T1 )
W =
n1
n1
Collecting like terms, this gives
W =
n
mi R(T2 T1 )
n1
(1.5)
where the mass induced mi = ma md .

The effect of the clearance volume may be expressed mathematically by defining a volumetric
efficiency, v , which may be expressed as follows
v =
Mdel
Mswept
(1.6)
where Mdel = mass of air delivered, and Mswept = the mass of air which would fill the swept
volume at the free air conditions of pressure and temperature. Alternatively, v may be defined as
the volume of air delivered measured at the free air pressure and temperature, divided by the swept
volume. Now, we have volume induced = Va Vd = Vs + Vc Vd . But (Vd /Vc ) = (P2 /P1 )1/n .
This implies that Vd = Vc (P2 /P1 )1/n . Thus, volume induced = Vs + Vc Vc (P2 /P1 )1/n = Vs
Vc [(P2 /P1 )1/n 1]. Thus, the volumetric efficiency is then given by the expression
Va Vd
Vs Vc [(P2 /P1 )1/n 1]
=
Vs
Vs
Vc
(1.7)
v = 1 [(P2 /P1 )1/n 1]
Vs
It is common practice to refer to the volume of air dealt with by an air compressor as the free air
delivery, FAD. This is the volume of air delivered at the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere
in which the machine is operated.
v =
1.3
Multi-stage Compression
Recall that the condition for minimum work is that the compression process be carried out isothermally. The temperature at the end of the compression process is given by
T2 = T1 (P2 /P1 )(n1)/n
8 of 88
(1.8)
while the volumetric efficiency is given by equation (1.7). From equations (1.7) and (1.8), it is
clear that as the pressure ratio increases, the final delivery temperature T2 increases, while the
volumetric efficiency decreases. This may be illustrated from figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: Indicator diagram showing the effect of increasing the delivery pressure on the volumetric efficiency
If the air is compressed from P1 to P2 , the cycle is abcd and the FAD per cycle is Va Vd . Similarly,
for compression from P1 to P3 , the cycle is ab0 c0 d0 and the FAD per cycle is Va Vd0 ; while for
compression from P1 to P4 the cycle is ab00 c00 d00 and the FAD per cycle is Va Vd00 . It follows
that for a given FAD per cycle, the cylinder size would have to increase as the pressure ratio
increases. Generally, this would imply increased cost of the cylinder and associated equipment.
It is possible to increase the volumetric efficiency by subdividing the compression process into a
number of stages. After one stage of compression, the fluid is passed into a smaller cylinder where
further compression takes place. The size of each cylinder is proportioned to accommodate the
volume of the gas flowing into it from a previous stage.
Consider the indicator diagram for a two-stage machine as shown in figure 1.7. For simplicity, we
assume that there is no pressure loss between the exit of one stage and the entrance to the next
stage.
With multi-stage compression, the overall compression work can be reduced by cooling the gas as
it is being transferred from one stage to the other. This is called intercooling, and may be achieved
through an intercooler, as illustrated in figure 1.8.
The reduction in work due to intercooling is shown in the shaded area of figure 1.9. The two
indicator diagrams are shown with a common pressure, Pi . This does not occur in a real machine
since there is usually a pressure drop between the cylinders. It is also assumed that intercooling is
complete, ie Ta0 = Ta .
9 of 88
Figure 1.7: Indicator diagram for two-stage compressor
Figure 1.8: Schematic diagram of a two-stage compressor with intercooling
10 of 88
Figure 1.9: Intercooler between compressor stages

With multi-stage compression, the choice of the intermediate pressure Pi affects the total work
done during the compression process. All other things being equal, it would be desirable to choose
Pi such that the compression power is minimised. The selection of Pi will be illustrated for a 2
stage compression, but it can be extended to any number of stages.
Recalling the expression for work done in a polytropic process, we can write
W12 = W1i + Wi2
n
mRT1 [(Pi /P1 )(n1)/n 1]
=
n1
n
+
mRTi [(P2 /Pi )(n1)/n 1]
n1
If intercooling is complete, then Ti = T1 . The equation then simplifies into
W12 =
n
mRT1 [(Pi /P1 )(n1)/n + (P2 /Pi )(n1)/n 2]
n1
Differentiating with respect to Pi and setting the result to zero, we have

n
n1
dW12
(n1)/n
(n1)/n1
=
mRT1 P1
Pi
dPi
n1
n

n1
(n1)/n
(n1)/n1
P2
Pi
n
= 0
11 of 88
Simplifying, we have
(n1)/n
P1
(n1)/n1
Pi
(n1)/n
P2
(n1)/n1
Pi
= 0
(n1)/n1+(n1)/n+1
= (P2 P1 )(n1)/n
2(n1)/n
= (P2 P1 )(n1)/n
= P1 P2
Pi
ie Pi
Pi2
Hence,
Pi
P2
=
(1.9)
P1
Pi
This implies that for minimum work in a two-stage process with complete intercooling, the pressure ratio in the two stages have to be equal.
The expression for work between the stages can be simplified to give
"
#
(n1)/n
Pi
n
mRT1
1
W12 = 2
n1
P1
To express this in terms of the overall pressure ratio, we note that
Pi
(P2 P1 )1/2
=
= (P2 /P1 )1/2
P1
P1
Hence the expression for W12 simplifies to
W12
2n
=
mRT1
n1
"
P2
P1
(n1)/(2n)
(1.10)
Indeed, for any number of stages where intercooling is complete between stages, it can be shown
that the total minimum work is given by
#
"
(n1)/(zn)
zn
P2
1
(1.11)
W12 =
mRT1
n1
P1
where z is the number of stages. The pressure ratio for each intermediate stage is then given by
Pi
=
Pi1
P2
P1
1/z
(1.12)
Example 1.1 A single-acting compressor is required to deliver air at 70 bar from an induction
pressure of 1 bar at the rate of 2.4m3 /min measured at the free-air conditions of 1.013 bar and
15o C. The temperature at the end of the induction stroke is 32o C. The index of compression and
expansion for both stages is 1.25.
1. Calculate the indicated power required if the compression is carried out in two stages with
an ideal intermediate pressure and complete intercooling.
2. What is the saving in power over single-stage compression?
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3. If the clearance volume is 3% of the swept volume in each cylinder, calculate the swept
volumes of the cylinders. The speed of the compressor is 750rpm.
4. If the mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 85%, calculate the power output of the
motor required in kilowatts.
(22.7kW; 6kW; 0.00396 m3 ; 0.000474 m3 ; 26.75kW)
The pressure ratio, rp = 701/2 = 8.3666. T1 = 32o C = 273 + 32 = 305K
W12 =
n = 1.25, R = 0.287
mRT
= P V , hence
m
=
2n
mRT1 [70(n1)/(2n) 1]
n1
1.013 105 2.4

P V
1
=
RT1
R
60
288
hence m
= 14.06944/R kg/s
Thus,

2 1.25 14.06944R
305 70(1.251)/(1.252) 1
W12 =
1.25 1
R
Hence W12 = 22.72 kW
Single stage compression

n
mRT1 (70(n1)/n 1) = 21455.90278(1.338942337)
n1
0
W12 = 6.0kW
= 28.728kW, hence W12
0
W12
=
0
Or, W12
Swept volumes
Volume of air per cycle = 2.4/750 = 3.2103 m3 per cycle at 1.013 bar and 15o C. Thus, induced
volume for first stage is given by
V2 =
P1 V1 T2
1.013 3.2 103 305
=
= 3.433 103
P2 T1
1 288
Now, swept volume = Vs = Va Vc = Va xVs , hence Va = (1 + x)Vs .
Volume induced per cycle = Va Vd . But Vd = Vc (Pi /P1 )1/n = xVs ( 70)1/n = xVs (70)1/(2n) =
5.87206xVs .
Thus, V2 = Va Vd = (1 + x)Vs 5.87206xVs = (1 + x 5.87206x)Vs .
Hence,
V2
Vs =
1 + x 5.87206x
But x = 0.03. Hence
Vs =
V2
V2
V2
=
=
1 + 0.03 5.87206 0.03
1 + 0.03 0.17616
0.853838
Or, Vs = 3.43294 103 /0.853838 = 4.02 103 m3 .
13 of 88
Example 1.2 A single-cylinder, single-acting air compressor of 200 mm bore by 250mm stroke
is constructed so that its clearance can be altered by moving the cylinder head, the stroke being
unaffected.
1. Calculate the free-air delivery at 300 rev/min when the clearance volume is set at 700 cm3
and the delivery pressure is 5 bar. Assume that n = 1.25 and the suction pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 32o C respectively. Find also the power required assuming a mechanical
efficiency of 80%. The free-air conditions are 1.013 bar and 15o C.
2. To what minimum value may the clearance volume be reduced when the delivery pressure
is 4.2 bar, assuming that the same driving power is available and that the suction pressure,
speed, value of n, and the mechanical efficiency remain unchanged.
Solution
A P-V diagram of the system is shown in figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: PV diagram for a reciprocating compressor with clearance

Note that n = 1.25.
1. Free air delivery

Now, the swept volume, Vs = d2 L/4 = (.2)2 0.25/4 = 7.8539 103 m3 /cycle. Thus,
Vs = 7.8539 103 m3 300 = 2.35617m3 /min. Also,
v =
V
Vc Vd
=1+
Vs
Vs
Further, we note that
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We note that T1 = 32o C = 32 + 273 = 305K. Hence,

T2 = 305 (5/1)0.25/1.25 = 420.8175K
Now, mRT
= P V . Hence,
1.013 105 N m2 2.35617m3
P V
=
T
288K
60s
5
4
= 1.38125 10 10
= 13.8125W/K
mR
=
Therefore, we have
1.25
13.8125 (420.8175 305)
0.25
= 7997W
= 7.997kW
W12 =
Hence W12
Since the mechanical efficiency is 80%, we have

W12in =
7.997
= 9.997kW
0.8
Now, from equation (1.7) on page 8, we have
Vc
[(P2 /P1 )1/1.25 1]
Vs
700 106
=1
[(5)1/1.25 1]
7.8539 103
0.7
=1
2.623898318
7.8539
= 0.76614
v = 1
Since v = (F AD/Vs ), it follows that F AD = Vs v = 2.35617 0.766 = 1.804m3 /min.

Alternatively, we note that F AD = V = Va Vc . But Va = Vs + Vc , hence Va = (7.8539 +
0.7) 103 = 8.5539 103 m3 /cycle. Also, Vd = Vc (P2 /P1 )1/2 = 0.7 103 51/1.25 =
2.5367 103 m3 . Hence, V = Va Vd = (8.5539 2.5367) 103 = 6.0172
103 m3 /cycle. Thus, in rev/min, we have V = 6.017 103 300 = 1.805m3 /min..
Thus, F AD = 1.805m3 /min.
2. Minimum clearance.
Recall that,
T2 = T1 rp(n1)/n
If all other conditions remain the same and the delivery pressure is reduced to 4.2 bar, we
can determine the clearance volume by working backwards. We have
15 of 88
n
mi R(T20 T1 )
n1
= 406.396K. Also, as before, we have
W =
But T20 = 305(4.2)0.25/1.25
Po V 0
mR
=
To
Hence, substituting, we have
W12 =
n Po V 0 0
(T2 T1 )
n 1 To
Rearranging, we have
n1
To
V 0 = W12
0
n (T2 T1 )Po
Since all the other parameters remain unchanged, we have
6124.1586 0.25
288
V 0 =
5
1.013 10 1.25 406.396 305
= 0.034343032m3 /s
= 2.060581968m3 /min
Also,
Vinduced = Vs Vc [(P2 /P1 )1/n 1]
Hence, the clearance volume is now given by
Vc =
Vs Vinduced
(P2 /P1 )1/n) 1
Since all the other parameters are the same, the swept volume Vs is as calculated previously,
ie Vs = 2.35617 m3 /min. Thus, the new clearance volume is given by
2.35617 2.060581968
(4.2/1)1/1.25 1
0.295588032
=
2.152095974
= 0.137348908m3 /min
Vc =
For 300 rev/min, this implies that

0.137348908
Vc =
= 4.5782969 104 m3
300
= 457.82969cm3
Example 1.3 A single-acting, two-stage air compressor runs at 300 rev/min and compresses 8.5
m3 /min at P1 = 1 atm, T1 = 25o C to P4 = 40bar. The pressure ratio, rp between each stage is
optimum, intercooling is complete and pressure drop through the intercooler is negligible, hence
P3 = P2 . The polytropic index n = 1.3 for both stages while the volumetric efficiencies of the low
and high pressure cylinders are 0.9 and 0.85 respectively. Now, attempt questions 1 to 14.
16 of 88
1. Draw a schematic diagram of the plant.

2. Show the processes on an indicator diagram.
3. Determine rp .
9. State the value of W34 .

10. Determine the heat rejected in the first
stage, Q12 .
11. State the value of Q34 .
4. Calculate T1 in degree Kelvin.

5. Determine T2s .
12. Determine the heat rejected in the intercooler, Q23 .
6. Determine the temperature of air leaving

the first stage compressor, T2 .
13. Calculate the swept volume of the lowpressure cylinder
7. State the value of T4 .
14. Calculate the swept volume of the highpressure cylinder
8. Determine W12 .
Solution
T1 = 25o C P1 = 1atm = 1.013bar P4 = 40bar
1. The schematic diagram is shown in part
(a) of figure ??.
2. The indicator diagram is shown in part (b)
of figure ??.
3. Since the pressure ratio is optimum rp =
(40/1.013)0.5 = 6.2838
4. T1 = 25o C = 25 + 273 = 298K
(1)/
5. T2s = T1 rp
= 298(6.2838)0.4/1.4 =
298 1.690688 = 503.83K
9. W34 = W12 = 195.79kJ/kg

10. u2 = u1 + Q12 + W12 Q12 = U2
U1 W12 = cv (T2 T1 ) W12 =1.005/1.4
(455.43- 298)- 195.79 = 113.01 - 195.79
= -82.77kJ/kg
11. Q34 = Q12 = 82.77kJ/kg
12. Q23 = cp (T3 T2 ) But T3 = T1 =
298K Q23 = 1.005(298 455.43) =
-158.22kJ/kg Also, V5 = 8.5/300m3 /rev
@ 1.013bar, 25o C = 2.833 102 m3 /rev
13. For the low pressure cylinder, Vs =
8.5/300 = 2.833102 m3 /rev = 2.833
102 m3 /cycle
(n1)/n
6. T2 = T1 rp
= 298(6.2838)0.3/1.3 =
298 1.52829 = 455.43K.
7. T4 = T2 = 455.43K
8. W12 = R(T2 T1 )n/(n 1) =
0.287(455.43 298) 1.3/(1.3 1) =
195.79kJ/kg
14. The high pressure cylinder inducts air

at P3 = P2 = 1.013rp and T3 =
T1 = 298K. Using P3 Vs3 /T3 = P1 Vs1 /T1 ,
We have Vs3 = P1 Vs1 T3 /P3 T1 =
1.013 Vs /1.013 6.2838 = 2.833
102 /6.2838 = 4.5084 103 =
0.00450584m3 /cycle
Exercise 1.1
1. Define the term volumetric efficiency for an air compressor and show that it
is given by the expression
"
#
1/n
P2
Vc
1
v = 1
Vs
P1
17 of 88
2. Show that for a two-stage reciprocating compressor with complete intercooling, the work
done is given by the expression
"
#
(n1)/(2n)
P2
2n
mRT1
1
W12 =
n1
P1
3. A four-stage reciprocating compressor works between the limits of 1 bar and 112 bar. The
index of compression in each stage is 1.28, the temperature at the start of compression in
each stage is 30o C, and the intermediate pressures are so chosen that the work is divided
equally among stages. Neglecting clearance, find:
(a) the volume of free air delivered per kWh at 1.013 bar and 15o C.
(b) the temperature of delivery from each stage
(c) the isothermal efficiency
18 of 88
Chapter 2
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
It was observed during our discussion on reciprocating compressors that for a given air mass flow
rate, the rotary compressor is smaller, simpler and therefore cheaper than its reciprocating counterpart. However, it may only be used for tasks requiring low pressure ratios of the order of 1.1
to 3, for example in the scavenging and supercharging of engines. Due to the low pressure ratios
involved, most rotary compressors do not require cooling or intercooling. Since the mass flow rate
is usually high, the entire process is essentially adiabatic. We shall consider two designs of the
rotary compressor, namely the Roots blower and the vane type rotary compressor.
2.1
The Roots Blower
The Roots blower is available over a wide range of volume flow rates, for example from 0.1m3 /min
to 1500m3 /min. It may be made in stages, but the pressure ratios rarely exceed about 2 for a single
stage machine, and about 3 for a two-stage machine. A typical example of a Roots blower is shown
in figure 2.1
This has two lobes, with one of the rotors connected directly to the drive shaft, and the second
driven through a gear directly connected to the first lobe. This is to ensure that the rotors are
always in phase. To ensure proper mating of the lobes, the profile is of the cycloidal or involute
form normally used in gears. This also seals the delivery side from the inlet side. In order to reduce
wear, some clearance is normally allowed between the casing and the lobes. This clearance forms
a leakage path which allows increasing air leakage as the pressure ratio increases.
The action of the Roots blower may be described with the help of figure 2.1. As each side of each
lobe faces its side of the casing, it displaces a volume of gas V at pressure P1 towards the delivery
side at constant pressure, and subsequently opens this volume to the receiver. When this occurs,
since the gas in the receiver is at a higher pressure, it compresses the incoming gas irreversibly to
the pressure P2 , after which delivery begins. Notice that since there are two lobes with a total of
four faces, this process is carried out four times per revolution of the driving shaft.
Consider figure 2.2, which shows a PV diagram for the Roots blower. The constant volume compression process from P1 to P2 is shown with dotted lines since it is an irreversible process.
Since it is a constant volume compression, the work done per cycle is Wcycle = (P2 P1 )V .
There are four compression cycles per revolution of the driving shaft. Hence, work done per
revolution, Wrev = 4(P2 P1 )V .
19
2.1. THE ROOTS BLOWER
CHAPTER 2. ROTARY COMPRESSORS
Figure 2.1: The Roots Blower
Figure 2.2: PV diagram for a Roots blower
20 of 88
2.2. VANE TYPE ROTARY COMPRESSOR
CHAPTER 2. ROTARY COMPRESSORS
Suppose Vs is the volume of gas dealt with per minute measured at P1 and T1 . Then, work done
per minute W12 = (P2 P1 )Vs .
If the compression from P1 to P2 were done isentropically (ie reversibly and adiabatically), the rate
of work done per minute would be given by the same expression as for the polytropic compression,
with n = . Thus, we have
W12
2.2
P1 V s
=
1
"
P2
P1
(1)/
Vane type rotary compressor
. TO BE INCLUDED
Example 2.1 TO BE INCLUDED
Exercise 2.1 TO BE INCLUDED
21 of 88
#
1
(2.1)
Chapter 3
GAS TURBINE PLANT
The gas turbine plant was developed at the turn of the 20th century, but grew in importance when
its potential for application in the aircraft industry was understood. It is now principally used for
jet and marine propulsion, and also in large electric generation systems.
3.1
The Basic Gas Turbine Cycle
The basic gas turbine plant is shown in figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Basic gas turbine cycle

It operates basically on the open cycle, with the compressor and turbine mounted on the same shaft.
Three main components can be identified. In the compressor, C, the induced air is compressed
22
3.1. THE BASIC GAS TURBINE CYCLE
CHAPTER 3. GAS TURBINE PLANT
using a rotary compressor. The air is then passed to the combustion chamber, CC, where it is mixed
with a spray of fuel and burnt at constant pressure. The hot gases resulting from the combustion
processes then expand through the turbine, T, and are then exhausted into the atmosphere.
The earlier efforts to develop gas turbine technology was marred by difficulties associated with
the irreversibilities in the compressor and turbine, which resulted in inefficient systems which
sometimes generated negligible net work or non at all. However, these difficulties have been
largely overcome.
The combustion processes in a gas turbine differs from the ideal constant pressure cycle where
external heat addition is assumed. Here, the fuel is burned directly with the working fluid, which
is an irreversible process. However, for simplicity, it may be analyzed as equivalent to a transfer of
heat at constant pressure to a working fluid at constant mean specific heat. This allows the actual
process to be compared with the ideal and represented on a T-s diagram.
Figure 3.2: T-s diagram for the basic gas turbine cycle
Consider the T-s diagram shown in figure 3.2. Line 1 2 represents irreversible adiabatic compression; the line 2 3 represents constant pressure heating in the combustion chamber; while line
34 represents irreversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine. The ideal processes are indicated
with full lines, the terminal points being shown without a prime.
The expression for the thermal efficiency of the cycle may be obtained as follows: Applying the
steady flow energy equation, we have
Compressor work input, W12 = cp (T2 T1 )
Heat supplied, Q23 = cp (T3 T2 )
Turbine work output, W34 = cp (T3 T4 )
Hence, net work, Wnet = W34 W12
23 of 88
Therefore, thermal efficiency is given by

=
cp (T3 T4 ) cp (T2 T1 )
Wnet
=
Q23
cp (T3 T2 )
(3.1)
In the above equation, note that the values of the specific heat (and hence the isentropic index,
) may be different for each process. This is because the fluid in the compressor, for example, is
essentially air, while that in the turbine, contains the products of combustion. Further, cp varies with
temperature, and the various processes occur at different mean temperatures. As a compromise, it
is usual to assume fixed mean values of cp and for each process.
As observed previously, irreversibilities occur in the compressor and turbine which increase the
work input of the compressor and decrease the work output of the turbine. The degree of irreversibility is usually expressed as the isentropic efficiency, . Thus, for the compressor, we can
write
c =
T2s T1
cp (T2s T1 )
=
cp (T2 T1 )
T2 T1
(3.2)
Similarly, the isentropic efficiency of the turbine, t , is the ratio of the actual work output to the
isentropic work output between the same pressures. Hence
t =
cp (T3 T4 )
T3 T4
=
cp (T3 T4s )
T3 T4s
(3.3)
It is also useful to define the work ratio, rw of a turbine as the ratio of useful work to total work
output. Thus,
Rw =
net work output

total work output
(3.4)
In practical systems, it is often more convenient to have two separate turbines, one of which drives
the compressor while the other provides the power output. This is illustrated in figure 3.3.
The first, or high pressure turbine, may be called the compressor turbine, while the second or lowpressure turbine may be called the power turbine. Note that the isentropic efficiencies and specific
heats of the turbines may be different. We may then have
Work for H.P. turbine = work input to compressor, hence
cpg (T3 T4 ) = cpa (T2 T1 )
Similarly,
Net work output = cpg (T4 T5 )
Example 3.1 In a gas turbine unit, the HP turbine drives the compressor while the LP turbine
drives the propeller. The overall pressure ratio is 4:1 and the max temperature is 650o C. The
isentropic efficiencies of the compressor, HP turbine, LP turbine are 0.8, 0.83 and 0.85 respectively.
The mechanical efficiency of the shafts is 98%. Calculate the pressure between turbine stages when
the air intake conditions are 1.01 bar and 25o C. Calculate also the thermal efficiency and the shaft
power when the mass flow rate is 60kg/s. Values of cp for air may be used, and should be obtained
from tables at the average temperature of each process.
24 of 88
(a) Schematic Diagram
(b) T-s Diagram
Figure 3.3: Plant layout and T-s diagrams for a gas turbine plant with separate power turbine
25 of 88
Solution
The schematic and T-s diagrams for this example are as shown in figure 3.3. We first determine the
temperature at various points in the cycle as follows:
T1 = 25o C = 25 + 273 = 298K
T2s = 298(4)0.4/1.4 = 298(4)0.2857 = 298(1.48596) = 442.8K
T2s T1
c = 0.8 =
T2 T1
T2 = T1 + (T2 T1 )/c = 298 + (442.8 298)/0.8
or T2 = 479.02K
T3 = 650o C = 650 + 273 = 923K

T4s = T3 (P4 /P3 )(1)/
Now, the high pressure turbine drives the compressor. We also note that
W12 = cp12 (T2 T1 )
W34 = cp34 (T3 T4 )
Due to mechanical efficiency of 98%, we have W12 = 0.98W34 . Thus,
cp12 (T2 T1 ) = 0.98cp34 (T3 T4 )
cp12
T4 = T3 (T2 T1 )
0.98cp34
Since cp12 and cp34 are functions of temperature, we evaluate them by interpolation from tables.
T12av = (298 + 479.02)/2 = 388.51. From tables, cp12 is determined by interpolation as

cp12 = 1.0106 + (1.0135 1.0106)
388.51 375
400 375
= 1.0106 + 0.001567
= 1.0122kJ/kg K
Substituting, we have T4 = 923 177.38 1.0122/cp34 , hence
T4 = 923
179.538
cp34
(3.5)
Since T4 depends on cp34 , its value is determined by iteration as follows:

1. First Iteration As a first guess, we assume that T4 = (T3 + T2 )/2 = (923 + 442)/2 = 682.5.
Hence, T34av = (923 + 682.3)/2 = 802.75. Hence, from tables, cp34 1.0987kJ/kg K.
Substituting in equation (3.5), we have T4 = 923 179.538/1.0987 = 759.59K.
26 of 88
2. Second Iteration Using the current value of T4 , we iterate to refine our value of cp34 . Thus,
T34av = (923 + 759.59)/2 = 841.295. Hence,

841.295 800
cp34 = 1.0987 + (1.1101 1.0987)
850 800
= 1.0987 + 0.00941
= 1.1081
Hence, we have
T4 = 923
179.538
= 760.98
1.1081
3. Third Iteration
T34av = (923 + 760.98)/2 = 841.99

cp34 = 1.0987 + (1.1101 1.0987)
841.99 800
850 800
= 1.10827
Substituting in equation (3.5), we have
T4 = 923 179.538/1.10827 = 761K
Since the values of T4 at the end of the second and third iterations are very close ( within 100
(761 760.98)/760.98 = 0.0028%), we terminate the iteration process. Hence the final value of
T4 = 761K.
Now,
T3 T4
HP = 0.83 =
T3 T4s
T3 T4
T4s = T3
HP
923 761
= 923
= 727.82
0.83
T4s = 727.82K
Now, we have
T4s = T3 (p4 /p3 )(1)/
/(1)
1.4/0.4
P4
T4s
727.82
=
=
P3
T3
923
3.5
= 0.788536
= 0.4353869
P4 = 0.4353869P3 = 0.4353869 1.01 4
or P4 = 1.758963
P5
1
P5 P 3
1
=
=
P4
P3 P 4
4 0.4353869
= 0.57420
27 of 88
T5s = T4 (P5 /P4 )(1)/

= 761(0.57420)0.4/1.4 = 649.45K
T4 T5
T4 T5s
T5 = T4 0.85(T4 T5s )
= 727.82 0.85(727.82 649.45)
T5 = 666.18K
LP = 0.85 =
Power output of LP turbine, W45 = 0.98cp45 (T4 T5 ), hence

T45av = (T4 + T5 )/2 = (761 + 661.21)/2 = 711.1

711.1 700
cp45 = 1.075 + (1.087 1.075)
750 700
= 1.07766
W45 = 0.98 1.07766(761 661.21) = 105.388
If the mass flow rate is 60 kg/s, the output power is then given by
Power = 60 W45 = 60 105.388

= 6323.3kW = 6.323MW
Thermal Efficiency
Heat input, Q23 is given by
Q23 = cp23 (T3 T2 )
T23av = (T2 + T3 )/2 = (479.02 + 923)/2 = 701.01
cp23 1.073kJ/kg
Thus, the thermal efficiency becomes
Q23 = 1.073(923 479.02)
= 476.412kJ/kg
Hence, we have
W45
100%
Q23
105.388
=
100%
476.412
= 22.1%
t =
28 of 88
3.2. IMPROVEMENTS TO THE BASIC CYCLE
3.2
Improvements to the Basic Cycle
The work ratio of the basic gas turbine cycle is of the order of 0.2, while the thermal efficiency
is of the order of 15 to 20%. In order to improve these values and therefore achieve greater cost
effectiveness, a number of improvements may be made to the design of the basic components, and
of the cycle itself.
For example, the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine may be improved by adjusting the design and manufacture of the blades to reduce system irreversibilities.
For given values of the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine, the thermal efficiency
is plotted against the pressure ratio for different values of maximum temperature in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Variation of thermal efficiency with pressure ratio

It can be seen that for any value of maximum cycle temperature, there is a value of the pressure
ratio which gives maximum cycle efficiency. It can also be shown that for the ideal constant
pressure cycle, the thermal efficiency is independent of the maximum cycle temperature, but only
on the pressure ratio, rp , according to the expression
= 1 (rp )(1)/
(3.6)
The net work output also depends on the pressure ratio and the maximum cycle temperature, and,
for a given maximum cycle temperature, there is a particular value of pressure ratio that gives
maximum net work output. However, for any given maximum cycle temperature, the maximum efficiency and maximum net work output occur at different values of the pressure ratio. The choice of
pressure ratio is therefore a compromise between these competing parameters. The usual practice
is to choose the maximum cycle temperature that is consistent with the material properties used.
29 of 88
A number of strategies are adopted in order to increase the work ratio. This includes intercooling
between compressor stages, reheating between turbine stages, and the use of a heat exchanger.
These are further considered below.
3.2.1
Intercooling between compressor stages
The work input for a given pressure ratio and mass flow rate can be reduced by performing the
compression in two stages with an intercoler between the stages. This is illustrated in figure 3.5(a),
with the T-s diagram shown in figure 3.5(b).
The actual cycle processes are 12 in the LP compressor, 2 3 in the intercooler, 34 in the HP
compressor, 4 5 in the combustion chamber, and 56 in the turbine. The ideal cycle for this
arrangement is shown with subscript s, namely 12s34s56s. Note that if the compression
process had been carried out fully without intercooling, the temperature rise would be TA T1 .
This is clearly more than the sum of the temperature rises (T2 T1 ) and (T4 T3 ).
Assuming that intercooling is complete and the compression is carried out isentropically, the compression work is given by
Wc = W12 + W34 = cp (T2 T1 ) cp (T4 T3 )

= cp T1 [(P2 /P1 )(1)/ 1] cp T1 [(P4 /P2 )(1)/ 1]
Now, it was shown previously that for minimum work, the pressure ratio must be the same for both
compressor stages, hence P2 /P1 = P4 /P3 . In this case, the compression work becomes
Wc = 2cp T1 [rp(1)/ 1]
where rp = P2 /P1 .
Now, we may recall that the work ratio is given by
rw =
net work output

expansion work compression work
=
gross work output
expansion work
Hence
W56 (W12 + W34 )

W56
It is clear from the above equation that if the compressor work input decreases, the work ratio
increases. On the other hand, since the sum of the temperature rises with intercooling is less than
the temperature rise without intercooling, the total heat supplied in a cycle with intercooling is
increased, ie cp (T5 T4 ) > cp (T5 TA ).
This increased heat input may lead to a reduction of the thermal efficiency. Further, the additional
cost of the intercooler and the supply of cooling water may offset the advantage gained by the
increased work ratio. However, if intercooling is combined with reheat and exhaust gas heat exchange, both the thermal efficiency and the work ratio can be increased simultaneously. This will
be shown below:rw =
30 of 88
(a) Plant lay-out diagram
(b) T-s diagram
Figure 3.5: Open cycle gas turbine with intercooling
31 of 88
(b) T-s diagram
Figure 3.6: Open cycle gas turbine with reheat between turbine stages
32 of 88
3.2.2
Reheat between turbine stages
Consider figure 3.6, which shows an open cycle gas turbine plant with reheating between turbine
stages. The HP turbine drives the compressor, while the LP turbine provides the useful power
output.
The work output of the high pressure turbine equals the work input of the compressor, while the
net work output is that of the LP turbine. Hence
cpa (T2 T1 ) = cpg (T3 T4 )
Wnet = cpg (T5 T60 )
If the reheat process were omitted, the net work output, which is also the work output of the LP
turbine, would be given by
0
Wnet
= cpg (T4 TA0 )
Since, from the T-s diagram, it is clear that (T5 T60 ) > (T4 TA0 ), it follows that
0
Wnet > Wnet
Thus, reheating increases the net work output, and thus the work ratio. However, the thermal
efficiency is reduced since the heat supplied increases also. With reheating, the total heat supplied
is given by
Qcc = cpg (T3 T2 ) + cpg (T5 T4 )
while without reheating, it is given by
Q0cc = cpg (T3 T2 )
Fortunately, this reduction in the thermal efficiency can be offset by the use of a heat exchanger.
3.2.3
Use of heat exchanger
At the end of the expansion process in the turbine, the exit gases are still at a high temperature and
would constitute a waste of energy if they were simply allowed to escape. Some of the energy may
be recovered by using the exhaust gases to preheat the air leaving the compressor before entry to
the combustion chamber. This is illustrated in figure 3.7.
If there is perfect heat exchange, the air would be heated from T2 to T3 = T5 before entry to
the combustion chamber. In turn, the exhaust gases would be cooled from T5 to T6 = T2 . This
is impossible to achieve in practice since a finite temperature difference is required at all points
in the heat exchanger before heat transfer could occur. A more realistic case is illustrated in
figure 3.8. Here, the required temperature difference between the exhaust gases and the air leaving
the compressor is (T6 T2 ), while the required temperature difference between the exhaust gases
and the air leaving the heat exchanger is (T5 T3 ).
Neglecting any heat losses in the heat exchanger, then the heat extracted from the exhaust gases is
equal to the heat absorbed by the air. Thus
m
a cpa (T3 T2 ) = m
g cpg (T5 T6 )
33 of 88
(b) T-s diagram
Figure 3.7: Open cycle gas turbine with exhaust gas heat exchange
34 of 88
Figure 3.8: Practical open cycle gas turbine with exhaust gas heat exchange
The performance of the heat exchanger may be assessed by defining a heat exchanger effectiveness,
, by the expression
=
heat received by the air

maximum possible heat which could be extracted from the exhaust gases in the heat
exchanger
Hence,
=
m
a cpa (T3 T2 )
m
g cpg (T5 T2 )
(3.7)
Example 3.2 In a gas turbine generating set, two stages of compression are used with an intercooler between stages. The HP turbine drives the HP compressor, and the LP turbine drives the LP
compressor and the alternator. The exhaust from the LP turbine passes through a heat exchanger
which transfers heat to the air leaving the HP compressor. There is a reheat combustion chamber
between turbine stages which raises the gas temperature to 600o C, which is also the gas temperature at entry to the HP turbine. The overall pressure ratio is 10/1, each compressor having the same
pressure ratio, and the air temperature at entry to the unit is 20o C. Assuming isentropic efficiencies
of 0.8 for both compressor stages, and 0.85 for both turbine stages, and that 2% of the work of
each turbine is used in overcoming friction, calculate the power output for a mass flow rate of 115
kg/s. The heat exchanger thermal ratio may be taken as 0.7, and intercooling is complete between
compressor stages. Neglect all losses in pressure, and assume that velocity changes are negligibly
small. Calculate also the overall thermal efficiency of the plant. Assume that cp = 1.005kJ/kg K,
= 1.4 for compression processes and = 1.333 for expansion processes. (14.46 MW; 25.7%)
35 of 88
Solution
A sketch of the plant is shown in figure 3.9
T1 = 20o C = 293K, rp = 10
(1)/
T2s = T1 [rp
] = 293[10(1.41)/(21.4) ] = 293 1.389 = 407.0K

T2s T1
T2s T1
407 293
= 0.8 T2 = T1 +
= 293 +
T2 T1
0.8
0.8
Or T2 = 435.5K
T3
T4s
T4 = T2
T6 = T8
W34
W67
=T1 = 298K
=T2s = 407.0K
=435K
=600o C = 873K
=0.98W67
=W34 /0.98 = cp (T4 T3 )/0.98
TODO: SOME CORRECTIONS

cp (T6 T70 ) = cp (T4 T3 )/0.98
T70 = T6 (T4 T3 )/0.98 = 873 (435.5 298)/0.98 = 724.9K
T6 T70
= 0.85
T6 T7
T7 = T6
P6
=
P7
T6
T7
T6 T70
873 724.9
= 873
= 698.8K
0.85
0.85
/(1)

=
873
698.8
1.333/0.333
= 2.437
P8 P 6
P7 P6
10
P8
=
=
=
= 4.103
P9
P6 P 9
P6 P9
2.437
T8
= rp(1)/ T9 = T8 /[rp(1)/ ]
T9
Thus,
T90 = 873/(4.1030.333/1.333 ) = 873/1.422 = 613.5K
T8 T90
= 0.85 T90 = T8 0.85(T8 T90 )
T8 T90
T90 = 873 0.85(873 613.5) = 652.4K
Thermal ratio of heat exchanger = (T5 T4 )/(T90 T4 ) = 0.7. Hence T5 = T4 + 0.7(T90 T4 ) =
443 + 0.7(652 425.5) = 589.6K
36 of 88
(b) T-s diagram
Figure 3.9: Plant lay-out and T-s diagrams for example 3.2
37 of 88
W890 = cp (T8 T90 )0.98 = 1.005 0.98(873 652) = 212.66kJ/kg

W12 = cp (T2 T1 ) = 1.005(425.5 298) = 145.7kJ/kg
Wnet = 212.66 145.7 = 66.96kJ/kg
For 115 kg/s, we have Wnet = 115 71.93 = 8271.95kW = 8.272 MW.
Figure 3.10: Figure for Exercise 3.3

Example 3.3 Figure 3.10 shows a gas turbine plant in which air is compressed through a pressure
ratio of 6 from 17 o C. The air is then heated to the maximum
permissible temperature of 747 o C
and expanded in two stages each of expansion ratio 6, the air being reheated between stages to
747 o C. The heat exchanger (HE) shown allows the heating of the compressed air through 75% of
the maximum range possible. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.80
and 0.85 respectively.
1. State the expression for calculating the temperature T2s assuming isentropic conditions in
the compressor.
2. Determine the value of T2s in degree Kelvin.
3. State the expression for determining T2 .
4. What is the value of T2 in degree Kelvin.
5. State the expression for computing the power consumption of the compressor, W12 .
6. What is the value of W12 in kilowatt?
7. Show the expression for calculating T5s .
8. Determine T5s in degree Kelvin.
9. State the expression for determining T5 if the turbine isentropic efficiency t is known.
10. Calculate T5 .
11. What is the power output of the high pressure turbine, W45 ?
12. What is the value of T7 ?
13. What is the gross power output, Wgross ?
14. State the expression for calculating T3 .
15. Determine the temperature T3 in degree Kelvin.
16. Calculate the heat supplied to the first cumbustion chamber, Q34 in kJ/kg.
17. Calculate the heat supplied to the second cumbustion chamber, Q56 in kJ/kg.
38 of 88
18.
19.
20.
21.
What is the net work done, Wnet ?

What is the cycle efficiency, .
If the heat exchanger were omitted, what would be the total heat supplied?
For the case of question 3.3, what would be the thermal efficiency? Solution
TO BE COMPLETED
39 of 88
Chapter 4
RECIPROCATING INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
4.1
Introduction
An internal-combustion (IC) engine is one where heat supply is achieved by the combustion of a
fuel within the working fluid. This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as the steam
power plant, where the heat is supplied externally.
Many different types of internal combustion engines have been developed for several different applications. It is extensively used in stationary machinery as well as road, rail, air and sea transport
vehicles. Internal combustion engines may be classified by the manner in which the combustion
process is initiated. In petrol and gas engines, the combustion process is usually initiated by a
spark, hence they are known as spark-ignition (SI) engines. In Diesel and oil engines, the combustion occurs spontaneously when a spray of fuel is introduced into a charge of hot-compressed
gases. Such engines are therefore called compression-ignition (CI) engines. In the following sections, the operating principles of SI and CI engines will be discussed, followed by an outline of
typical criteria of performance.
4.2
Operating principles of IC engines
Both SI and CI engines can be designed so that one complete cycle of events in the cylinder is
completed during either four or two strokes of the piston. The most interesting features and main
events occurring in a four-stroke SI engine are illustrated in figure 4.1
12 Induction stroke A mixture of air and the vaporised fuel is drawn into the cylinder, the pressure of the mixture being a little below atmospheric due to the motion of the piston and
friction in the induction pipe. A metered amount of fuel inlet is achieved by passing the
induced air through the carburettor. The inlet valve closes at the end of the stroke.
23 Compression stroke With the inlet and exhaust valves closed, the mixture of air and fuel is
compressed as the piston moves upwards. At the top dead centre position (TDC), the compressed air-fuel mixture occupies the volume above the piston, which is called the clearance
volume, and consist mainly of the volume of the combustion chamber. Just before the piston
40
4.2. PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER 4. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Figure 4.1: The spark-ignition (SI) engine

reaches the top dead centre, combustion is initiated by an electric spark. The combustion
occurs over a finite but brief period of time, mostly at constant volume since the piston is
moving relatively slowly near the top dead centre. There is a large increase in pressure and
temperature of the charge during this process.
34 Expansion or working stroke The hot, high-pressure gas expands, pushing the piston down
the cylinder. In principle, this expansion could proceed to point 4, but in order to assist in
exhausting the gaseous products, the exhaust valve opens just before the end of the stroke.
As the valve opens, the gases blow down the exhaust duct until the pressure in the cylinder
has fallen to approximately atmospheric pressure.
41 Exhaust Stroke The products which have not escaped from the cylinder during the blowdown are displaced by the piston. To provide the pressure difference necessary to overcome
friction in the exhaust duct, the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above atmospheric. At
the end of the stroke, there will be some residual gases in the clearance volume, which will
dilute the next charge drawn into the cylinder.
The sequence of events in the four-stroke spark-ignition engine described above may also be illustrated with a timing diagram. Here, the angular positions of the crank are given in relation to the
top dead centre and bottom dead centre positions of the piston. This is shown in figure 4.2.
Specific points on the diagram may be described as follows:IO The inlet valve opens. This occurs between 10o before the top dead centre (TDC) and 15o after
TDC
41 of 88
4.2. PRINCIPLES
Figure 4.2: Timing diagram for a four-stroke SI engine

IC Inlet valve closes. This occurs between 20o to 40o after the bottom dead centre (BDC), thereby
taking advantage of the rapidly moving gas.
S Spark occurs, usually between 20o to 40o before the TDC.
EO The exhaust valve opens. This occurs about 50o before the BDC.
EC Exhaust valve closes, usually between 0o to 10o after the TDC.
The sequence of events in a four-stroke CI engine differs from those of the SI engine in some
notable ways. Using the PV diagram shown in figure 4.3, this may be described as follows:12 Induction stroke Only air is admitted into the cylinder.
23 Compression stroke The air is compressed, and towards the end of the stroke, liquid fuel is
sprayed into the cylinder. The temperature of the air at the end of compression is sufficiently
high for the droplets of fuel to vaporise and ignite as they enter the cylinder.
34 Expansion or working stroke The pressure may remain fairly constant during combustion
since the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at a controlled rate.
41 Exhaust stroke This is essentially the same as in the SI engine.
A typical timing diagram for the four-stroke CI engine is shown in figure 4.4
The average values for the valve positions are as follows:
42 of 88
4.2. PRINCIPLES
Figure 4.3: PV diagram for a four-stroke CI engine
Figure 4.4: Timing diagram for a four-stroke CI engine
43 of 88
4.3. PERFORMANCE
IO Up to 30o before the TDC

IC Up to 50o after BDC of the first revolution
EO About 45o before BDC of the second revolution
EC About 30o after TDC of the second revolution
Injection About 15o before TDC
4.3
Performance criteria of IC engines
A number of performance criteria have been developed in order to compare different types of
engines or different engines of the same type. These are the indicated power, brake power, friction power, mechanical efficiency, break mean effective pressure, thermal efficiency, specific fuel
consumption and volumetric efficiency. Each of these will be considered briefly.
4.3.1
Indicated power, ip
The indicated power is defined as the rate of work done by the gas on the piston as evaluated from
an indicator diagram obtained from the engine. A typical indicator diagram is shown in figure 4.5
Figure 4.5: Indicator diagram for an IC engine

The indicator diagram is usually obtained by fitting two springs to the engine, each connected to
a recording mechanism. The heavier spring records the upper or power loop, while the lighter
spring records the lower or pumping loop. The spring constants of both springs are known. The
44 of 88
4.3. PERFORMANCE
diagram may be used to determine the mean effective pressure, Pi , and hence the indicated power.
Recall that the mean effective pressure is defined as the height of a rectangle having the same
length and area as the engine cycle plotted on a PV diagram.
With reference to figure 4.5, the
net work done per cy area of power loop
cle
area of pumping loop
The indicated mean effective pressure, Pi , can thus be given by

net area of diagram
spring constant
(4.1)
length of diagram
If A is the cross-sectional area of piston, L is the length of stroke, n the number of cylinders, and
N the number of crank revolutions per minute, then
Work done per cycle = Pi AL
Indicated power = Pi ALnc
where nc is the number of complete engine cycles per minute. For a four-stroke engine, there are
two shaft revolutions per cycle, while for a two-stroke engine, there is only one shaft revolution
per cycle. Hence, for a four-stroke engine
Pi =
iP = Pi LAN n/2
(4.2)
iP = Pi LAN n
(4.3)
while for a two-stroke engine, we have
4.3.2
Brake power, (bp)
The brake power is the measured mechanical power output of the engine. It is obtained by connecting the engine to a brake or dynamometer which can be loaded in such a way that the torque
exerted by the engine can be measured. The torque is calculated from the expression
T = WR
(4.4)
where W = net load exerted at a known radius R from the axis of rotation. The brake power is
then given by
bp = 2N T
4.3.3
(4.5)
Friction power (fp) and mechanical efficiency, (m )
The friction power is the power required to overcome frictional resistance of the engine parts, and
is the difference between the indicated power and the brake power. Thus
f p = ip bp
(4.6)
The mechanical efficiency, m , is then given by

m =
bp
ip
It is usually in the range 80% to 90%.
45 of 88
(4.7)
4.3. PERFORMANCE
4.3.4
Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), thermal efficiency and specific

fuel consumption
The brake mean effective pressure is the mean pressure which would give the measured engine
brake power. From equation (4.2), for a four-stroke engine, we can write analogously
bp = Pb LAN n/2
(4.8)
Substituting for (bp) from equation (4.5), it follows that 2N T = Pb LAN n/2, hence
Pb =
4T
2 2N T
=
LAN n
LAn
(4.9)
Similarly, for a two-stroke engine,

2T
(4.10)
LAn
Equations (4.9) and (4.10) indicate that the brake mean effective pressure is directly proportional
to the engine torque and is independent of the engine speed.
If the mass rate of fuel consumption is m
f and Qnet,v is the lower calorific value of the fuel, then
the heat energy of the fuel supplied is m
f Qnet,v . The brake thermal efficiency, BT , is then given
as
brake work
bp
BT =
(4.11)
=
heat supplied
m
f Qnet,v
Pb =
The indicated thermal efficiency, IT is defined in a similar way to BT

IT =
ip
m
f Qnet,v
(4.12)
The specific fuel consumption (sfc) is defined as the mass of fuel consumed per kWh of work done,
and is a measure of fuel use economy. It is given by
sf c =
m
f
bp
(4.13)
From equations (4.12), (4.11) and (4.7), it is clear that

BT = m IT
4.3.5
(4.14)
Volumetric efficiency, v
The volumetric efficiency of IC engines is defined in a similar way to that of reciprocating compressors, that is
V
v =
(4.15)
Vs
where V is the volume of air induced and Vs is the swept volume of the cylinder, all measured at the
free air conditions. The value of v is seldom above 80%. The volumetric efficiency of an engine
is affected by many variables, including the compression ratio, timing of the valves, induction and
port design, and mixture strength. The detailed consideration of these effects is beyond the scope
of the present discussion.
46 of 88
4.3. PERFORMANCE
Table 4.1: Performance data for a two-stroke engine

Measured data
Calculated data
Fuel conSpeed Brake load
Torque
B.p
s.f.c
sumption
rev/min N
kg/min
Nm
kW kg/kWh
1000 60.78
0.146
23.16 2.425
3.612
1100 61.46
0.157
23.42 2.698
3.515
1200 62.14
0.177
23.88 3.001
3.440
1300 62.14
0.185
23.88 3.251
3.414
1400 62.14
0.201
23.88 3.501
3.445
1500 62.14
0.216
23.88 3.751
3.455
1600 61.60
0.229
23.47 3.932
3.494
1700 60.90
0.241
23.20 4.130
3.501
1800 59.65
0.252
22.72 4.283
3.530
Pb
bar
0.4437
0.4487
0.4575
0.4575
0.4575
0.4575
0.4497
0.4445
0.4353
Example 4.1 A three-cylinder, direct injection, water-cooled two-stroke oil engine with two horizontally opposed pistons per cylinder has a bore of 82.6mm and each piston has a stroke of 102mm.
The engine was tested against a brake with a torque arm of 0.381m. The results shown in table 4.1
were taken on a variable speed test:
Plot curves of torque, brake power, and specific fuel consumption against speed. Convert the torque
curve to a brake mean effective pressure curve by calculation of the appropriate scale factor.
Solution
The torque is calculated from the expression T = W R. Since the torque arm R is 0.381m, the
values of torque are computed and given in the 4th column of table 4.1.
Similarly, the brake power is given by the expression
bp = 2N T
Since N is given in rev/min, we divide by 60 103 to convert the results to kW, as shown in the 5th
column of table 4.1.
Finally, the specific fuel consumption, s.f.c. is obtained in kg/kWh using the expression
s.f.c =
m
f
bp
where we multiply the results by 60 to get the results in kg/kWh. This is shown in the 6th column of
the table.
The data from the table are used to produce the performance curve shown in figure 4.6.
It may be seen from the graphs that the fuel consumption is a minimum at a speed of 1300 rev/min.
Since this is a two-stroke engine with effectively 6 cylinders, the brake mean effective pressure is
given by
Pb =
2T
2T
=
= 1915.92T
2
LAn
0.102 (0.0826)
6
4
From the solution, the average value of Pb = 0.4502 bar.
47 of 88
4.3. PERFORMANCE
Figure 4.6: Performance curve for a two-stroke engine

Exercise 4.1 Recompute the value of Pb in example 4.1 using the following procedures:
1. Graphical integration
2. Simpsons Rule
Example 4.2 A four-stroke four-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine has a bore of 212 mm and a
stroke of 292mm. At full load at 720 rev/min, the brake mean effective pressure is 5.93 bar and
the specific fuel consumption is 0.226 kg/kWh. The air/fuel ratio as determined by exhaust gas
analysis is 25/1. Calculate the brake thermal efficiency and the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
Atmospheric conditions are 1.01 bar and 15o C and Qnet,v for the fuel may be taken as 44200 kJ/kg.
Solution
We recall that for a four-stroke engine, the brake power is given by bp = Pb LAN n/2. Substituting
for Pb , L, A, N, and n, we have
bp =(5.93 10 ) (0.292)
0.2122
4
=146.69 kW
The brake thermal efficiency is given by
48 of 88
720
(4/2)
60
4.4. THE MORSE ENGINE TEST
bp
1
=
mQ
net,v
(sf c)Qnet,v
1
1
=
= 0.360
=
44200 0.226/3600
2.775
BT =
Thus, BT = 36.0%.
The volumetric efficiency is given by
v = V /Vs
The specific fuel consumption is 0.226 kg/kWh, hence sf c = m
f /bp, thus m
f = (sf c)(bp) =
0.226/(kW 3600s) 146.7kW = 0.00921 kg/s.
Hence, air flow rate = 250.00921 = 0.23028kg/s.
But, for a perfect gas, P V = mRT
, hence
0.23028 0.287 103 288
mRT
=
= 0.1884m3 /s
V =
P
1.01 105
The swept volume, Vs is obtained from
Vs =
ALN n 3
0.2122 0.292 4 720
m /s =
= 0.24733m3 /s
2 60
4 2 60
Hence, the volumetric efficiency becomes

v = 76.16%
4.4
The Morse Engine Test
The Morse test is a very useful and effective method of determining the mechanical efficiency of
internal combustion engines. However, it is only applicable to multicylinder engines. The test
involves the following steps:
1. The engine is run at the required speed and the torque is measured as discussed previously.
2. One cylinder is isolated or cut out (usually by shortening the plug for the SI engine, or by
disconnecting the fuel injector for a CI engine). The power reduction by the isolation of one
cylinder causes the engine speed to fall, but this is restored by reducing the load. When the
speed has returned to its original value, the torque is measured again
Let the indicated power of the cylinders be denoted respectively by I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . , In for an
n-cylinder engine (n > 1). Further, let the power losses in the cylinders (due to friction, etc)
be denoted respectively by L1 , L2 , L3 , . . . , Ln Thus, the net power from any given cylinder
is given by
Bi,net = Ii Li
49 of 88
(4.16)
Thus, the brake power when all the cylinders are firing is given by
n
X
B=
(Ii Li )
(4.17)
i=1
When any cylinder j is cut out, then the indicated power from that cylinder Ij = 0. Then
Bj,net = Lj . Assuming that the losses from that cylinder remain the same as when it is
firing, then the brake power Bj when cylinder j is cut out is given by
n
X
Bj =
(Ii Li )
(4.18)
i=1Ij =0 for i=j
For a 4-cylinder engine, equation (4.17) may be expanded to give

B = (I1 L1 ) + (I2 L2 ) + (I3 L3 ) + (I4 L4 )
(4.19)
If the first cylinder is cut out, equation (4.18) may be written as

B1 = (0 L1 ) + (I2 L2 ) + (I3 L3 ) + (I4 L4 )
(4.20)
Subtracting equation (4.20) from equation (4.19), we have

B B1 = I1
(4.21)
3. The procedure in item 2 is repeated for all the cylinders in turn. Thus, we have
B B2 = I2
B B3 = I3
B B4 = I4
Thus, for the whole engine, we have
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
Example 4.3 A four-cylinder petrol engine has an output of 52 kW at 2000 rev/min. A Morse
test is carried out and the brake torque readings are 177, 170, 168 and 174 Nm respectively. For
normal running at this speed, the specific fuel consumption is 0.364 kg/kWh. The calorific value
of the fuel, Qnet,v = 44200kJ/kg. Calculate the mechanical and brake thermal efficiencies of the
engine. Solution
From the problem, the brake power, bp = 52kW. The brake thermal efficiency is given by
BT =
bp
m
f Qnet,v
50 of 88
But the specific fuel consumption, sf c = m

f /bp.
m
f = sf c bp
0.364kg
=
52kW
kWh
0.364 52
=
kg/s
3600
= 0.0052578kg/s
52kW
5.2578
44200kJ/kg
= 0.2238 = 22.38%
BT =
103 kg/s
Now, bp = 2N T . Hence,
52 103
bp
=
2N
2 2 103 /60
52 60
= 248.28Nm
ieB = T =
4
T =
Substituting for B and Bi , we have
I1
I2
I3
I4
= B B1
= B B2
= B B3
= B B4
= 248.28 177 = 71.28

= 248.28 170 = 78.28
= 248.28 168 = 80.28
= 248.28 174 = 74.28
Hence,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
= 71.28 + 78.28 + 80.28 + 74.28
or I = 304.12Nm
Hence, the mechanical efficiency is given by
B
248.28
=
= 0.8158
I
304.12
m = 81.6%
m =
Exercise 4.2 A four-cylinder petrol engine with a bore of 63mm and a stroke of 76mm was tested
at full throttle at 300 rev/min over a range of mixture strengths. The following readings in columns
1 and 2 were taken during the test:
51 of 88
Fuel consumption,
ml/s
162
2.08
165.5
2.04
169
2.17
170
2.50
169
2.84
162
3.40
159
3.56
Brake load, N
bmep
sfc
The relative density of the fuel is 0.724. Calculate the corresponding values of bmep and specific
fuel consumption, and hence complete columns 3 and 4 of the above table. Plot a consumption
loop and obtain from it, the corresponding values for maximum power and minimum specific fuel
consumption, sfc. The brake power in kilowatts is given by bp = W N/26830, where W is the
brake load in Newtons and N is the engine speed in rev/min.
52 of 88
Chapter 5
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF
COMBUSTION PROCESSES
5.1
Introduction
Combustion refers to the usually rapid reaction between a fuel and an oxygen carrier, such as air.
The reaction may be accompanied by a flame, and results in the rearrangement of the constituent
molecules of the reacting substances. The fuel may be in the solid, liquid or gaseous phase, and
the products may exist in one or more of these phases. The energy state of the reactants is at a
higher level compared with that of the products, the difference in the energy levels being the heat
released. For this reason, combustion processes are said to be exothermic.
In this section of the course, we shall first review the composition of various common fuels, and
then summarize the principles of conservation of matter as applied to combustion processes. This
shall lead us to a discussion of the first law analysis of combination processes. The concluding
part of the section will be devoted to the problem of dissociation in combustion processes.
5.2
Fuels
A fuel may be in the solid, liquid or gaseous phase. The most common solid fuels are coal and
fuelwood; examples of liquid fuels include petroleum and organic oils; while typical gaseous fuels
are coal gas and natural gas.
Most common fuels consist mainly of hydrogen and carbon, For solid and liquid fuels, the proportion of each element is obtained from an ultimate analysis, while for gaseous fuels, the percentage
by volume of each gas or type of hydrocarbon present is usually given. Coal contains mainly carbon and hydrogen, with small amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, moisture and minerals which form the
ash after combustion. Coal is available in three most common grades, namely anthracite, bituminous coal, and lignite. Representative values of the dry ultimate analysis is given in table 5.1
Petroleum oils are the most commonly used commercial liquid fuels. They consist of complex
mixtures of a large number of various hydrocarbon compounds. For simplicity, these hydrocarbons
have been classified into groups which have certain similar characteristics, the most common of
these groups being the paraffins (with a chemical formular of the type Cn H2n+2 ), Olefins and
naphthanes (Cn H2n ) and the aromatics (Cn H2n2 ). Because of the large variety of compounds
53
5.3. CONSERVATION OF MASS
CHAPTER 5. COMBUSTION PROCESSES
Table 5.1: Representative dry ultimate analysis of Coals

Type of Coal
C
H
O N+S ASH
Anthracite
90.27 3.00 2.32 1.44 2.97
74.00 5.98 13.01 2.26 4.25
Bituminous coal
Lignite
56.52 5.72 31.89 1.62 4.25
mixed together, the actual specification of each compound is difficult and sometimes impossible,
but the ultimate analysis is always straight forward. Typical examples are given in table 5.2
Table 5.2: Ultimate analysis of some petroleum oils
Motor
Diesel oil Light fuel Heavy
Vaporizing
Element
Kerosene
petrol
(gas oil)
fuel oil
oil
oil
C
85.5
86.8
86.3
86.3
86.2
86.1
H
14.5
12.9
13.6
12.8
12.4
11.8
S
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.9
1.4
2.1
From the table, it can be seen that the ultimate analysis of these fuels are very similar. However, they have differing physical and other characteristics such as viscosity, ignition temperature,
knocking tendency (in petrol engines) and coking tendency (in gas turbines). It is these characteristic that determine the choice of a given fuel for any particular application.
The most important gaseous fuels are natural gas (consisting mainly of methane), coal gas, producer gas and blast furnace gas. Methane often occurs naturally under pressure in petroleum deposits (hence the name natural gas"), but the other gaseous fuels are usually produced by heating
coal in various ways. Typical volumetric compositions of some common gaseous fuels are given
in table 5.3
Table 5.3: Volumetric analysis of common gaseous fuels
Fuel
H2 CO CH4
Cn Hm O2
N2 CO2
Coal gas
49.4 18.0 20.0 2.0 ( C4 H6 0.4
6.2
4.0
Producer gas
12.0 29.0
2.6 (C2 H4 ) 0.4
- 52.0
4.0
Blast Furnace gas 2.0 27.0
- 60.0 11.0
Residual Gas
- 93.0 (C2 H6 ) 4.8
2.0
0.2
Natural Gas
5.3
Conservation of Mass in Combustion Processes
The principle of conservation of mass applies to all thermodynamic processes, including combustion processes. This principle implies that the total quantity of matter before and after a combustion
process remains the same. The principle is often expressed in terms of the conservation of atoms.
Thus, for the equation expressing the complete combustion of carbon and oxygen to form carbon
dioxide, we have
C + O2 = CO2
54 of 88
(5.1)
The equation shows that one atom of carbon combines with two atoms of oxygen to produce one
molecule of Carbon dioxide (made up of 1 atom of C + 2 atoms of O). The number of atoms of
each element on each side of the equation are seen to be equal, the arrow indicating the direction of
the reaction. Similar combustion equations can be written for the combustion of other compounds,
as shown in the following equations:1
C + O2
2
1
CO + O2
2
1
H2 + O2
2
1
C6 H14 + 9 O2
2
CO
(5.2)
CO2
(5.3)
H2 O
(5.4)
6CO2 + 7H2 O
(5.5)
The combustion process given in equation (5.2) is said to be incomplete because the carbon monoxide (CO) produced can subsequently be burnt to carbon dioxide, the later being the final stable
state.
In specialised engineering systems such as the rocket motor, the oxygen required for combustion
is obtained from a concentrated oxygen carrier such as liquid oxygen, liquid ozone, Hydrogen
peroxide or nitric acid. However in most engineering systems, the necessary oxygen is obtained
by using the fuel with atmospheric air. The latter consists of mainly oxygen and nitrogen in the
following approximate proportions-
Volumetric analysis, %
Gravimetric analysis, %
Oxygen Nitrogen
21
79
23.3
76.7
The proportion attributed to nitrogen includes pure nitrogen and all other inert gases present in
the air. Chemical equations of the type given in equations (5.2) to (5.5) can be used to determine
the analysis of the products of combustion if the composition of the fuel and air/fuel ratio are
known. They may also be used to determine the correct amount of air/fuel ratio necessary to
achieve a given combustion process. If the air supplied to a combustion system contains just the
theoretically sufficient oxygen to burn all the combustible elements of the fuel completely, the
air/fuel ratio is said to be stoichiometric. However in practical combustion systems, excess air is
normally provided for complete combustion to be achieved. This is because the time available for
the combustion reaction is limited, imperfect mixing of the fuel and air often occur, and inert gas
molecules often obstruct the reaction between active molecules of fuel and oxygen.
If excess air is supplied, the mixture is said to be weak, while if air supply is deficient, the mixture
is said to be rich.
In general, the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is expressed as a percentage of the actual air/fuel ratio
in the quantity, mixture strenght, which is defined as
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
(5.6)
actual air/fuel ratio
In many practical combustion systems, the mixture streght varies from 80% (weak) to 120% (rich).
The percentage of excess air is given by the expression
mixture strenght =
55 of 88
percent excess air =
Ractual Rstoic
Rstoic
(5.7)
where
R = air/fuel ratio
actual = actual
stoic = stoichiometric
Example 5.1 The volumetric analysis of a certain natural gas gave the following values:
CH4 95%;C2 H6 2 %;N2 3%. Calculate the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
Solution
1. The combustion equation may be written for one volume of fuel as
0.95CH4 + 0.02C2 H6 + 0.03N2 + a(0.21O2 + 0.79N2 )
bCO2 + dH2 O + (0.03 + 0.79a)N2
C-balance
0.95 + 0.04 = b
Hence b = 0.99
H-balance
4(0.95) + 0.02(6) = 2d
Hence 3.8 + 0.12 = 2d
or 3.92 = 2d
d = 1.96
O-balance
0.21(2)a = 2b + d = 2(0.99) + 1.96
= 1.98 + 1.96 = 3.94
0.42a = 3.94
a = 3.94/0.42 = 9.381
Mass of one volume of fuel = 0.95(12 + 4) + 0.02(24 + 6) + 0.03(28) = 16.64. Mass of one
volume of air is 0.21 32 + 0.79 28 = 28.84. Hence, stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is given
by
mass of air
28.84 9.381
=
= 16.259
mass of fuel
16.64
56 of 88
2. If the actual air/fuel ratio is 18/1, it follows that there is excess air. The combustion equation
in this case is written as
0.95CH4 + 0.02C2 H6 + 0.03N2
+a(1 + x)(0.21O2 + 0.79N2
bCO2 + dH2 O + [0.03 + 0.79a(1 + x)]N2 + 0.21axO2
where x is the fraction of excess air and is given by
x=
18 16.259
= 0.1071
16.259
Thus, the volumetric analysis of the wetand dry products of combustion may be calculated.
For convenience, we use a tabular format as follows: The equation for the number of moles
of each gas are
CO2
O2
N2
b = 0.99
0.21ax = 0.21 9.381 0.1071
0.03 + 0.79a(1 + x)
The results of the analysis are shown in table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Wet and dry analysis of combustion products for .
example 5.1
Gas
No of moles % wet analysis % Dry analysis
CO2
0.99
8.6876
10.492
O2
0.2109
1.8511
2.2357
N2
8.2346
72.261
87.272
H2 O
1.96
17.2
Total wet
11.395
Total dry
9.4355
The analysis may be carried out using the SCILAB code shown in listing 5.1
Listing 5.1: SCILAB Code to calculate the volumetric analysis of wet and dry products of combustion in example 5.1
/ / I f the actula air / fuel ratio is 18/1 , determine the
v o l u m e t r i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e w e t and d r y p r o d u c t s o f
combustion .
2 s t o i c = 16.259; / / stoichiometric
air / fuel ratio
x = (18 s t o i c ) / s t o i c ; / / f r a c t i o n o f e x c e s s a i r
4 a = 9 . 3 8 1 ; / / number
of moles of a i r in s t o i c h i o m e t r i c case
b = 0 . 9 9 ; / / number o f m o l e s o f CO2
6 d = 1 . 9 6 ; / / number
o f m o l e s o f H2O i n c o m b u s t i o n p r o d u c t s
g a s = [ " $CO_2$ " " $O_2$ "
" $N_2$ " " $H_2O$ "
" T o t a l wet " "
Total dry " ] ; / / gases in combustion products
57 of 88
5.4. TYPICAL FUEL
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
moles = [ b
0 . 2 1 a x
0 . 0 3 + 0 . 7 9 a (1+ x ) d ] ; / / number o f
moles of t he combustion p ro du ct s
sumwet = sum ( m o l e s ( 1 : 4 ) ) ; / / number o f m o l e s o f w e t p r o d u c t s
sumdry = sum ( m o l e s ( 1 : 3 ) ) ; / / e x c l u d e l a s t e l e m e n t i n sum o f d r y
products
m o l e s ( 5 ) = sumwet ; / / add sum o f w e t p r o d u c t s i n m a t r i x
m o l e s ( 6 ) = sumdry ; / / add sum o f d r y p r o d u c t s i n m a t r i x
d r y = m o l e s ( 1 : 3 ) 1 0 0 / sumdry ; / / g e t p e r c e n t d r y p r o d u c t s a n a l y s i s
w e t = m o l e s ( 1 : 4 ) 1 0 0 / sumwet ; / / w e t v o l u m e t r i c a n a l y s i s
format ( 7 ) ; / / use 7 s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s
r e s u l t = [ " Gas "
" No o f m o l e s "
" \% w e t a n a l y s i s "
" \%
Dry a n a l y s i s " ] ; / / o u t p u t h e a d i n g
r e s u l t ( 2 : 7 , 1 ) = gas ;
r e s u l t ( 2 : 7 , 2) = s t r i n g ( moles ) ; / / c o n v e r t to s t r i n g
r e s u l t ( 2 : 5 , 3) = s t r i n g ( wet ( 1 : 4 , 1 ) ) ;
r e s u l t ( 2 : 4 , 4 ) = s t r i n g ( dry ( 1 : 3 , 1 ) ) ;
r e s u l t ( : , $ ) = r e s u l t ( : , $ ) + " \ \ \ h l i n e " ; / / add LaTeX end o f l i n e
for table
m y d i r = g e t _ a b s o l u t e _ f i l e _ p a t h ( " c o m b u s t i o n wetd r y . s c e " ) ; / / g e t
dir for this f i l e
f i l e n a m e b a s e = " c o m b u s t i o n wetdryt a b . t e x " ;
f i l e n a m e = mydir + f i l e n a m e b a s e ;
w r i t e _ c s v ( r e s u l t , f i l e n a m e , "&" ) ; / / s a v e f i l e
5.4
General Solution of Combustion equation for a Typical Fuel
We now derive the general solution of the combustion equation for a typical liquid or solid fuel with
known ultimate analysis. For simplicity, we assume that the fuel conatins only carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and ash. Let the ultimate analysis be given by Zc % Carbon, ZH % hydrogen,
ZO % oxygen, ZN % nitrogen and Zash % Ash. The stoichiometric combustion equation can then
be written as
ZH
ZO
ZN
ZC
C+
H+
O+
N + ZAsh Ash
12
1
16
14
+a(0.21O2 + 0.79N2 )
bCO2 + dH2 O

ZN
+
+ 0.79a N2 + ZAsh Ash
2 14
(5.8)
ZC
ZC
= b Hence b =
12
12
(5.9)
Carbon balance
Hydrogen Balance
ZH = 2d Hence d =
ZH
2
58 of 88
(5.10)
5.5. FLUE & EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS
Oxygen balance
ZO
+ 0.42a = 2b + d
16
ZC ZH
ZO
Hence 0.42a = 2
+
12
2
16
Hence, we have

a=
ZC ZH
ZO
+
6
2
16

/(0.42)
(5.11)
Hence, the mass of air required is

a(0.21 32 + 0.79 28) = 28.84a
Hence, the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is
28.84a/100 = 0.2884a : 1
(5.12)
Example 5.2 A certain sample of charcoal has the ultimate analysis 82% C, 3.1% Hydrogen,
11.3% oxygen, 0.2% Nitrogen and 3.4% Ash. Determine the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
Solution
Here, we have
ZC = 82
ZH = 3.1
ZO = 11.3
ZN = 0.2
Zash = 3.4
(5.13)
Substituting into equations (5.9), (5.10) and (5.11), we have

b = 82/12 = 6.8333
d = 3.1/2 = 1.55

82 3.1 11.3
+
/(0.42) = 34.54845
a=
6
2
16
(5.14)
Hence, the total mass of air for 100 kg of fuel is 34.54845 28.84 = 996.3773. Thus, the air/fuel
ratio = 9.963773 kg of air per kg of fuel.
5.5
Flue & Exhaust Gas Analysis
Since hydrogen is normally present in most fuels, the combustion products will usually contain
water vapour. If the presence of the water vapour in the exhaust gases is accounted for, then the
analysis of the product is called a wet analysis . On the other hand, if the vapour is assumed to be
condensed and removed, it is called a dry analysis.
59 of 88
Example 5.3 If the air/fuel ratio in an actual combustion process for example 5.1 is 17/1, determine the volumetric analysis of the wet and dry products of combustion Solution
If the actual air/fuel ratio is 17/1, then the percent of excess air is
r=
17 16.259
= 0.0455748
16.259
The combustion equation with excess air then becomes
0.95CH4 + 0.02C2 H6 + 0.03N2 + a(1 + r)(0.21O2 + 0.79N2 )

bCO2 + dH2 O + [a(1 + r)0.79 + 0.03]N2 + eO2
The wet and dry analysis of the combustion products can then be calculated as shown in table 5.5.
Table 5.5: Wet and dry analysis for example5.3
Constituent Number of moles Wet analysis, % Dry analysis, %
CO2
H2 O
N2
O2
Total (wet)
100
Total (dry)
100
Example 5.4 The ultimate analysis of a sample of petrol was 85.5% C and 14.5% H. Calculate
1. the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
2. the analysis of the dry products
3. the air/fuel ratio and percentage excess air when the mixture strenght is 90%
4. the analysis of the dry products for case 3 above.
5. the air/fuel ratio and percentage excess air when the mixture strenght is 120%
6. the analysis of the dry products for case 5 above.
7. the volume flow rate of the products through the engine exhaust per unit rate of fuel consumption for case 3 when the pressure is 1.013 bar and the temperature is 110o C.
Solution
Considering 100 kg of fuel, the combustion equation is written as
85.5C 14.5
+
H + a(0.21O2 + 0.79N2 )
12
1
= bCO2 + dH2 O + 0.79aN2
60 of 88
C-balance We have 85.5/12 = b = 7.125

H-balance 14.5 = 2d, hence d = 14.5/2 = 7.25.
O-balance 0.21a2 = 2b+d = 27.125+7.25, hence 0.42a = 21.5, or a = 21.5/0.42 = 51.19.
Thus, mass of air = 51.19(0.21 32 + 0.79 28) = 51.19(28.84 = 1476.3196.
1. Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio = 1476.3196/100 = 14.76
2. Analysis of the dry products. This is best done in tabular form as follows:
Constituent No of moles Percent
CO2
7.125
14.98
N2
40.4243
85.02
Total
47.5493
100
3. Air/fuel ratio if mixture strenght is 90% In this case, we have
14.76
Rstoic
=
Ractual
X
14.76
X=
= 16.4
0.9
0.9 =
The percentage excess air, Xp is given by

16.4 14.76
= 0.111
14.76
= 11.1%
Xp =
4. Thus, number of moles of excess air is 51.19 0.111 = 5.688. This may be distributed into
the components for oxygen and nitrogen. The volumteric analysis of the dry products for the
case above is presented in tabular manner.
Constituent
CO2
N2
O2
Total
No of moles
7.125
40.4243 + 5.688 0.79 = 44.918
5.688 0.21 = 1.194
53.237
5. If the mixture strenght is 120%, then

14.76
X
14.76
X=
= 12.3
1.2
The percentage of excess air is then given by
1.2 =
12.3 14.76
= 0.167
14.76
= 16.7%
Xp =
61 of 88
Percent
13.4
84.4
2.2
100
The negative value indicates that there is deficiency of air.

6. Since there is air deficiency, the combustion will be incomplete. The number of volumes
of air not available is 51.19 0.167 = 8.549, hence number of moles of air supplied is
51.19-8.549 = 42.641.
Thus the new combustion equation may be written as
14.5
85.5
C+
H + 42.641(0.21O2 + 0.79N2 )
12
1
= bCO2 + eCO + dH2 O + 0.79 42.641N2
C-balance
85.5
=b+e
12
hence 7.125 = b + e
(5.15)
H-balance
14.5 = 2d, hence d = 14.5/2 = 7.25
O-balance
42.641 0.42 = 2b + e + d
= 2b + e + 7.25
hence 17.909 7.25 = 2b + e
Thus,
10.659 = 2b + e
(5.16)
Subtracting equation (5.15) from equation (5.16), we have 10.659 7.125 = b = 3.534.
From equation (5.15), we have e = 7.125 b = 7.125 3.534 or e = 3.591.
The volumetric analysis of the dry products is therefore given in table 5.8
Table 5.8: Volumetric analysis of dry products
Constituent No of moles
Percent
CO
3.591
8.8
CO2
3.534
8.7
N2
33.686
82.5
Total
40.811
100%
7. Volume flow rate for case (3)
As obtained in case (4), number of moles of dry products = 53.237. Number of moles of
H2 O = 7.25. Hence, number of moles of products = 53.237 + 7.25 = 60.487. Thus,
number of moles of products per unit mass of fuel = 60.487/100 = 0.60487. Now, volume
62 of 88
of 1 mole of gas = 22.4dm3 at STP. Hence, volume of 0.60487 moles of gaseous products =
0.60487 22.4 = 13.549. This is at STP of 1bar and 0o C. At 1.013 bar and 110o C , we have
P2 V2
P1 V1
=
T1
T2
P1 V1 T2
V2 =
P2 T1
1.013 13.549 (110 + 273)
V2 =
1 (0 + 273)
= 19.255dm3 /kg
Example 5.5 Suppose the charcoal in example 5.2 was burnt with excess air of fractional amount
x, determine the analysis of the combustion products.
Solution
The quantities of the reactant involved are shown in table 5.9.
Table 5.9: Quantities of reactants for example 5.5
82/12 = 6.8333
82
0.82
3.1/2=1.55
3.1
0.031
11.3/31 + 0.21a(1+x) = 32
(7.6082935
+ 0.32
(7.6082935
0.353125 + 7.2551745 7.2551745x)
7.2551745x)
(1 + x) = 7.6082935 +
7.2551745x
N2 0.2/28 + 0.79a (1 + x) 28
(28.1182755
+ 0.28 (28.1182755
= 0.825 +27.2932755 27.2932755x)
27.2932755x)
(1+x) = 28.1182755
+27.2932755x
Ash 3.4
3.4
0.034
C
H2
O2
Similarly, the quantities of the products for x excess air is given in table 5.10.
Table 5.10: Quantities of products for example 5.5
Product Moles per 100 kg of fuel Mass per 100 kg of fuel Mass per unit kg of fuel
CO2
b=6.8333
44b=44*6.8333
= 3.006652
300.6652
H2 O
d=1.55
18d = 18 * 1.55 = 27.9
0.279
O2
0.21 ax = 0.21 * 32 * 7.2551745x = 2.32165584x
34.54845x = 7.2551745 232.165584x
x
N2
28.1182755+
28(28.1182755+
0.28(28.1182755+
27.2932755x
27.2932755x)
27.2932755x)
Ash
3.4
3.4
0.034
63 of 88
5.6. FIRST LAW ANALYSIS
5.6
First Law analysis of combustion processes
Recall that, during any process 1-2 in a closed system, the first law states that the work and heat
crossing the boundary are related by the expression
Q + W = U2 U1
(5.17)
Consider first a non-flow combustion process in which a mixture of fuel and air at an initial state
(V1 , T1 ) react to form products at a final state (V2 , T2 ). For convenience, we may imagine that the
process is carried out in three successive stages as follows:(a)-(b) Reactants at state 1 are brought to reference state 0 without any chemical reaction
(b)-(c) Reactants at reference state 0 combine chemically to form products at reference state 0.
Heat energy of combustion released.
(c)-(d) Products at state 0 are brought to their final state 2 through a process not involving chemical
reaction
The processes are depicted in figure 5.1
Figure 5.1: Schematic representation of Reactants and products for first law analysis of combustion
Using the subscript R and P respectively to identify the reactants and products, the change of
internal energy during the process 1 to 2 is given by
(UP 2 UR1 ) = (UP 2 UP 0 ) + (UP 0 UR0 ) + (UR0 UR1 )
64 of 88
(5.18)
5.6. FIRST LAW ANALYSIS
The first and third terms on the right hand side refer to processes not involving any chemical
reaction. Using known specific heat data for each constituent, the internal energy changes are
given by
(UP 2 UP 0 ) =
(UR0 UR1 ) =
mi cvi (T2 T0 )
(5.19)
mi cvi (T0 T1 )
(5.20)
where mi is the mass and cvi the mean specific heat at constant volume of the ith constituent. If
any of the constituents undergoes a change of phase in the temperature ranges between T1 and T0
or between T0 and T2 , the value of Uf g should be obtained and used in the summation. The work
transfer during the process bc is zero since the process occurs at constant volume. The first law
applied to that process then becomes
QR0, P 0 = (UP 0 UR0 ) = U0
(5.21)
The quantity U0 is called the internal energy of combustion at T0 . It is the difference between
the internal energies of the products and reactants of combustion. It arises from the fact that, for
combustible materials, the chemical potential energy of the molecules of the reactants is higher
than that of the molecules of the products even when both reactants and products are brought to
the same temperature and volume. It is this difference in chemical potential energy that appears as
heat. U0 depends on the temperature T0 but not on the volume V0 . However, experimental data
shows that the temperature dependence is weak.
Substituting the expression for (UP 0 UR0 ) into equation (5.5), we have
(UP 2 UR1 ) = (UP 2 UP 0 ) + U0 + (UR0 UR1 )
(5.22)
In a similar way, we can write the equation for the change of enthalpy between reacting substance
at T1 and products at T2 according to the following equation
(HP 2 HR1 ) = (HP 2 HP 0 ) + H0 + (HR0 HR1 )
(5.23)
As before, the first and third terms on the right hand side can be written as
(HP 2 HP 0 ) =
(HR0 HR1 ) =
mi cpi (T2 T0 )
(5.24)
mi cpi (T0 T1 )
(5.25)
where cpi is the average specific heat at constant pressure for constituent i. If any constituent
undergoes a change of phase within the relevant temperature range, an hf g term should be included
in the summation.
The quantity H0 in equation (5.23) is called the enthalpy of combustion at T0 . It is equal to the
heat released in a steady flow combustion process which is carried out in such a way that both
reactants and products are maintained at T0 , no work is done, and the change in kinetic energy is
negligible.
65 of 88
5.7. ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE
It is usual to compile values of U0 and H0 at a reference temperature T0 of 25o C for a unit

quantity of fuel ( unit mass or unit kilomole). Once either U0 or H0 is known, the other
quantity can readily be calculated using the expression
H0 = HP 0 HR0 = (UP 0 + PP 0 VP 0 ) (UR0 + PR0 VR0 )
= U0 + (PP 0 VP 0 PR0 VR0 )
(5.26)
For solid and liquid constituents, the pV terms are negligible compared with the internal energy
term. For the gaseous constituents, we can write
P V = nR0 T
(5.27)
Hence, the relation between H0 and U0 reduces to

H0 = U0 + R0 T0 (nP nR )
(5.28)
where nR and nP are the numbers of kilomoles of the gaseous reactants and products respectively.
Thus, if nP = nR , then
H0 = U0
(5.29)
In general, the difference between H0 and U0 for most fuels is very small. Typical values of
the enthalpy of combustion for some common fuels are tabulated in table 5.11.
Table 5.11: Typical values of enthalpy of combustion for gases
Fuel
H0 at 25o C (KJ/kg)
H2
- 120900
CH4 (methane)
C2 H6 (ethane)
-47590
C7 H16 (heptane, liquid) -44560
C8 H18 (octane vapour) -44847.95
5.7
Adiabatic combustion temperature
The adiabatic combustion temperature is the temperature that the products of combustion will
attain if the process is carried out adiabatically. Most fuels produce adiabatic combustion temperature of the order of 2200 and 2700 K when burnt in a stoichiometric mixture of air initially
at atmospheric temperature. It is always possible to estimate the exact combustion temperature if
accurate thermodynamic property data for the constituents are known for the range of temperatures involved and the extent of dissociation is known. The term dissociation refers to the splitting
of molecules into their constituents, usually with an accompanying absorption of energy. This
would tend to reduce the final product temperature. Other factors which reduce the combustion
temperature are incomplete combustion and use of excess air.
Substituting equations (5.24) and (5.25) into equation (5.23), we have
HP 2 HR1 = 0
X
mi cpi (T2 To ) + Ho +
mj cpj (To T1 )
66 of 88
(5.30)
Hence, we have
X
mi cpi (T2 To ) = Ho
mj cpj (To T1 )
Solving for T2 , we obtain

T2 = To
Ho +
P
m c (T T1 )
PR j pj o
P mi cpi
(5.31)
In equation (5.31), we recognize that the specific heat capacities are functions of temperature. For
cases where the specific heats are linear functions of temperature, they may be evaluated at the
mean temperatures. Thus we may write
Ta + Tb
2
cp = a + bTav
Tav =
(5.32)
(5.33)
where the parameters a and b are constants for each constituent over a given temperature range.
Substituting equations (5.32) into (5.33), we have
b
cp = a + (Ta + Tb )
2
For the reactant, the effective temperature range is To and T1 , hence Ta = To , Tb = T1 . Similarly, for the products, the product temperature varies from To to T2 . Substituting these into
equation 5.31, we have
X
(T2 To )
mi [ai + (bi /2)(To + T2 )]
P
= Ho
(5.34)
mj [aj + (bj /2)(To + T1 )]
Expanding, this gives

"
(T2 To )
#
X
mi (ai + 0.5bi To + 0.5bi T2 )
= Ho
mj [aj + 0.5bj (To + T1 )]
Thus, collecting like terms, we have

X
X
T2
mi (ai + 0.5bi To ) + 0.5
mi bi T22
P
To
mi (ai + 0.5bi To )
0.5To
mi bi T2
= Ho
mj [aj + 0.5bj (To + T1 )]
67 of 88
Hence, the equation becomes

0.5T22
mi bi
"
+T2
#
X
mi (ai + 0.5bi To )
0.5mi bi To
To
mi (ai + 0.5bi To )
= Ho
mj [aj + 0.5bj (To + T1 )]
Simplifying, this becomes

T22 (0.5
mi bi ) + T2
mi ai
+ Ho +
mj [aj + 0.5bj (To + T1 )] To
(5.35)
mi (ai + 0.5bi To )
=0
This equation may be rewritten more compactly as
AT22 + BT2 + C = 0
(5.36)
where
A = 0.5
mi bi
(5.37)
B=
mi ai
(5.38)
C = Ho +
mj [aj + 0.5bj (To + T1 )] To
mi (ai + 0.5bi To )
(5.39)
Since equation (5.36) is a quadratic equation in T2 , the solution is given using the usual general
solution for a quadratic equation, namely
T2 =
B 2 4AC
2A
(5.40)
Solution Procedure To determine the adiabatic combustion temperature using this direct approach, we adopt the following procedure:
1. By linear regression, or otherwise, determine the values of the parameters a and b for each
component
2. Determine the values of A, B, and C using the relevant equations
3. Calculate T2 , using only the positive values
68 of 88
If the specific heat is not a linear function of temperature for the range of interest, this solution
procedure will not yield accurate results. In that case, we may use an iterative or other numerical
technique to determine the adiabatic combustion temperature.
Example 5.6 As an example, suppose that liquid heptane (C7 H16 ) which has an enthalpy of combustion of 44560kJ/kg at 25o C is to be burnt in a steady stream of air. If the initial temperature
of the fuel and air is 15o C, and they are mixed in stoichiometric proportions, we are required to
estimate the temperaure of the products. We assume that the specific heat of liquid heptane is
2.3kJ/kg K. The specific heats of the other constituents are given in table 5.17. Assume that the
combustion takes place adiabatically.
Table 5.12: Specific heats of some gases
Gas
Specific heat, cp
at 298K at 1000K at 1580K
O2
0.917
1.09
N2
1.040
1.167
1.252
CO2
0.838
1.234
1.336
H2 O (vap)
1.862
2.288
2.651
H2
16.31
14.98
Solution
The first step in the solution is to write the stoichiometric combustion equation
C7 H16 + aO2
1 3.52
+bN2
11.59
cCO2 + dH2 O
3.08 1.44
+bN2
11.59
(5.41)
To determine the values of a, b, c and d, we perform an atomic balance for each constituent
element.
Carbon balance 7=c
H-balance 16 = 2d d = 8
O-balance 2a = 2c + d a = (14 + 8)/2 = 22/2 = 11
To determine b, we note that atmospheric air contains oxygen and nitrogen in the ratio 21:79,
hence b = 79a/(21) = 869/21 = 41.38
For one kilogram of fuel, the amounts of the other constituents are given below equation (5.41).
Let t be the temperature of the combustion products. Since the combustion is adiabatic and there
is no work transfer, the steady flow energy equation reduces to
HP t HR15 = 0
(5.42)
(HP t HP 25 ) + H25 + (HR25 HR15 ) = 0
(5.43)
Expanding, this becomes
Since the product temperature t is unknown, and the specific heat is temperature dependent, it is
solved iteratively.
69 of 88
Substituting the values of the mean specific heats in the range 15o to 24o C, we have
(HP 25 HR15 ) =
mi cpi (25 15)
HR25 =10[(1 2.3) + (3.52 0.917) + (11.59 1.04)] =
175.8kJ
Using these specific heats as a first approximation, we have
(HP t HP 25 ) =
mi cpi (t 25)
=(t 25)[3.08 0.838) + (1.44 1.862) + (11.59 1.04)]

=17.32(t 25)
Hence, 17.32(t 25) 44560 + 175.8 = 0 giving t 2590o C.
For the second iteration, the mean specific heats for the range 2590o C and 25o C is used in evaluating the products term. The second iteration then becomes
(HP t HP 25 ) =(t 25)[3.08 1.336 + 1.44 2.651 + 11.59 1.252)]

=22.44(t 25)
Hence, 22.44(t 25) 44560 + 175.8 = 0, giving t 2003o C.
Continuing in this way, the final temperature of 2065o C is obtained.
Notice that the variation of specific heats with temperature has a considerable effect on the adiabatic combustion temperature.
70 of 88
Using the SCILAB code shown in listing 5.2, the solution may be obtained with more convenience.
Listing 5.2: SCILAB code to determine the adabatic flame temperature of a stoichiometric mixture
of liquid heptane and air
/ / Determination of product temperature for adiabatic combustion
of l i q u i d heptane
t e m p d a t a = [ 2 9 8 1000 1 5 8 0 ] ; / / t e m p e r a t u r e n o d e s
cpdata = [0.917
1.09
1 . 0 9 ; / / cp o f o x y g e n O2
1.04
1.167
1 . 2 5 2 ; / / cp o f N2
0.838
1.234
1 . 3 3 6 ; / / cp o f CO2
1.862
2.288
2 . 6 5 1 ; / / cp o f H2O v a p o u r
16.31
14.98
1 4 . 9 8 ; / / cp o f H2
] ; / / s p e c i f i c h e a t s o f g a s e s a t 2 9 8 , 1000 and 1580 K
respectively
f u n c t i o n [ t 2 , t 2 d i f f ] = a d i a b a t i c ( m r e a c t , c p r e a c t , mproduct ,
c p p r o d u c t , t 0 , t 1 , t 2 , dho ) / / f u n c t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e a d i a b a t i c
flame temperature
told = t2 ; / / old value of t2
t 2 = t 0 ( dho + sum ( m r e a c t . c p r e a c t ) ( t 0 t 1 ) ) / ( sum (
m p r o d u c t . c p p r o d u c t ) ) ; / / new e s t i m a t e o f t e m p e r a t u r e
t 2 d i f f = abs ( ( t 2 t 2 o l d ) / t 2 o l d ) ; / / f r a c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n o l d and new
endfunction
f u n c t i o n [ cp ] = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( g a s i n d i c e s , t a v , t e m p d a t a , c p d a t a ) / /
f u n c t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e s p e c f i c h e a t from t a b u l a t e d data
cp = [ ] ; / / i n i t i a l i s e
[ gasrow , g a s c o l ] = s i z e ( g a s i n d i c e s ) ; / / number o f rows and
columns
gasnum = g a s c o l ; / / assume i t i s i n number o f c o l u m n s
i f ( g a s c o l == 1 & gasrow >1) t h e n
gasnum = gasrow ; / / u s e number o f rows i n s t e a d
end
f o r i =1: gasnum / / c o n s i d e r a l l g a s e s s p e c i f i e d
j = g a s i n d i c e s ( i ) ; / / c o n s i d e r t h i s gas
cp ( 1 , i ) = i n t e r p 1 ( t e m p d a t a , c p d a t a ( j , : ) , t a v , " l i n e a r " ,
" e x t r a p " ) ; / / g e t cp f o r t h i s g a s by l i n e a r
i n t e r p o l a t i o n . Use e x t r a p o l a t i o n i f n e c e s s a r y
end
endfunction
t 1 = 15+273; / / i n i t i a l temp o f r e a c t a n t s
t 0 = 25 + 2 7 3 ; / / r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e
mreact = [1 3.53
1 1 . 5 9 ] ; / / mass o f r e a c t a n t p e r u n i t mass o f
fuel
c p r e a c t g a s = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( [ 1 2] , t1 , tempdata , cpdata ) ; / /
determine s p e c i f i c heat of the reactant gases
cpreact = [2.3 cpreactgas (1)
cpreactgas (2) ]; / / s p e c i f i c heats
71 of 88
of the reactants
mproduct = [ 3 . 0 8
1.44
1 1 . 5 9 ] ; / / mass o f p r o d u c t p e r u n i t
mass o f g a s
e p s = 1 e 6; / / u s e a s s m a l l number
t2 = 1000; / / i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e of a d i a b a t i c temperature
t 2 d i f f = 1 ; / / i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n o l d and new
values of t2
count = 0;
dho = 44560; / / e n t h a l p y o f c o m b u s t i o n o f l i q u i d h e p t a n e a t 25
degree c e l c i u s
while ( t 2 d i f f > eps ) / / r e p e a t as long as t 2 d i f f i s l a r g e
t a v = mean ( [ t 2 t 0 ] ) ; / / g e t mean temp
t2old = t2 ;
cpproduct = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( [ 3 4 2] , tav , tempdata , cpdata ) ; / /
d e t e r m i n e cp o f g a s numbers 3 , 4 and 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y a t t a v
[ t 2 , t 2 d i f f ] = a d i a b a t i c ( m r e a c t , c p r e a c t , mproduct , c p p r o d u c t ,
t 0 , t 1 , t 2 , dho ) ; / / c a l c u l a t e new p r o d u c t t e m p t
count = count + 1; / / increment counter
r e s u l t ( count , 1 : 7 ) = [ count t 2 o l d t2 t 2 d i f f cpproduct ( 1 , 1 : 3 )
] ; / / arrange data in a t a b l e
end
/ / Save t h e r e s u l t o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n a f i l e
m y f i l e n a m e = " a d i a b a t i c temph e p t a n e . s c e "
mydirh = g e t _ a b s o l u t e _ f i l e _ p a t h ( myfilename ) ; / / g e t f u l l p a t h f o r
this file
m y f i l e = basename ( m y f i l e n a m e ) + " r e s u l t . t e x " ; / / f i l e n a m e f o r
saving r e s u l t
d a t a = s t r i n g 2 l a t e x ( mydirh , m y f i l e , s t r i n g ( r e s u l t ) ) ; / / s a v e
r e s u l t s i n a LaTeX f i l e
This required nine (9) iterations to complete. The results at the end of each iteration is shown in
table 5.13.
Iteration
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Table 5.13: Results of calculations using SCILAB code in listing 5.2

T2 T2old
T2old
T2
cpCO2
cpO2
cpH2O
T2old
1000 2637.9066 1.6379066
1.036
2.075
1.1035
2637.9066 2307.1605 0.1253821 1.3162952 2.5808742 1.2355794
2307.1605 2355.5472 0.0209724 1.2872124 2.4773735 1.2113437
2355.5472 2348.3234 0.0030667 1.2914671 2.4925152 1.2148892
2348.3234 2349.3987 0.0004579 1.2908319 2.4902547 1.2143599
2349.3987 2349.2386 0.0000682 1.2909264 2.4905911 1.2144387
2349.2386 2349.2624 0.0000101 1.2909124
2.490541 1.214427
2349.2624 2349.2589 0.0000015 1.2909145 2.4905485 1.2144287
2349.2589 2349.2594 0.0000002 1.2909141 2.4905474 1.2144285
The solution may also be undertaken in the following alternative manner which is more suitable
for computer programming. First, we note that the general linear interpolation formular is given
72 of 88
by
y2 y1
y y1
=
x x1
x2 x1
(5.44)
Hence, we have
x x1
(y2 y1 )
(5.45)
x2 x1
The values of the specific heats for comman gases are given in table 5.14. Now, expanding equay = y1 +
Table 5.14: Specific heats of common gases

Gas
298 K 1580 K
O2
0.917
0.917
N2
1.040
1.252
CO2
0.838
1.336
H2 Ovap 1.862
2.651
tion (5.43), we have
X
mi cpi (T To ) + Ho +
mi cpi (To T1 ) = 0
Hence, we have
(T To )
mi cpi + Ho + (To T1 )
mi cpi = 0
This yields
P
Ho + (To T1 ) R mi cpi
P
T = To
P mi cpi
(5.46)
Now,
(To T1 )
mi cpi 1758 kJ
(5.47)
Ho = 44560 kJ/kg
X
mi cpi = mCO2 cp(CO2 ) + mH2 O cp(H2 O) + mN2 cp(N2 )
= 3.08cp(CO2 ) + 1.44cp(HO ) + 11.59cp(N2 )
(5.48)
(5.49)
From table 5.14 and the interpolation formular, we have

Tav x1
(1.336 0.838)
x2 x1
Tav x1
= 1.862 +
(2.651 1.862)
x2 x1
Tav x1
= 1.04 +
(1.252 1.04)
x2 x1
cp(CO2 ) = 0.838 +
(5.50)
cp(H2 O)
(5.51)
cp(N2 )
(5.52)
Also,
Tav = (T + To )/2
73 of 88
(5.53)
We also note that

x1 = 298
x2 = 1580
To = 298
(5.54)
(5.55)
(5.56)
Equations (5.46) to (5.56) contain ten (10) variables which can be solved simultaneously using an
iteration technique. Alternatively, we can utilise the approach in example 5.7 below.
Example 5.7 For the charcoal in example 5.2, determine the adiabatic combustion temperature
assuming complete combustion and no dissociation for a 10% excess air supply. The specific heat
of carbon may be taken as 0.71 kJ/kg. The specific heats of the gases involved in the combustion
process may be taken from tables of thermodynamic properties. The values at 300 and 1000K are
given in table 5.15.
Table 5.15: Specific heats of some gases at 300 and 1000K
T CO2
N2
300
0.84 1.04
1000 1.234 1.167
O2 H2 O
H2
0.918 2.226 16.31
1.090 2.288 14.98
Solution
Since the specific heat is a linear function of temperature of the form
cp = a + bT
we may determine the coefficients a and b from the values at two known temperatures, Ta and Tb .
From the equation of a straight line, we have that
cp = cpa
cpb cpa
cpb cpa
Ta +
T
Tb Ta
Tb Ta
Thus,
cpb cpa
Tb Ta
cpb cpa
a = cpa
Ta = cpa bTa
Tb Ta
b=
Applying this to each of the constituent gases, we have

CO2
1.234 0.846
0.388
=
= 0.0005543
1000 300
700
a = 0.846 0.0005543 300 = 0.6797143
b=
N2
1.167 1.04
= 1.8143 104
700
a = 1.04 b 300 = 0.9856
b=
74 of 88
O2
1.09 0.918
= 2.4571 104
700
a = 0.918 b 300 = 0.8443
b=
H2 O
2.288 2.226
= 8.8571 105
700
a = 2.226 b 300 = 2.1994
b=
Hydrogen
14.98 16.31
= 0.0019
700
a = 16.31 b 300 = 16.8800
b=
The coefficients may be summarized as in table 5.16.

Table 5.16: Coefficients a and b for for example 5.7
Component
a
b
2
(kj/kg K)
(kJ/kg K )
CO2 0.6797143 5.543104
N2
0.9856 1.8143104
O2
0.8443 2.4571104
H2 O
2.1994 8.8571105
H2
16.8800
-0.0019
We now evaluate the parameters A, B, and C in equations (5.37) to (5.39) on pages 68 to 68.
Thus, we have
X
mi bi
A = 0.5
P
= 0.5(mCO2 bCO2 + mH2 O bH2 O + mO2 bO2 + mN2 bN2 )

Since the percentage of excess air is 10%, then x = 0.1. Thus, substituting for x in the third
column of table 5.10, we have
mO2
mN2
mCO2
mH2 O
= 0.2322
= 8.6373
= 3.006652
= 0.279
Substituting, we have A = 0.0017. Similarly, we have

X
B=
m i ai
P
= mCO2 aCO2 + mH2 O aH2 O + mO2 aO2 + mN2 aN2

= 11.1660
75 of 88
Also, we have
C = Ho + Smjr + To Smip
where
Smjr =
mj [aj + 0.5bj (To + T1 )]
Smip =
mi (ai + 0.5bi To )
Now, from the given data, Ho = 29288kJ/kg, To = 25o C = 298K. Expanding the summation,
we have
Smjr = mC cpC
+ mH2 [aH2 + 0.5bH2 (To + T1 )]
+ mO2 [aO2 + 0.5bO2 (To + T1 )]
+ mN2 [aN2 + 0.5bN2 (To + T1 )]
+ mAsh [aAsh + 0.5bAsh (To + T1 )]
Since the data for the ash is not given, we set mAsh = 0 for convenience. Now, for unit mass of the
fuel, we have
mC = 0.82
cpc = 0.71
T1 = 30o C = 303 K
Substituting, we have Smjr = 12.5198. Similarly, expanding the components of the summation
Smip , we have
Smip = mCO2 (aCO2 + 0.5bCO2 To )
+ mH2 O (aH2 O + 0.5bH2 O To )
+ mO2 (aO2 + 0.5bO2 To )
+ mN2 (aN2 + 0.5bN2 To )
= 11.860
Substituting into the expression for C, we have
C = Ho + Smjr To Smip = 3.281 104
Now, let
y=
B 2 4AC
76 of 88
Thus, we have
B 2 4AC = 18.621
B r
= 9.0448 103
T2a =
2A
B + r
T2b =
2A
r=
We select the positive root since T2 must be a positive quantity.

Thus,
T2 = T2b = 2188.3 K = 1915.3o C
The calculations were performed using SCILAB. The code is shown in appendix A.
Example 5.8 A furnace uses charcoal with the ultimate analysis 81% C, 4% hydrogen, 11% oxygen, 0.3% nitrogen and the remainder ash.
1. Write the stoichiometric combustion equation and hence determine the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
2. The fuel is burnt completely at constant pressure with 10% excess air. Determine
(a) the mass of each reactant per unit mass of the fuel (arrange the final results in a tabular
manner)
(b) the mass of each product per unit mass of the fuel (arrange the final results in a tabular
manner)
(c) the actual air/fuel ratio employed
3. It is assumed that the charcoal has a specific heat cp = 0.71kJ/kg K and Ho = 29288kJ/kg
at To = 298K, while the gaseous constituents have the constant specific heats given in table 5.17 .
Table 5.17: Specific heats of some gases
Gas
Specific heat, cp
at 298K at 1580K
O2
0.917
1.09
N2
1.040
1.252
CO2
0.838
1.336
H2 O (vap)
1.862
2.651
(a) Derive an expression to determine the adiabatic combustion temperature of the fuel, T2
using the data in question 2 above.
(b) Calculate the value of T2 in degree kelvin.
Solution
Combustion of charcoal
77 of 88
1. The stoichiometric combustion equation is given by

4
11
0.3
81
C+ H+ O+
N
12
1
16
14
+ 3.7Ash + a(0.21O2 + 0.79N2 )
= bCO2 + dH2 O + eN2 + 3.7Ash
C-balance: b = 81/12 = 6.75
H-balance: 4 = 2d d = 2.
O-balance: 11/16 + 0.42a = 2b + d = (2 81)/12 + 2. Hence
0.42a = (2b + d 11/16)

a = (2b + d 11/16)/0.42
= 35.267857
Mass of fuel = 100kg. Thus, mass of air = a (0.21 32 + 0.79 28) = 1017.125. Hence
air/fuel ratio = 1017.125/100 = 10.17125
2. Combustion with 10% excess air.
(a) With excess air, the quantities of the reactants required per unit mass of fuel are as
tabulated below:
Reactant
C
H
O
N
Ash
Atomic
mass
Amount of substance per 100kg

fuel
12 81/12 = 6.75
1 4
16 (11/16) +0.42 *
1.1a = 16.88
14 (0.3/14) + 0.79a *
2 * 1.1 = 61.3169
1 3.7
Mass Per 100 kg

fuel
Mass per unit mass

fuel
81
4
271.7
0.81
0.04
2.717
858.4375
8.584375
3.7
0.037
(b) The mass of the products per unit mass of the fuel may be determined in a similar
manner as tabulated below:
Product
CO2
H2 O
N2
O2
Ash
Molar mass Amount of substance per 100kg

fuel
44 b = 81/12 = 6.75
18 d = 2
28 e = (0.3/14 + 0.79a
* 2)/2 = 30.656
32 0.1a = 3.52678
1 3.7
Mass Per 100 kg

fuel
Mass per unit mass

fuel
297
36
858.4375
2.97
0.36
8.584375
112.857
3.7
1.12857
0.037
78 of 88
(c) With 10% excess air, the actual air/fuel ratio employed = 1.1stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
= 10.17125 1.1 = 11.188375.
3. Specific heat of charcoal = 0.71 kJ/kgK. Heat of combustion, Ho = 29288kJ/kg at To =
298K. The adiabatic combustion temperature, T, can be calculated from the expression
P
Ho + (To T1 ) R m(i)cp (i)
P
T = To
P m(i)cp (i)
The initial temperature T1 of the reactants is not given. For convenience, we assume T1 = To .
Hence, the equation simplifies to
T = To P
Ho
m(i)cp (i)
(5.57)
Now, cp from the ash is not given. For convenience, we assume it is equal to the cp of
the charcoal and is constant. The specific heats of the other constituents are obtained as
functions of temperature using the linear interpolation formular
cp = cpo + (cpx cpo )
T To
Tx To
(5.58)
where the cpo and cpx are tabulated at To = 298K and Tx = 1580K respectively. Equations
(1) and (2) are solved iteratively until a constant value of T is obtained (ie when 2 consecutive
values of T are the same to within = (T 0 T 0 )/T 104 . The solution after 8 iterations
are as follows:
Iteration No
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
T , Kelvin
1000.00
2363.0736
2106.8919
2150.0736
2142.651
2143.9227
2143.7047
2143.742
The solutions are implemented with the SCILAB script shown in listing 5.3.
Listing 5.3: SCILAB code for solving question 6

/ / Charcoal f i r e d furnace
b = 8 1 / 1 2 ; / / number o f m o l e s o f CO2 i n t h e p r o d u c t s
d = 2 ; / / number o f m o l e s o f H2O i n t h e p r o d u c t s
a = ( 2 b + d 1 1 / 1 6 ) / 0 . 4 2 ; / / number o f m o l e s o f a i r p e r
100 kg o f f u e l
m a i r = a ( 0 . 2 1 32 + 0 . 7 9 2 8 ) ;
r a f = mair / 1 0 0 ; / / a i r / f u e l r a t i o
ex = 0 . 1 ; / / f r a c t i o n o f e x c e s s a i r used
r a f 2 = r a f (1+ e x ) ; / / a c t u a l a i r / f u e l r a t i o e m p l o y e d
79 of 88
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
atomsr = [81/12
4
( 1 1 / 1 6 + 0 . 4 2 a (1+ e x ) )
( 0 . 3 / 1 4 + 0 . 7 9 a (1+ e x ) 2 )
3 . 7 ] ; / / number o f atomm o l e s
o f C , H, O, N & Ash r e s p e c t i v e l y i n t h e r e a c t a n t s
atomicnumber = [12
1
16
14
1 ] ; / / a t o m i c numbers
o f C , H, O, N & A s h r e s p e c t i v e l y
a t o m s r ( : , 2 ) = a t o m i c n u m b e r ; / / a s s i g n t o column 2
a t o m s r ( : , 3 ) = a t o m s r ( : , 1 ) . a t o m s r ( : , 2 ) ; / / mass o f r e a c t a n t
p e r 100 kg o f f u e l
a t o m s r ( : , 4 ) = a t o m s r ( : , 3 ) / 1 0 0 ; / / mass o f r e a c t a n t p e r u n i t
mass o f f u e l
e e = ( 0 . 3 / 1 4 + a (1+ e x ) 0 . 7 9 2 ) / 2 ;
atomsp = [ b
d
ee
e x a
3 . 7 ] ; / / amount o f
s u b s t a n c e f o r CO2 , H2O , N2 , O2 & Ash i n t h e p r o d u c t s
with excess air
p r o d u c t s = [ " co2 "
" h2o "
" n2 "
" o2 "
" ash " ] ; / /
combustion products
cpdata = 10^3[0.838
1 . 3 3 6 ; / / CO2
1.862
2 . 6 5 1 ; / / H2O
1.04
1 . 2 5 2 ; / / N2
0.917
1 . 0 9 ; / / O2
0.71
0 . 7 1 / / Ash
] ; / / s p e c f i c h e a t o f e a c h p r o d u c t a t 298 and
1580 K e l v i n r e s p e c t i v e l y
cptemp = [298
1580]; / / t e m p e r a t u r e s a t which t h e cps are
specified
molarmass = [44
18
28
32
1 ] ; / / m o l a r mass o f
the products
atomsp ( : , 2 ) = molarmass ;
a t o m s p ( : , 3 ) = a t o m s p ( : , 1 ) . a t o m s p ( : , 2 ) ; / / mass o f p r o d u c t s
p e r 100 kg o f f u e l
a t o m s p ( : , 4 ) = a t o m s p ( : , 3 ) / 1 0 0 ; / / mass o f p r o d u c t s p e r u n i t
mass o f f u e l
/ / (C) . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a d i a b a t i c flame t e m p e r a t u r e
f u n c t i o n cp = mycp ( c p d a t a , cptemp , t a v ) / / f u n c t i o n t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t s o f a l l t h e p r o d u c t s a t any
g i v e n temp
[ nrow , n c o l ] = s i z e ( c p d a t a ) ; / / d e t e r m i n e
cp = z e r o s ( nrow , 1 ) ; / / number o f e l e m e n t s
d t t = ( t a v c p t e m p ( 1 ) ) / ( c p t e m p ( 2 ) c p t e m p ( 1 ) ) ;
cp = c p d a t a ( : , 1 ) + d t t ( c p d a t a ( : , 2 ) c p d a t a ( : , 1 ) ) ;
/ / s p e c i f i c h e a t a t temp t a v by l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n
endfunction
f u n c t i o n t 2 = mytemp ( t t o , dho , mi , c p i ) / / d e t e r m i n e t h e
a d i a b a t i c f l a m e temp f o r c u r r e n t i t e r a t i o n
/ / t t o = reference temperature
/ / dho = e n t h a l p y o f c o m b u s t i o n i n J o u l e s / kg
80 of 88
5.8. DISSOCIATION
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
5.8
/ / mi = mass o f e a c h p r o d u c t p e r u n i t mass o f t h e f u e l
/ / c p i = s p e c f i c h e a t o f each p r o d u c t a t t h e c u r r e n t
temperature
t 2 = t t o dho / sum ( mi . c p i ) ;
endfunction
t t o = 298; / / r e f e r e n c e temperature
t 2 = 1 0 0 0 ; / / i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f a d i a b a t i c f l a m e temp
t o l = 110^( 4) ; / / t o l e r a n c e
t2x = [ t2 ]; / / i n i t i a l i s e
change = 1000;
dho = 29288 1 0 ^ 3 ; / / e n t h a l p y o f c o m b u s t i o n i n J o u l e s p e r
kg
w h i l e ( c h a n g e >= t o l ) / / c o n t i n u e w h i l e t h e c h a n g e i s g r e a t e r
than t o l e r a n c e
tav = ( t2 + t t o ) /2;
c p i = mycp ( c p d a t a , cptemp , t a v ) ; / / c a l c u l a t e t h e cp f o r
c u r r e n t a v e r a g e temp
t 2 = mytemp ( t t o , dho , a t o m s p ( : , 4 ) , c p i ) ; / / new e s t i m a t e
o f temp
c h a n g e = a b s ( ( t 2 t 2 x ( $ ) ) / t 2 x ( $ ) ) ; / / d e t e r m i n e f r a c t i o n a l
c h a n g e i n a d i a b a t i c f l a m e temp
t 2 x ( $ +1) = t 2 ; / / add t o t h e m a t r i x o f p r e v i o u s l y
c a l c u l a t e d temps
end
disp ( t2x ) ; / / display the calculated values
Dissociation
Consider the reaction

1
CO + O2 CO2
2
If this reaction proceeds to the right, it is accompanied by a release of energy. At high temperature,
however, some of the CO2 molecules may receive sufficient energy in collision to split into their
constituents, namely
1
CO2 CO + O2
2
The two reactions may be represented by the equation
1
CO + O2
CO2
(5.59)
2
The forward reaction is exothermic, while the reverse reaction is endothermic. At any given temperature and pressure, the proportions of CO2 , CO and O2 will be such that both reactions will
proceed at the same rate. This implies that the number of CO2 molecules being formed is equal to
the number dissociating. This is thus a state of dynamic equilibrium.
81 of 88
5.8. DISSOCIATION
The same situation applies to several other reactions as depicted by the following equations
1
H2 + O2
H2 O
2
1
H2 + OH
H2 O
2
1
1
N2 + O2
N O
2
2
(5.60)
(5.61)
(5.62)
In general, we may have a reversible reaction of the form

aA + bB
cC + dD
(5.63)
where a, b, c, and d are the number of moles of the constituent molecules A, B, C, and D respectively. It can be shown that, as a consequence of the second law, the proportions of the constituents
A, B, C, and D must be such that the partial pressures PA , PB , PC , and PD are related by the
expression
PCc PDd
=K
PAa PBb
(5.64)
where K is a constant. It is called the equilibrium or dissociation constant, and is dependent

only on the temperature of the reaction. It may be found experimentally for any given reaction
at various temperatures. It is not dimensionless, hence the actual values depend upon the units of
pressure used and the way the reaction equation is written. Hence the equilibrium constants for the
reaction of hydrogen and oxygen will have different numerical values if the reaction is written in
the following ways:
PH2 2 O
PH2 2 PO2
PH 2 O
K=
PH2 PO0.5
2
2H2 + O2
2H2 O
K=
1
H2 + O2
H2 O
2
(5.65)
(5.66)
For this reason, the unit of pressure and the form of equilibrium equation adopted must be specified
when giving values of equilibrium constant.
The equilibrium constant K is a measure of the level of dissociation in a given reaction, with a
high value indicating that the mixture contains a large proportion of the undissociated product.
Example 5.9 The products from the combustion of a stoichiometric mixture of CO and O2 are at
a pressure of 1 atm and a certain temperature. The exhaust gas analysis shows that 35% of the
CO2 is dissociated. Determine the equilibrium constant for this temperature and hence find out
the percentage dissociation when the products are at the same temperature but compressed to 10
atmospheres.
Solution
The combustion equation for the reaction is
1
a
CO + O2 (1 a)CO2 + aCO + O2
2
2
82 of 88
5.8. DISSOCIATION
where (a=0.35) is the fraction of CO2 dissociated. Thus, the equation may be rewritten as
1
CO + O2 0.65CO2 + 0.35CO + 0.175O2
2
The total amount of the products is therefore n = 1.175 kmoles, hence the partial pressures are
nCO2
P = 0.65/1.175 = 0.553atm
n
nCO
PCO =
P = 0.35/1.175 = 0.298atm
n
nO
PO2 = 2 P = 0.175/1.175 = 0.149atm
n
PCO2 =
Using the equilibrium equation

1
CO + O2
CO2
2
the equilibrium constant is given as
K=
0.553
PCO2
= 4.81atm0.5
=
0.5
PCO PO2
0.298(0.149)0.5
At any pressure P, the partial pressures will be given by

1a
P
1 + a/2
a
P
=
1 + a/2
a/2
=
P
1 + a/2
PCO2 =
PCO
PO2
The equilibrium constant then becomes

K=
a
1+a/2
1a
1+a/2

a/2
1+a/2
0.5
P
= 4.81
P P 0.5
Since the temperature is the same, then if P=10, we have

(1 a)(2 + a)0.5 1
4.81 =
a1.5
100.5
Squaring and simplifying, this yields
4.812 a3 10 = (1 a)2 (2 + a)0.52
= (1 2a + a2 )(2 + a)
= 2 4a + 2a2 + a 2a2 + a3
(10 4.812 1) = 2 3a
230.361a3 = 2 3a
83 of 88
(5.67)
5.8. DISSOCIATION
This may be solved graphically by calculating the values of the function

f (a) = 230.361a3 + 3a 2
from say 0.0 to 1.0 and plotting the graph of f (a) vs a. The intercept on the horizontal axis is the
value of a. As shown in figure 5.2, the data was plotted for a between 0.1 and 0.2. From th figure,
f a = 0 at a = 0.185. Hence, 18.5% of the CO2 is dissociated at 10 atmosphers.
Figure 5.2: Figure for solution of example 5.9

Alternatively, one may use the function roots in SCILAB or MATLAB software to solve the problem
directly. In that case, the following simple code is used:
cc = [230.361 0 3 -2];//set up the matirx of coefficients for a cubic polynomial
dd = roots(cc);//call the function roots to determine all the roots
Execution of the code results in the following output.
0.18449
0.092245 + 0.1963427 i
0.092245 0.1963427 i
The only positive root is 0.18449, The two imaginery roots are not useful for the present exercise.
It may be seen from the foregoing that although the equilibrium constant is independent of pressure, the actual fraction of the dissociated product may vary with pressure. From equation (5.67), it
can be seen that the effect of pressure vanishes only when the number of moles of the dissociating
compound and of the dissociated constituent are equal.
84 of 88
Appendix A
Computer Progammes
TO BE INCLUDED
A.1
SCILAB Functions
Listing A.1: Programme to solve a combustion problem and determine the adiabatic flame temperature
/ / Q u e s t i o n on c o m b u s t i o n o f f u e l made up o f 20% CO2 and 80% CO
2 tempdata = [298
1000
1580]; / / temperatures in degree
Kelvin
cpdata = [0.917
1.09
1 . 1 5 1 ; / / d a t a f o r O2
4
1.04
1.167
1 . 2 5 2 ; / / d a t a f o r N2
0.838
1.234
1 . 3 3 6 ; / / d a t a f o r CO2
6
1.04
1.185
1 . 2 5 7 ; / / d a t a f o r CO
]
8 g a s l i s t
= [ O2
N2
CO2
CO ] ; / / names o f g a s e s i n
the table
/ / cpout = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( g a s l i s t , g a s l i s t , 500 , cpdata )
10 / / p a u s e ;
q5a = 0 . 8 / 0 . 4 2 ; / / number o f m o l e s o f a i r p e r mole o f f u e l
12 q5b =
1 . 0 ; / / number o f m o l e s o f CO2 p e r mole o f f u e l
m o l a r m a s s = [ 4 4 28
2 8 ] ; / / m o l a r mass o f CO2 , CO and N2
respectively
14 m o l e s =
[ q5b
q5a
0 . 5 . 7 9 ] ; / / number o f m o l e s o f CO2 , CO
and N2 p e r mole o f f u e l r e s p e c t i v e l y
mass = m o l a r m a s s . m o l e s ; / / mass o f c o m p o n e n t p e r mole o f f u e l
16 r e a c t m o l e = [ 0 . 2
0.8
0 . 2 1 q5a
0 . 7 9 q5a ] ; / / mole o f
r e a c t a n t s p e r mole o f m i x t u r e
reactmolarmass = [44
28
32
2 8 ] ; / / m o l a r mass o f
r e a c t a n t s ( CO2 , CO, O2 and N2 r e s p e c t i v e l y )
18 m a s s f u e l
= sum ( r e a c t m o l e ( 1 : 2 , 1 ) . r e a c t m o l a r m a s s ( 1 : 2 , 1 ) ) ; / /
mass o f one mole o f f u e l
r e a c t a n t l i s t = [ "CO2" "CO" "O2" "N2" ] ; / / l i s t o f r e a c t a n t s
85
A.1. SCILAB FUNCTIONS
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
APPENDIX A. COMPUTER PROGAMMES
r e a c t m a s s = r e a c t m o l a r m a s s . r e a c t m o l e ; / / mass o f r e a c t a n t p e r
mole o f m i x t u r e
r e a c t m a s s p e r u n i t = r e a c t m a s s / m a s s f u e l ; / / mass o f r e c a t a n t p e r
u n i t mass o f f u e l
m a s s a i r = sum ( r e a c t m a s s ( 3 : 4 , 1 ) ) ; / / t o t a l mass o f a i r p e r mole o f
fuel
a i r f u e l r a t i o = massair / massfuel ; / / air / f u e l ratio
p r o d u c t = [ CO2
N2 ] ; / / Gases i n t h e p r o d u c t
p r o d u c t m o l e = [ 1 0 . 7 9 q5a ] ; / / number o f m o l e s o f p r o d u c t p e r
mole o f f u e l
p r o d u c t v o l a n a l = p r o d u c t m o l e 1 0 0 / sum ( p r o d u c t m o l e ) ; / / p r o d u c t
volumetric analysis
p r o d u c t m o l a r m a s s = [ 4 4 2 8 ] ; / / m o l a r mass o f CO2 and N2
respectivley
p r o d u c t m a s s = p r o d u c t m o l a r m a s s . p r o d u c t m o l e ; / / mass o f p r o d u c t
p e r mole o f f u e l
p r o d u c t m a s s u n i t = p r o d u c t m a s s / m a s s f u e l ; / / mass o f p r o d u c t p e r
u n i t mass o f f u e l
p r o d u c t g r a v a n a l = 100 p r o d u c t m a s s u n i t / sum ( p r o d u c t m a s s u n i t ) ; / /
p e r c e n t a n a l y s i s o f p r o d u c t s p e r u n i t mass o f f u e l
a n a l y s i s d a t = [ productmole productvolanal productmass
pr odu ctm assu nit p r o d u c t g r a v a n a l ] ; / / t a b u l a t i o n of numeric
data for computational ease
p r o d u c t ( $ +1 ) = " T o t a l " ; / / row f o r t o t a l s
a n a l y s i s d a t ( $ + 1 , : ) = sum ( a n a l y s i s d a t , " r " ) ;
34
36
38
40
42
44
t a v 1 = 25 + 2 7 3 ; / / mean temp o f r e a c t a n t s
r e a c t a n t c p = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( g a s l i s t , r e a c t a n t l i s t , tav1 ,
cpdata , tempdata ) ;
q5t0 = 298; / /
q5t1 = 298; / / i n i t i a l temperature of r e a c t a n t s
reactantmicpi = reactmassperunit . reactantcp ;
r e a c t m i c p i = ( q 5 t 0 q 5 t 1 ) sum ( r e a c t a n t m i c p i ) ;
/ / Now , d e t e r m i n e t h e a d i a b a t i c f l a m e t e m p e r a t u r e s by
iteration
/ / I t e r a t i o n number 1
t f l a m e = 1 0 0 0 ; / / i n i t i a l assumed f l a m e temp
dho = 10107; / / E n t h a l p y o f c o m b u s t i o n o f CO a t 25 oC
[ tflame , i t e r , t a v i t e r , c p i t e r , m i c p i t e r ]= flametemp ( tflame ,
q5t0 , g a s l i s t , p r o d u c t ( 1 : 2 ) , cpdata , tempdata , p r o d u c t m a s s u n i t ,
r e a c t m i c p i , dho ) / / f u n c t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e a d i a b a t i c f l a m e
temperature . A l l temps are in degree Kelvin
Listing A.2: Function to determine specific heat by interpolation from tabulated data
f u n c t i o n [ c p o u t ] = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( g a s l i s t , gasname , t a v , c p d a t a ,
tempdata ) / / f u n c t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e cpdata from t a b l e
/ / g a s l i s t = f u l l l i s t o f gases f o r which data i s s p e c i f i e d
86 of 88
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20
22
10
/ / gasname = p a r t i a l l i s t o f g a s e s f o r w h i c h t h e cp i s
c u r r e n t l y needed
/ / c p d a t a = cp o f e a c h g a s a t d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s
/ / t e m p d a t a = t e m p e r a t u r e s a t w h i c h t h e cp v a l u e s a r e
tabulated
/ / t a v = t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h t h e cp v a l u e s a r e n e e d e d
[ mrow , mcol ] = s i z e ( c p d a t a ) ;
/ / s o r t data i n order o f gas s p e c i f i e d
[ grow , g c o l ] = s i z e ( gasname ) ;
c p d a t a n e w = z e r o s ( 1 , mcol ) ;
cpout = zeros ( gcol , 1 )
g a s l i s t = c o n v s t r ( g a s l i s t , U ) ; / / c o n v e r t t o u p p e r c a s e
gasname = c o n v s t r ( gasname , U ) ; / / c o n v e r t t o u p p e r c a s e
i i = 0; / / i n i t i a l i s e
for i = 1: gcol
k = f i n d ( g a s l i s t == gasname ( i ) , 1 )
i f (~ isempty ( k ) ) then
i i = i i + 1; / / update
cpout ( ii , 1 ) = interpln ( [ tempdata ; cpdata ( k , : ) ] , tav ) ;
/ / cp f o r t h e c u r r e n t g a s a t t e m p e r a t u r e t a v
/ / c p d a t a n e w ( i i , 1 : mcol ) = c p d a t a ( k , 1 : mcol ) ;
end
end
endfunction
Listing A.3: Function to calculate adiabatic flame temperature
f u n c t i o n [ t f l a m e o l d , i t e r , t a v i t e r , cpi , micpi ]= flametemp ( t i n i t
, n a m e a l l , n a m e r e a c t , nameprod , c p d a t a , t e m p d a t a , m a s s r e a c t ,
massprod , dho ) / / f u n c t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e a d i a b a t i c f l a m e
temperature . A l l temps are in degree Kelvin
/ / t i n i t = i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e v e c t o r , made up o f r e a c t a n t
i n i t i a l temp , r e a c t i o n r e f e r e n c e temp , and i n i t i a l
e s t i m a t e o f f l a m e temp
/ / n a m e a l l = l i s t o f a l l r e a c t a n t s and p r o d u c t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e
reaction
/ / namereact = l i s t of a l l r e a c t a n t s
/ / nameprod = l i s t o f a l l p r o d u c t s
/ / c p d a t a s p e c i f i c h e a t s o f a l l r e a c t a n t s and p r o d u c t s a r r a n g e d
i n t h e same o r d e r a s l i s t o f r e a c t a n t s , w i t h e a c h row g i v i n g
the s p e c i f i c heat values at the nodal temperatures in
tempdata
/ / tempdata = v e c t o r o f nodal t e m p e r a t u r e s a t which t h e cpdata
are t a b u l a t e d
/ / m a s s r e a c t = v e c t o r o f mass r e a c t a n t s p e r u n i t mass o f f u e l
/ / m a s s p r o d = v e c t o r o f mass o f p r o d u c t s p e r u n i t mass o f f u e l
/ / dho = h e a t o f c o m b u s t i o n o f f u e l p e r u n i t mass
t r e a c t = t i n i t (1) ; / / i n i t i a l temperature of reactants
87 of 88
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t z e r o = t i n i t (2) ; / / reference temperature of the combustion

reaction
t a v = mean ( [ t r e a c t t z e r o ] ) ; / / c o m p u t e mean temp o f r e a c t i o n
i f ( t r e a c t == t z e r o ) t h e n
reactmicpi = 0;
else
cpr = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( nameall , namereact , tav , cpdata , tempdata )
; / / d e t e r m i n e s p e c f i c h e a t o f e a c h r e a c t a n t a t t h e mean
r e a c t i o n temp
r e a c t m i c p i = sum ( m a s s r e a c t . c p r ) ; / / sum o f p r o d u c t o f mass
o f r e a c t a n t p e r u n i t mass o f f u e l and r e a c t a n t s p e c i f i c
heat
end
tflame = t i n i t (3) ; / / i n i t i a l estimate of the flame temperature
i t e r = 1; / / i n i t i a l i s e
t o l = 10^( 6) ; / / u s e a s t o l e r a n c e
tflameold (1 ,1) = tflame ;
tcomp = 1 ;
[ mrow , mcol ] = s i z e ( m a s s p r o d ) ; / / d e t e r m i n e d i m e n s i o n s
m i c p i = z e r o s ( mrow , 1 ) ; / /
c p i = z e r o s ( mrow , 1 ) ;
t a v i t e r = z e r o s ( mrow , 1 ) ;
w h i l e ( tcomp >= t o l ) / / c o n t i n u e u n t i l t o l e r a n c e i s r e a c h e d
tav = ( tzero + tflame ) / 2 . 0 ;
c p o u t = s p e c i f i c h e a t ( n a m e a l l , nameprod , t a v , c p d a t a ,
tempdata ) ;
micpix = massprod . cpout ; / / product o f s p e c i f i c heat
and mass p e r u n i t mass o f f u e l f o r c u r r e n t i t e r a t i o n
m i c p i t o t = sum ( m i c p i x ) ;
t f l a m e = t z e r o ( dho + r e a c t m i c p i ) / m i c p i t o t ;
told2 = tflameold ( iter ,1) ;
tcomp = abs ( ( t f l a m e t o l d 2 ) / t o l d 2 ) ;
cpi ( : , i t e r ) = cpout ( : , 1 ) ; / / s p e c i f i c heats at current
iteration
m i c p i ( : , i t e r ) = m i c p i x ; / / p r o d u c t o f s p e c i f i c h e a t and
mass p e r u n i t mass o f f u e l f o r c u r r e n t i t e r a t i o n
t a v i t e r ( i t e r , 1 ) = t a v ; / / a v e r a g e temp f o r c u r r e n t
iteration
i t e r = i t e r + 1;
tflameold ( i t e r , 1) = tflame ;
end
endfunction
88 of 88

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, NIGERIA

lecture notes on ME 461 Applied Thermodynamics

FREE NOT TO BE SOLD

GAS TURBINE PLANT

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

Performance data for a two-stroke engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Representative dry ultimate analysis of Coals . . . . . . . .

Simple reciprocating compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Roots Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Basic gas turbine cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The spark-ignition (SI) engine . . . . . . .

Performance curve for a two-stroke engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

Basic thermodynamic analysis

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Figure 1.1: Simple reciprocating compressor

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

But, for a perfect gas,

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Minimising the compressor power

Figure 1.3: Indicator diagram showing possible compression processes

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Figure 1.4: Isentropic, polytropic and isothermal processes on a T-s diagram

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.2. EFFECT OF CLEARANCE VOLUMECHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

W = P2 Vb1 log(P2 /P1 )

Effect of Clearance Volume

Figure 1.5: Effect of clearance volume on ideal indicator diagram

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

where the mass induced mi = ma md .

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Figure 1.7: Indicator diagram for two-stage compressor

Figure 1.8: Schematic diagram of a two-stage compressor with intercooling

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Figure 1.9: Intercooler between compressor stages

Differentiating with respect to Pi and setting the result to zero, we have

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

1.013 105 2.4

Single stage compression

Now, swept volume = Vs = Va Vc = Va xVs , hence Va = (1 + x)Vs .

Or, Vs = 3.43294 103 /0.853838 = 4.02 103 m3 .

Lecture Notes on ME 461 by Prof S O Enibe, revised 17/10/2016

1.3. MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS