Acetyl Coenzyme A - A small molecule that carries acetyl functional groups in cells.

Composed of an acetyl group attached to a coenzyme A molecule. The starting product

of the citric acid cycle.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - The molecule from which cells derive energy.
Comprised of an adenosine molecule bonded to three phosphates, each phosphate bond
contains energy, especially the third bond. By breaking that one bond and reducing ATP
to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), the cell can get the energy to carry out its various
processes.

Aerobic respiration - A metabolic process involving oxygen in the breakdown of

glucose.

Anabolic - Term describing enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell that involves the

synthesis of complex molecules out of simpler subunits and which uses energy.

Anaerobic respiration - A metabolic process that does not involve oxygen in the
breakdown of glucose.

Carbohydrate - A molecular compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Subunits are sugars.

Catabolic - Term describing enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell that involve the

degradation of molecules into more simple subunits with the release of energy.

Chemotroph - An organism that derives its energy from the ingestion of food molecules.

Citric acid cycle - Also known as the Krebs Cycle; a metabolic pathway found in aerobic
organisms that oxidizes acetyl coA groups to carbon dioxide and water.

Coenzyme - A molecule that participates in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction and functions

to transfer atoms or electrons between itself and various molecules.

Elimination reaction - A reaction that involves the ejection of a specific group from a
molecule, often resulting in the formation of a carbon-carbon double bond.

Glycolysis - A metabolic pathway occurring in the cell *cytosol that during a series of
reactions converts glucose to pyruvate and synthesizes ATP**.

Isomerization - A reaction that does not change the atomic make-up of a molecule, but
rather changes its geometric conformation, yielding a slightly different molecule.

Lipid - An organic molecule that is insoluble in water. A main component of cell

membranes.

Metabolism - All the reactions occurring in an organism that participate in the acquisition
or conversion of energy for use in the organism.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide - A coenzyme that participates in oxidation and

reduction reactions. An important electron carrier in oxidative phosphorylation.

Oxidation - A reaction that involves the overall loss of electrons from a specific molecule
or atom. Can occur with the addition of an oxygen or by the removal of a hydrogen.

Oxidative phosphorylation - A process occurring in the mitochondria that results in the

formation of ATP from the flow of electrons to oxygen.

Photosynthesis - A process in which plants convert sunlight into energy sources that
can be used inside the cell to sustain life.

Phototroph - Organisms that obtain energy from sun light through photosynthesis.

Protein - An essential molecule found in all cells. Composed of amino acid subunits.

Reduction - A reaction that results in the overall gain of electrons to a specific molecule
or atom. Can occur with the addition of a hydrogen atom or by the removal of an oxygen
atom.

Respiration - A process that occurs in cells in which cells breakdown food molecules to
yield ATP. Can be either aerobic or anaerobic.

Why study the structure of

mitochondria ?

The many functions of mitochondria include

production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via
the TCA Cycle (which is also as the Krebs Cycle
and the Citric Acid Cycle). That process is an
important metabolic pathway that is an essential
part of carbohydrate and energy metabolism see also what is metabolism.
Read more about the functions of mitochondria.

Structure of Mitochondria
Remember: Mitochondriais the plural word, e.g. some eukaryotic cells contain many mitochondria. The single word is
mitochondrion e.g. a single mitochondrion is too small to be seen using the ahuman eye - but can be studied using an
electron microscope. This page could equally be entitled "Structure of a Mitochondrion".

Mitochondria are present in all eukaryotic cells - including all animal cells and plant cells.
However the number of mitochondria in each cell varies enormously - from just one
mitochondrion up to 10,000 mitochondria in some specialized types of cells. A "typical"
number of mitochondria per cell is around 200 - but of course many diagrams of cells only
show a small number to represent the presence of at least one mitochondrion in the cell.
Mitochondria have an ellipsoid, that is "oval-shaped" or "rounded rod-like" shape. Some
books describe them as "cigar-shaped". Mitochondria are continually active. They move and
can change their exact shape. The following diagram of a mitochondrion is a very simple twodimensional representation of the main parts and contents of a mitochondrion - intended to
support introductory courses e.g. A-Level Biology.

Diagram of the Structure of Mitochondria (or the structure of a mitochondrion)

List of parts of a mitochondrion:

Outer membrane of mitochondrion

Inner membrane of mitochondrion
also called the
"Innermitochondrial membrane"
Cristae
F1F0 ATPases (also called F1F0ATPases)
Intermembrane space
Matrix of the mitochondrion
Mitochondrial DNA (circular DNA)
Matrix granules
Ribosomes

General Description of the Structure of a Mitochondrion

Mitochondria are organelles that have a double membrane structure. The outer membrane
defines the external shape of the mitochondrion. The inner membrane has many folds called
cristae. (Cristae is the plural word for more than one crista.) The volume between the inner

and outer membranes is called the intermembrane space, which is sometimes written "inter
membrane space". The volume enclosed by the inner membrane is called the "matrix" or, if
written in full, the matrix of the mitochondrion.
The matrix of each mitochondrion contains the enzymes of the TCA cycle, which is also
known more fully as the tricarboxylic acid cycle - and also as the citric acid cycle, the Krebs
cycle, and the Szent-GyrgyiKrebs cycle. The matrix also contains other structures and
molecules including ribosomes, matrix granules and mitochondrial DNA.

Table of notes about the parts and contents of a mitochondrion

1. Outer
Membrane

The outer membrane of mitochondria (OMM) is permeable to

oxygen, pyruvate, ATP and other molecules.
Thickness: The thickness of the outer layer is approx 40,
i.e. 40 ngstrm = 40 x 10-10m = 4 nm = 0.000004 mm
If these units are unfamiliar see the page about scientific numbers.

2. Inner
Membrane

The inner membrane of a mitochondrion is also known as the

innermitochondrial membrane (IMM). It has many invaginations
called cristae (see 4., below). The sections of the inner membrane
that form cristae are covered with many tiny "stalked particles" called
inner membrane spheres whose head, i.e. the "sphere" part, is on
the matrix side of the inner membrane - as opposed to the
intermembrane space side of the inner membrane - further
description continues in (4.) below.
Many of the chemical reactions that take place within mitochondria
occur on the inner membrane. It contains the electron transport
system and the ATPase complex:

Electron transport system - generates a proton gradient.

ATPase complex - uses proton gradient to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

Hence the inner mitochondrial membrane is the site of oxidative

phosphorylation.
Thickness: The thickness of the inner layer is about the same as that
of the outer layer, so approx 40, i.e. 40 ngstrm = 40 x 10-10m = 4
nm = 0.000004 mm.

(So, one could fit 250,000 x 40 such membranes along a line 1mm
long, or 2.5 million such membranes along a 1 cm line !)
3. Intermembrane
Space

The space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes is

called the intermembrane space (O cavity). It has a high proton
concentration. This is due to the electron transport system of the
inner mitochondrial membrane.
Width / Thickness: The space between the inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes is approx 70, i.e. 70 ngstrm.

4. Cristae, plural
(The singular
term is crista.)

Cristae are folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane. The quantity

and shape of the cristae may vary. For example, although the shape of
cristae within mitochondria is often either flat or tubular, in some
cases (e.g. in certain nerve cells) cristae take the form of prisms while
in other cases (e.g. in some photoreceptor cone cells) they have a
whorl-like shape.
Stalked Particles called inner-membrane spheres:
As mentioned in (2.) above, cristae are covered with many tiny
"stalked particles" called inner membrane spheres that are also
known as simply "spheres" or "knobs".

Their "heads", i.e. the "sphere"

part, are on the matrix side of the
inner membrane - as opposed to
on the intermembrane space
side of the inner membrane.
Each stalked particle has
o a "head" or "sphere"
diameter of 8-9 nm (so,
approximately 8.5 x 109
m)
o a stalk 30-35 (approx
3.25 x 10-9m) wide and
45-50 (approx 4.75 x 109
m) long.
They contain a protein called F1
which is often written "F1", that is
with the "1" written as a subscript
and an F0 portion, as shown.

The above diagram is not drawn to

scale.

The inner-membrane spheres play an important role in the

production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in mitochondria - see
[later pages] for further details.
5. Mitochondrial

Matrix
a. Enzymes

The mitochondrial matrix contains a highly-concentrated mixture of

hundreds of enzymes. These include most of the enzymes that
participate in the TCA Cycle - which is also known as the "Krebs
Cycle", among other names. The TCA Cycle occurs in the
mitochondrial matrix.
(The only enzyme involved in the TCA Cycle that is not free in the
mitochondrial matrix is succinate dehydrogenase - which is located
on the inner-surface of the innermitochondrial membrane.)

b. Ribosomes

The ribosomes in mitochondria are of 70S type - as found in

prokaryotic cells (bacteria), as opposed to the 80S type present in
many plant and animal cells. They can synthesize proteins.

c. Mitochondrial Mitochondria have their own genetic material and the facility to
DNA
produce their own ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and proteins. All of
themitochondrial DNA is maternal. Mitochondrial DNA carries
genes necessary for the synthesis of many, but not all, mitochondrial
proteins.

Q1.
The diagram below summarises some of the reactions in aerobic respiration.

(a) Name the process that produces pyruvic acid.

(1)
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(b) Place a cross

in the box that correctly identifies each of the following.

(i) The waste product V

(1)
A ATP
B Carbon dioxide
C Lactic acid
D Water
(ii) The molecule T that becomes reduced during the process
(1)
A ADP
B Oxygen
C NAD
D Water
(c) An investigation was carried out into the ability of bacteria to use different
substances as substrates for aerobic respiration.
Cultures of bacteria were grown separately in media containing lactic acid or
one of the substances shown in the diagram (pyruvic acid, molecule B or
molecule C). The initial concentration of each of these substances in the
media was the same. The oxygen uptake of each culture was measured over a
period of time.

The results are shown in the graph below.

(i) Using the information in the diagram and the graph, suggest an
explanation for the differences in oxygen uptake between bacteria using
pyruvic acid, molecule B and molecule C as a substrate.
(4)
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(ii) Suggest one reason for the rapid oxygen uptake by bacteria in a medium
containing lactic acid. Give an explanation for your answer.
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(Total for question = 9 marks)

Q2.
Respiration is a metabolic process which consists of many steps.
(a) The diagram below shows a metabolic process consisting of three steps.
Each letter represents a different substance and each number a different
enzyme.

Describe and explain the functions of enzymes in this metabolic process.

(4)
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(b) The diagram below shows the electron transport chain, which is part of
aerobic respiration.

(i) Using the information in the diagram, name substance W and explain
how it is formed.
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(ii) Name substance X.
Explain the link between the formation of substance X and the H+ shown on
the diagram.
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(c) The diagram below shows a respirometer used to measure the rate of
aerobic respiration in small organisms.

Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide.

The table below describes three different situations.
Place a cross in the box that correctly shows the movement of the coloured
liquid in the U-shaped tube for each situation.
(3)

(Total for Question = 13 marks)