Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 15 (1983) 317--327

317

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

MINIMUM INDUCED LOSS WINDMILLS AND PROPELLERS

E. Eugene Larrabee and Susan E. French

Department of Aero- and Astronautics,

M.I.T., Cambridge, ~

SUMMARY
Horizontal axis wind turbines can be designed advantageously to utilize iminimum induced loss radial loading, exactly inverse to that of high efficiency airplane propellers, as described by Betz, Prandtl, (1919) and Goldstein (1929).
Benefits include reduced tower load and increased wind energy for windmills
downstres~a in an array.
At M.I.T. the authors have developed a rotor design and
analysis code, HELICE, which exploits analytic simplifications possible with
near minimum induced loss loading.
Earlier versions have been used to design
propellers for human powered airplanes (1979) and windmills (1980).
Algorithms
and exmples are given.

i. ~ N I M U M

INDUCED LOSS WINGS AND ROTORS; BACKGROUND

The idea of "minimum induced loss" comes from Prandtl and his circle at Goettingen who noted the analogy between the magnetic
conductors
tices,

field induced by an array of

and the velocity field of a geometrically

both described by the Biot-Savart

law.

similar array of line vor-

By 1916 they had discovered that

a spanwise elliptic distribution of lift (and bound vorticity) led to a spanwise

uniform

"downwash"

the wing velocity

Betz

of the trailing

vortex

field for a specified

dition"

by Betz himself),

for

minimize
thrust,
post

and r~nimum

kinetic

energy

of

By 1919

[i] had established a similar rule for the motion of the helicoidal trail-

ing vortex sheets shed by a propeller

tion

sheet

lift, wing span, and airspeed.

the

corresponding

the

kinetic

propeller

doctoral

fellow

1929 brought
Glauert

radial

energy

diameter,

theory of propellers,

at

(unfortunately called the "rigid wake con-

and Prandtl had devised an appropriate analytic solu-

of

shaft

distribution
a

propeller

of bound vorticity
velocity

speed, airspeed,

Goettingen,

and publication

Sydney

field

for

which
a

would

specified

and nmaloer of blades.

Goldstein

refined the

As a

Betz-Prandtl

of his paper by the Royal Society

12] in

it to the attention of the English speaking aeronautical colmaunity.

wrote an admirable review of this theory in 1934

[3] short~" before his

untimely death.
In

1969

I began examining the theory to develop

and analysis techniques

inexpensive propeller

design

for amateur airplane constructors, giving algorithi~

[4]

in 1979 which were used to design propellers of high efficiency for the Goss~aer
Albatross

[5] and Chrysalis

0167-6105/83/$03.00

[6] hmlmn powered airplanes.

1983 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

Under 1~Y direction r~y

318

coauthor
rithms

wroLe

and

purer

using

windmills
feature
air

one

wenl

~%s

the, d e { i s h

turbine"

seer]

adapte]

FOH'fi~AN c o d e {
to a

Fig.

one

~ystem.

pr'ol)eJ!urs~

[.j<iuilmei~t < k r p o F ~ t i o n

tiit~ ~'oLJr.

P)P-ilj [

...-

:: t,-'iN~ r:~iki.~% ~& th~s] iiLb:ii wnlL~!{~ <~<

~ N i d <2~tt %[i~ rL[ni:mr:

St~broLlbiIl~3 w(;aiq

effic'eiK:j' oY

~ sma].L

in

n~.~ed HELl(el w!]i<:h nc:x%~or~t(~, ~ tic;h::

sm(tl.. .~i6qta!

ti~e ii'i;-il ope.r'utind

as

windmills:

several

were

Lhi0rove

[nduce~:

,_::.: _ < i i

L~Kk '![IiVOESC iEi~CL~tff 't )y

he,:ent'~, it ~ s

be,_q u s e d

['or ]'e[searci ~ &~ ]:~,['(;t]<)[i(~ fh:,~~ [<w~L"

'r

k.L

te ::,~k~iS~. ',~n',:~::

]u[ier~t

(,~

L< [ !:i

1.

Fig.
!.
"La M o l i n a H i g l i o r a " ,
a wind~ill
designed
for Robert ~iidiiur~. ~z
a r c h i t e c t in P o r t l a n d , O r e g o n .
It is u s e d ~o c a n c e l d o m e s t i c p o w e r consul~)~o~l
on t h e a v e r a g e .
6.L in di~,leter, r a t e d aL
.46 kW s h a f t p o w e r a~ 2U.~ rpm
1 0 . 7 ms -I w i n d .

The
which

HELICE
w i l l be

rotor

design

described

i)

a reinterpretation

2)

the

essential

but ion

and

analysis

_'ode is

based

on

the

foi~owin o

-u{. ....

in turn:
of

Betz's

correctness

of

rigid wake
Prandtl's

condition;
analytic

radial

circulation

distE'i-

319

3)

the use of simple loading integrals to determmne the slipstream "displacement" velocity and the corresponding rotor geometry,

4)

an approximate algorithm for induced velocities at the rotor lifting lines

consistent with Prandtl's loading from (2) above; and

5)

a si~le

analytic

representation

of blade section aerodynamics

for angles

of attack from -90 to +90

2. BETZ'S RIGID WAKE CONDITION REINTERPRETED

Betz said that helicoidal vortex sheets shed by a minimum induced loss propeller should

move as rigid bodies,

ment"

velocity,

or rotating

gular

velocity.

Actually

themselves.
displacement

If the
velocity

local

about

translating

axially with a certain

the propeller

shaft

axis

"displace-

with a certain an-

trailing vortex sheets move locally perpendicular

helix

angle

is @(Fig.2)

is v', the appearance

and

the

radially

to

constant

of rigid body axial motion will

be

given if the local sheet velocity is v'cos%. Corresponding axial and swirl velocities of the "developed" vortex sheet are v'cos2% and v'cos@sin@,

respec<ively,

inconsistent

rotor

lifting

reinterpreted.

Local

with

rigid body

motion.

Induced

velocities

at the

lines are just half these values, as in wing theory.

inner

outer

t~

/
V I

Fig.2.
Betz's "rigid wake condition" for mini:ama loss
sheet velocity = v'cos@, v' = displacement velocity.

3. PRANDTL'S APPROXImaTE RADIAL CIRCULATION DISTRIBUTION

If the rotor has B blades and is "lightly loaded", the bound circulation

F on

each blade at radius r is given by Stokes' law,

BF = 2~r Vswir I

(i)

where'Vswir I is the average swirl velocity in the developed slipstream at radius

r.

The average

swirl velocity

the vortex sheets given above.

is a fraction F of the local

swirl velocity

Since the rotor is "lightly loaded"

of

320

cos-

x/,F~ z + 1 ;

sin~

i//-~ / + i

Prandtl
fluid

~5)

approximated

entrained

(~)

x ~ nr/V,

by

F with
an

a planar

infinite

flow

array

result

for the average

of semi-infinite

plates

velocity

moving

oY

perpendi-

cular to themselves:

F = average fluid velocity = (2/7) arccos(exp(-f))

plate velocity

~*J

redge distance~
(B/2)~Z--$-~
f = ~[plate spacing ) =

(~)

The expression

for f corresponds

the tip radius.

/k)(l

r/R)

to rotor wake geometry,

where

I chose the symbol G for the corresponding

k ~ V/GR, with n

dimensionless

clr-

culation function in honor of Goldstein:

G ~

B~r ~
Fx 2
2wVv-----~- ~

Figure

3 compares

(Prandtl's

Goldstein's

approximation)

painfully

for minimum induced loss circulation

mates
ing

ones; Prandtl's

is less

than

are accurate

"exact" circulation
with Prandtl's

functions

~eq.0) approxi-

enough whenever outer edge vor%ex sheet spac-

rotor tip radius.

the ratio of average

calculated

distribution

(o)

The quantity

axial velocity

G also may be interpreted

in the developed

slipstream

as

to displacement

velocity v'.

4. DETERMINATION

OF THE DISPLACEMENT

VELOCITY AND ROTOR GEOMETRY

Using light loading approximations

2T/pV2~R 2 and power

coefficient

placement

ratio,

velocity

again, the thrust coefficient

~ 2P/gV3wR 2 can be written

c
~ 5 v'/V, and

induced loss loading and account

integrals

which

T
c
in terms

correspond

to

ot

dis-

minlmum

for blade element profile drag:

T c = Ii~ - 12~2

(7)

Pc = Jl ~ + J2~2

(8)

I 1 = 4 ~1 G{1 - D/L}x. ~d~

~ = r/R

(9)

12 = 2 fl G{~ -~-}{lI(x2 + 1)} ~d~

<~o~

J1 : 4 fl G{1 + (D/L)} ~d~

(i1)

321

J2 :

2 i~ ~{l + (D/L)x}{2/(x 2 + 1)} ~d~

Thus,

if disc loading

(Pc) , wake geometry

(12)
(B,I+G), and radial variation of blade

element D/L = Cd/C are known, displacement velocity ratio is

= (jz/2j2)[z

+ (kPcJ2/Jz 2) - 1 ] *

1.0
G
or

0.8

BOI"
2nVv"

0,6

or

0.4

~"
V'

o,2
0
0

0.2

0,4 r / t 9

Fig. 3.
Prandtl (dashed lines) and Goldstein
butions for minimma induced loss compared.

0,6
solid lines)

0.6'

1.0

circulation distri-

Then the helix angle of the blade element flow zs given by

@ = arctan

(14)

and the blade element velocity ratio is

w/v = j2 + i - @

eos]2

The blade angle of the corresponding I~nimum induced loss rotor is given by

6 = @ + ~D

(16)

where a D is the blade elelaent design angle of attack in planar flow corresponding to D/L.

Finally, the blade chord is given by

2C L
*Compare ~induced (radians) = ~

for an elliptically loaded wing.

322

cl~ : (4~IB) (GI (W/V)( ~Ic ~)

~Ir)

where c is the blade element lift coefficient at ~D "

It will be appreciated

that T , P
D/L, C, and c are all positive for propellers and ne~_ative for
C
C'

windmills.
In HELICE the integrals are numericaly evaluated by Simpson's rule
.

for r/R = 0, 0.i, 0.2... 1.0.

5. AN APPROXIMATE ALGORITHM FOE INDUCED ANGLE OF ATTACK

In the case of rotors of arbitrary geometry, or a r~nimum induced loss rotor
operating

off

its

design

point,

uniform and induced velocity

displacement

at the blade

velocity

elements

is no longer

radially

is no longer 1/2 v'cos@ .

Instead the induced angle of attack may be approximated by

ainduced(radians)

= (oX ~ F +

l.j c

(i~)

where 0 = Bc/2~r = (B/2~)(c/R)/(r/R)

is the local rotor solidity. To be strictly

consistent with the minimum induced loss rotor geometry determination procedure
just given, this should be written

a induced = arcsin 1 (----F--]

{~

which is computationall~ inconvenient.

Alternatively
calculated
written

? ~i : ~)-~}

incorrectly

graded momentum
in

}1

(l~a)

The error is small if I~I is small.

the axial and swirl components

by a radially

down

131, which

of the induced velocity can be

theory

as suggested by Glauert,

is also more or less consistent

but
with

minimum induced loss loading:

a
i + a

i a(ccos - cdsin @)
~

F sinZ~ . . . .

[19)

a'
1 o(czsin@ + CdCOS )
1 - a' = ~
F sin~cos~

(20)

here aV and a'~r are the axial and swirl components of the induced velocity.
have recommended the procedure
tionally,

i~l, although I find it less convenient eomputa-

and less consistent with the minimum induced loss rotor geometry de-

termination subroutine in the previous section, than a procedure based on equation 18.

6. BLADE SECTION AERODYNAMICS

The blade section aerodynamic

properties

in HELICE are taken to be analjtic

functions of the hlade element angle of attack in planar flow for ('900<a<+900):

323

cZ

ci

cos~/cosa I

c d = Isin~l

negative stall range

(21)

a<~l

(22)

c2 - e1

e = ci
cd : C

+ {

} (a - a l }

~2 - ~i

(23)

(24)

e = c2 cos~/cos~ 2

positive stall range

(25)

Cd = Isinel

e>a2

Default

(~ - ~3 )2

range

~J- < ~ < ~2

d3

+ ~

unstalled

values

of

blade

4412 or 4415 airfoils

section

par~lleters

at moderate Reynolds

(21) repeated

in HELICE

n~ber

corresponding

to

NACA

are in Table i.

TABLE i
HELICE blade section default values

parameter
c
i
~i

c 2
~2

propeller

windmill

-0.8

-1.2

-12"0

-6"0

+1.2

+0.8

+8"0

+12"0

0.008

Cd3
~3
d

0.008

-2"0
/d(~ 2)

+2"0

0.00025/(deg 2)

0.00025/(deg 2)

cd

8o wind~ill values are propeller values "turned over"; i.e., the blade cmabered faces are downstream.
choosing,

For

HELICE

these values,

or any of their

VALIDATION OF HELICE

propellers,

routines

introduce

at each of nine radial stations for r/R = 0.i, 0.2, 0.3,...0.9.

7. EXPERIMENTAL

Albatross

HELICE users

HELICE

human powered

has

have been validated

predictions

obtained

by

analysis

methods,

"reasonable"

and

HELICE

answers.

validated

by

for windmills,

the

performance

coworkers
can

be

at the
adjusted

cited.

with high
NLR

Chrysalis

and

Gossmaer

HELICE design and performance

by tests on the windmills

of windmill

de Vries

been

airplanes,

quality

[7].

readily

Figure 4 c o ~ a r e s

Like
to

give

wind tunnel

other
a

lifting

wide

Table 2 gives HELICE parameters used for Fig. 4.

range

data
line
of

324

-I.0
._-0

or

"0.5

-%

=0.5
~P

-0

5.0t

/v

/o

1.5

Fig 4.
Validation of HELICE with de Vries'
for HELICE parameters.

experimental

data

,7J.

See Table 2

TABLE 2
HELICE parameters

parameters

c 1
~0
1
c 2

~0
2
c

for NLR research windmill

2 hlades-NACA

0012 airfoil secLions.

0.i*

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

).7

0.5

0.9

-1.26

-1.24

-1.22

-1.20

-1.15

-l.lb

-1.14

-1.12

-i.I0

-ii.48 -ii.42 -ii.36 -ii.30 -Ii.24 -ii.15 -ii.12 -ii.06 -ii.00

1.26

1.24

1.22

1.20

1.15

1.16

1.14

1.12

i.i0

11.48

11.42

11.36

11.30

11.24

ii.i~

11.12

11.06

ii.00

0.010

0.014

0.015

0.022

C.026

0.030

0.034

0.038

0.042

a3~

dc d
d--~z~ x 10 -3

0.24

0.25

0.26

0.27

0.2~

0.29

0.30

~.31

0.32

0.21

0.192

0.174

0.156

0.138

0.120

O.102

0.084

0.066

41.761 19.940 11.921

7.664

4.006

3.154

1.600

0.759 -0.068

c/R~
BT

*The r/R = 0.i station does no~ exist; it is znside the splnner.
The values
chosen give a benign radial loading whose radial integrals agree with the acLual
loading integrals.
Tactual geometry

325

The

elevated

experimental
blade

values.

boundary

associated
needed

values

with

layer
high

to m i n t a i n

of

Cd3

are

Presumably
momentum
wind

required
this

satisfactory

(V =

blade

reduce

models

thickness

speeds

to

the

caused
35

predicted

excessive

by

ms -1 ) and

chord Reynolds

heavy

rotor

radial

power

to

growth

of

centrifugal

shaft

speeds

numbers

with

stresses

(-5000

rpm)

a 75 cm dia-

meter rotor.

8. TYPICAL MINIMUM INDUCED LOSS WINDMILL

Figure

5 gives the geometry

DESIGN AND PERFOP&~ANCE

and performance

windmill with design characteristics

of a typical

smnmarized

minimum

induced

loss

in Table 3:

TABLE 3
Design Point Input for HELICE windmill
dynamics (NACA 4415 airfoils)

design subroutine

2 blades,

default

aero-

-77,932 watts shafts power (76 kW intended)

66.667 rotor r~a corresponds to 1860 generator rpm
i0 I~ -I (22.37 mph) rated power wind speed
i0 m rotor radius (65.62 ft. diameter)
1.2 kg/m 3 air density (cf. 1.225 kg/m 3 @ 760 li~n Hg and 15C)
design blade angles of attack for r/R = 0.I, 0.2, 0.3 ...0.9
-4.0 , -5.0 , -5.75 , -6.0 , -6.1 , -6.2 , -6.3 , -6.4 , -6.5

~O

-I,0

r~

Tc
or

2 ~'

-0,5

5 n/?/v

/o

Fig. 5.
HELICE windmill design and performance.
for design parameters see Table 3.

15
Circles

20
indicate

design point;

326

The

design

point

performance

=
c
-0.5757(-T c = rotor drag coefficient) and Pc = -0.4028, or 40.28% of the kinetic
energy of undisturbed

the

ratio to

expense

ii,

of

Fig.

5)

is

calculated

to

be

stream flow through the rotor disc area in unit time, at a

tip speed ratio of 6.981.

speed

(circles,

By

Pc becomes
70~

decreasing
-0.5219

increase

in

blade

angles

(the actuator

rotor

drag

2 and

disc limit

(T c =

increasing
is -0.5926)

-0.9816).

The

tip
at

designer

chooses the operating point.

Figure

6 shows

an asynchronous

stall mode and blade

generator

angle governing

of this windmill

(induction motor) connected to a 60 Hz grid.

driving
~le cut-

in speed of 4.2 ms -I corresponds to the mechanical power loss for 1800 generator
rpm.
wind

The rotor may be run at design blade angles

speed

output

of 24 ~ - i ,

of the generator

critical.

when the

output

to 150% rating,

At higher speeds it ~ s t

well use blade

angle

governing

speeds greater than i0 ms -I.

to

from below cut-in speed ~o a

of the stalled rotor drives

where

electrical

coil winding temperatures

be shut down.

may be

A windmill of this size might

limit power to the rated value

Tower loads will be greatly

reduced,

for all wind

and the ~ndt

down speed will not exist if enough governing blade angle range has been pr<~vided.

HELICE also will predict torque of an almost stopped rotor (tip speed ~otie

= 0.05),

showing that about 85 blade angle increase is needed to stop the ~'~cof'

without a brake.

/502
electric
lop
power
kW

0
20000

~1900

|rp

fronsienf sfoll
region
~

~"
/I-

rQfing'~
- I0 o
I~l,t/h~l

[/850
1/800
~2

droq

design point

/bsO50
'"~
. .pilch~
........
000 d rrc
_n
L _ . _ ~ - ' ~~- .' .k.z. .. ~ ' , / / / " ~vorioble

I0000

,,

N
0
0

wind

5 speed

I0

Fig. 6.
Fixed pitch (showing stall governing)
the windmill of Fig. 5 with generator load.

m/s

/5

20

and variable pitch operation

of

327
REFERENCES
i R.T. Jones (compiled by), Classical aerodynamic theory.
NASA Reference Publication 1050 (1979); includes NACA Technical Report No. 116 "Applications of
modern hydrodynamics to aeronautics" by L. Prandtl (pps. 1-55 of the Compilation).
This document, written by Prandtl in German about 1921 and published
in 1923 is one of the few good English translations produced by the NACA.
2 S. Goldstein, On the vortex theory of screw propellers, Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, Vol. 123 (1929).
3 H. Glauert, Airplane propellers, Div. L. Vol. IV of "Aerodynamic Theory" edited by Durand; Springer-Verlag 1935; also Dover photo offset reprint.
4 E.E. Larrabee, Design of propellers for motorsoarers, "Science and T e c h n o l o ~
of Low Speed and Motorless Flight", NASA Conference Publication 2085, Part I,
(1979) 285-303.
5 M. Grosser, Goss~aer Odyssey - the triumph of hm~an-powered flight, Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston, 1981.
6 Janes All the World's Aircraft, (19~I-$2) 413-414.
Also "Soaring" magazine,
Vol. 43, No. i0, (1979) 36-41.
7 0. de Vries, Wind tunnel tests on a model of a two-bladed horizontal axis wind
turbine and evaluation of an aerodynamic performance calculation method, NLH
TR 79071 L National-Lucht-en Ruimtevaartlaboratori~,
~terdam
(1979).