CHAPTER II

DISCUSSIONS
2.1 Definition of Professional Development
2.1.1 Professionalism
Hargreaves (2000) in Suyato: professionalism can be seen as improving quality and
standards of practice. Hargreaves (1999) who has identified four broad historical stages
in the changing nature of teacher professionalism, that this struggle is a phenomenon of
what he has termed the post-professional age. As we know, he draws fours ages of
professionalism as follows:
1. The pre-professional age-where teaching was seen as a commonsense craft and
good teachers were those who could manage a classroom and get their message
across to their pupils.
2.

The age of professional autonomy-characteristic by teacher claims to

professional expertise and the presumed right to autonomy which followed such
claims.

3. The age of the collegial professional-characteristic by role expansion where

focus extend beyond the individual teacher and classroom.
4. The post-professional age-is characteristic by a struggle forces intent on de
professional teaching and counterpart who wish to redefine teacher
professionalism in more positive, reflective, and far-reaching, as well as
integrated ways.
2.1.2 Professional Development
The professional Development is very needed by the teachers to teach the students
especially in this globalization era, many students have different behavior weather good
or bad. If the teachers have professional development, they can manage their students
be better In education, the term professional development may be used in reference to
a wide variety of specialized training, formal education, or advanced professional
learning intended to help administrators, teachers, and other educators improve their
3

professional knowledge, competence, skill, and effectiveness. When the term is used in
education contexts without qualification, specific examples, or additional explanation,
however, it may be difficult to determine precisely what professional development is
referring to. In practice, professional development for educators encompasses an
extremely broad range of topics and formats. For example, professional-development
experiences may be funded by district, school, or state budgets and programs, or they
may be supported by a foundation grant or other private funding source. They may
range from a one-day conference to a two-week workshop to a multiyear advanceddegree program. They may be delivered in person or online, during the school day or
outside of normal school hours, and through one-on-one interactions or in group
situations. And they may be led and facilitated by educators within a school or provided
by outside consultants or organizations hired by a school or district. And, of course, the
list of possible formats could go on.
The following are a representative selection of common professional-development
topics and objectives for educators:
1. Furthering education and knowledge in a teachers subject areae.g., learning
new scientific theories, expanding knowledge of different historical periods, or
learning how to teach subject-area content and concepts more effectively.
2. Training or mentoring in specialized teaching techniques that can be used in
many different subject areas, such as differentiation (varying teaching
techniques based on student learning needs and interests) or literacy strategies
(techniques for improving reading and writing skills).
3. Developing technical, quantitative, and analytical skills that can be used to
analyze student-performance data, and then use the findings to make
modifications to academic programs and teaching techniques.
4. Learning new technological skills, such as how to use interactive whiteboards or
course-management systems in ways that can improve teaching effectiveness
and student performance.

5. Improving fundamental teaching techniques, such as how to manage a

classroom effectively or frame questions in ways that elicit deeper thinking and
more substantive answers from students.
6. Working with colleagues, such as in professional learning communities, to
develop teaching skills collaboratively or create new interdisciplinary courses
that are taught by teams of two or more teachers.
7. Developing specialized skills to better teach and support certain populations of
students, such as students with learning disabilities or students who are not
proficient in English.
8. Acquiring leadership skills, such as skills that can be used to develop and
coordinate a school-improvement initiative or a community-volunteer program.
For related discussions, see leadership team and shared leadership.
9. Pairing new and beginning teachers with more experienced mentor teachers or
instructional coaches who model effective teaching strategies, expose lessexperienced teachers to new ideas and skills, and provide constructive feedback
and professional guidance.
10. Conducting action research to gain a better understanding of whats working or
not working in a schools academic program, and then using the findings to
improve educational quality and results.
Professional development refers to many types of educational experiences related to
an individuals work. Doctors, lawyers, educators, accountants, engineers, and people in
a wide variety of professions and businesses participate in professional development to
learn and apply new knowledge and skills that will improve their performance on the
job. For teachers and school and district leaders to be as eff ective as possible, they
continually expand their knowledge and skills to implement the best educational
practices. Educators learn to help students learn at the highest levels. Many people may
not be aware of their local school systems methods for improving teaching and student
learning. Professional development is the only strategy school systems have to
strengthen educators performance levels. Professional development is also the only

way educators can learn so that they are able to better their performance and raise
student achievement. Many misunderstandings exist about professional development,
its purpose, and how it functions. Th is publication is an eff ort to answer basic
questions and to inform and engage more people in strengthening the quality and
improving the results of professional development.
The authors describe three main types of development professional, personal, and
social that occurred within the context of the teacher development program. The
program was characterized by support, feedback, and reflection. Development in each
area seemed to occur in a loose and flexible sequence. There are three stages in
professional development:
a. There are stages in personal development:

Accepting an aspect of teaching as problematic

Dealing with restraints

Feeling empowered.

b. There are stages in social development:

Seeing isolation as problematic

Valuing collaborative ways of working

Initiating collaborative ways of working.

c. There are stages on the professional side:

Trying new activities

Developing ideas and classroom practice

Initiating other development activities.

The interactions between personal, social, and professional areas are explicated in
this paper. The authors conclude that teacher development can be viewed as teacher
learning rather than as others getting teachers to change; learning can be viewed as a
purposeful inquiry.
2.2 Four Competences of Teacher
Teachers must have four basic competencies, namely pedagogical, personality,
social, and professional. The fourth competency integrated in teacher performance.
1. Professional Competence
Profession is a position or a job that requires skills (expertise) members. This means
that the job cant be done by anyone who is not trained and are not specifically prepared
to do the job. Professionals refer to two things, namely (1) the person who bears the
profession, (2) the appearance of a person to do the job in accordance with the
profession. Makmum (1996: 82) states that teacher performance is defined teacher
performance or work performance. Conceptually and the general appearance of the
teacher work includes aspects: (1) The professional capability, (2) Social skills, and (3)
The personal ability. Johnson (in Sanusi, 1991: 36) states that the general standard was
often described as follows: (1) The professional capability includes: (a) mastery of the
subject matter, (b) control of grounding and insightful appreciation of education and
teacher training, and (c) control of education processes. (2) Social skills include the
ability to adapt to the demands of work and the environment at the time brought his
duties as a teacher. (3) The ability of personal (private) which affective aspects includes,
(a) the appearance of a positive attitude towards the overall task as a teacher, (b) the
understanding, appreciation, and the appearance of values that should be embraced by a
teacher, and (c) the appearance of make himself as a role model and example to the
students.
Professional competence include: (1) master the educational foundation, (2) control
of learning materials, (3) develop learning programs, (4) implementing learning
programs, and (5) as well as the process of assessing learning outcomes.
2. Personality Competence
Personal competence according to Suparno (2002: 47) is covering the whole
personality, virtuous, honest, mature, faithful, moral; capabilities such as self-discipline,
7

responsibility, sensitive, objective, flexible, resourceful, able to communicate with

others; the ability to develop a profession such as creative thinking, critical, reflective,
willing to learn throughout life, can take a decision. Personal skills further concerns the
identities of a teacher as a good person, responsibility, open, and continue to want to
learn to move forward. The first emphasis is the moral and faithful teacher. This is
clearly a competence which is very important because one of the teacher's jobs is to
help students who devoted and faithful as well as being a good boy. Second, teachers
should have high self-actualization. Self-actualization is very important is the attitude
responsible. The whole task of education and assistance to students requires great
responsibility. Education concerning the development of the students cant be done
arbitrarily, but must be planned, should be developed and should be done with
responsibility. The teacher's job is not only as a facilitator, but remains fully responsible
for the development of students. From the children's education field experience to be
damaged because some teachers are not responsible. For example, sexual harassment of
teachers to students, teachers casually left the classroom, the teacher is not preparing
lessons well, and teachers do not dare to steer students.
Discipline has also become an important element for a teacher. This discipline is a
weakness of the Indonesian nation, which needs to be eradicated since elementary
school. In the field often seen some teachers do not discipline set time, arbitrarily
truancy; no discipline in correcting student work so that students do not get feedback
from their work. The teacher makes student indiscipline bandwagon like truancy and
improper collect homework. Noteworthy here is that, although teachers are much
disciplined, he must continue to build communication and a good relationship with the
students. Education and knowledge development in Indonesia is less fast either because
a less high discipline, including discipline in developing science and learning.
The third is the attitude of want to develop knowledge. Teacher when not want
outdated and can also help students continue to be open to the advancement of
knowledge, would not want to develop the attitude to move forward by continuing to
learn. In this era of rapid advances in science as it is today, teachers are required to
continue to learn in order to keep their knowledge fresh. Teachers should not stop
learning because it was already graduated.
3. Pedagogic Competence

Furthermore, the ability pedagogic according to Suparno (2002: 52) called also the
ability in learning or education that includes understanding the characteristics of the
students and development, to understand some of the concepts of education that help
students master some teaching methodology appropriate to the material, to develop
students and a mastering system of appropriate evaluation which in turn further enhance
the student's ability.
First, it is clear that teachers need to know the students who want it assists. Teachers
are expected to understand the nature, character, level of thinking, physical and
psychological development of students. By understanding the things that teachers will
easily understand the difficulty and the ease of the students in learning and develop
themselves, thus the teacher will be easier to help students grow. It required a good
approach, know the science of child psychology and child development and to know
how to the development of children's knowledge. Usually during a lecture in FKIP
teachers steeped in the theories of psychology. But what is important is to understand
the child's right in real schools.
Second, teachers should also master some theories about education first education in
the modern era. Therefore, the education system in Indonesia is more developed
towards democratic education, the theory and philosophy of education that is more
democratic need to be explored and mastered by understanding many theories of
education, teachers are expected to be able to choose the most good to help the
development of the students. Therefore teacher who really understands the situation of
their students, teachers are expected to be able to draw on theories that fit the situation
protg fosterage. For that teachers are expected to have creativity to always adjust the
theory used by the real situation of students' learning.
Third, teachers are also expected to understand the various models of learning. With
more and understand a lot of learning model, then it will be easier to teach the children
in accordance with the situation of the students. And no less important in learning is the
teacher can make a proper evaluation so that it can truly monitor and understand
whether students are really developing as planned earlier. Is the education process has
been carried out properly and help children grow efficiently and effectively.
4. Social Competence

Social competence include: (1) have empathy for others, (2) have a tolerance for
others, (3) have an attitude and a positive personality and attached to each competency
others, and (4) able to cooperate with others.
According to Gadner (1983) defines that social competence as social intelligence.
Social intelligence is one of the nine intelligence (logic, language, music, sports, space,
personal, nature, and culinary) were identified by Gardner. All intelligence is owned by
someone. Only, perhaps some of them stand out, while others are ordinary or even less.
Uniquely, some intelligence was working coherent and simultaneous when someone
thinking or doing something (Armstrong, 1994). In connection with what was said by
Amstrong it is that even though we are discussing and trying to develop social
intelligence, we should not let the other intelligences. This is consistent with the fact
that nowadays many emerging social issues which can only be understood and solved
through a holistic approach, a comprehensive approach, or a multidisciplinary
approach.
Another intelligence are closely associated with social intelligence is a personal
intelligence, more specifically or emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). Social
intelligence is also closely related to the financial intelligence (Kiyosaki, 1998). Today
began to realize how important the role of social intelligence and emotional intelligence
for someone in his business career in the community, institution, or company. Many
successful people that if we look at it turns out they have the ability to work together,
empathy, and self-control are prominent. From the description and examples above, we
cant say that social competence is the ability to communicate, interact, work together,
and give to others. This is the social competence that must be possessed by an educator
who is mandated by the Law on Teachers and Lecturers, which in turn must be
transmitted to young students. To develop social competence someone educators, we
need to know the target or the dimensions of this competency 15 skill that can be
incorporated into the dimensions of social competence, namely: (1) teamwork, (2) see
opportunities, (3) role in group activities, ( 4) responsibilities as citizens, (5) leadership,
(6) social volunteers, (7) maturity in creativity, (8) shared, (9) empathy, (10) concern for
others, (11) tolerance, (12) solution to the conflict, (13) receives the difference, (14)
cooperation, and (15) communication.
Fifteenth intelligence of life can be a topic in the syllabus of learning and social
competence development for educators and prospective educators. These topics can be
developed into teaching materials associated with actual cases and relevant or
10

contextual with the lives of our people. From the description of the profession and the
competency of teachers, it became clear that the work or professorship is a profession
that deserves the award, either financial or non-financial. The ability to communicate
with others is very important for a teacher because his job is always related to other
people such as students, other teachers, employees, parents, principals etc. This
capability is particularly important to be developed because of the experience, often
teachers are really clever, but because the ability to communicate with students is not
good, it is hard to help students progress. Good communication will help the process of
learning and education, especially at the level of primary to secondary education.
2.3 Characteristics of professional teacher
1. Teaching/Lesson plan
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction, or
'learning trajectory' for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide
class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject
being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by
the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a
particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how
the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well the
goal was reached.

Preparation/Instruction: It pertains to preparing and motivating children to the

lesson content by linking it to the previous knowledge of the student, by
arousing curiosity of the children and by making an appeal to their senses. This
prepares the child's mind to receive new knowledge. "To know where the pupils
are and where they should try to be are the two essentials of good teaching."
Lessons may be started in the following manner: a. Two or three interesting but
relevant questions b. Showing a picture/s, a chart or a model c. A situation
Statement of Aim: Announcement of the focus of the lesson in a clear, concise

statement such as "Today, we shall study the..."

Presentation/Development: The actual lesson commences here. This step should
involve a good deal of activity on the part of the students. The teacher will take
the aid of various devices, e.g., questions, illustrations, explanation, expositions,
demonstration and sensory aids, etc. Information and knowledge can be given,
explained, revealed or suggested.
11

Association comparison: It is always desirable that new ideas or knowledge be

associated to daily life situations by citing suitable examples and by drawing
comparisons with the related concepts. This step is important when we are

establishing principles or generalizing definitions.

Generalizing: This concepts is concerned with the systematizing of the
knowledge learned. Comparison and contrast lead to generalization. An effort
should be made to ensure that students draw the conclusions themselves. It

should result in student's own thinking, reflection and experience.

Application: It requires a good deal of mental activity to think and apply the
principles learn to new situations. Knowledge, when it is put to use and verified,

becomes clear and a part of the student's mental make-up.

Recapitulation: Last step of the lesson plan, the teacher tries to ascertain
whether the students have understood or grasped the subject matter or not. This
is used for assessing/evaluating the effectiveness of the lesson by asking
students questions on the contents of the lesson or by giving short objectives to
test the student's level of understanding; for example, to label different parts on
a diagram, etc.

2. Meaningful learning
Meaningful learning' is opposed to rote learning and refers to a learning method
where the new knowledge to acquire is related with previous knowledge (Ausubel
2000). In meaningful learning, the learners are actively integrating new information
into old information (Novak 2002). Concept mapping has been found to be a useful
technique for this (Novak 2002). It allows learners to connect their existing knowledge
to the subject being learned. Students are able to develop their interests with free and
easy access to these online tools, and therefore are able to learn the material
meaningfully. Interest development is one of the goals of meaningful learning, as
students who are interested generally learn more effectively (Heddy et al 2016).
3. Innovative
Innovative teaching is a proactive approach to integrate new teaching strategies and
methods into a classroom. Research on education supports the benefits that certain
processes, tools and methods have on learning. Innovative teachers implement new
methods before they appeal to mainstream educators. Technology plays a key role in
innovative teaching. Innovative teachers use new technology to enhance or expand
12

upon the student experience. The transition from traditional blackboard and overhead
projector instruction into computer-aided presentations was innovative. As of 2014,
innovative teachers incorporate tools like tablet computers and mobile devices to offer
students a more interactive experience.
4. Behave critically / educative behavior
5. Creative
6. Student center learning
Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly
encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to
the student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner
autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands
of students. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that
enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. Student-centered learning
theory and practice are based on the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the
learner's critical role in constructing meaning from new information and prior
experience.
Student-centered learning puts students' interests first, acknowledging student
voice as central to the learning experience. In a student-centered learning space,
students choose what they will learn, how they will learn, and how they will assess their
own learning. This is in contrast to traditional education, also dubbed "teacher-centered
learning", which situates the teacher as the primarily "active" role while students take a
more "passive", receptive role. In a teacher-centered classroom, teachers choose what
the students will learn, how the students will learn, and how the students will be
assessed on their learning. In contrast, student-centered learning requires students to be
active, responsible participants in their own learning and with their own pace of
learning.Usage of the term "student-centered learning" may also simply refer to
educational mindsets or instructional methods that recognize individual differences in
learners. In this sense, student-centered learning emphasizes each student's interests,
abilities, and learning styles, placing the teacher as a facilitator of learning for
individuals rather than for the class as a whole.
The definition of teacher in Indonesian has been contained in three laws, which are:
UU No. 20/2003: Pasal 1 Butir 6

13

Pendidik adalah tenaga kependidikan yang berkualifikasi sebagai guru, dosen,

konselor, pamong belajar, widyaiswara, tutor, instruktur, fasilitator, dan sebutan lain
yang sesuai dengan kekhususannya, serta berpartisipasi dalam penyelenggaraan
pendidikan.
UU No. 20/2003: Pasal 39 Ayat 2
Pendidik merupakan tenaga profesional yang bertugas merencanakan dan
melaksanakan

proses

pembelajaran,

menilai

hasil

pembelajaran,

melakukan

pembimbingan dan pelatihan, serta melakukan penelitian dan pengabdian kepada

masyarakat, terutama bagi pendidik pada perguruan tinggi.
UU No. 14/2005 UGD Ps.1 Butir 4
Profesional adalah pekerjaan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh seseorang dan
menjadi sumber penghasilan kehidupan yang memerlukan keahlian, kemahiran, atau
kecakapan yang memenuhi standar mutu atau norma tertentu serta memerlukan
pendidikan profesi.
2.4 Models and Types of Teacher Professional Development
There are number of model that have been developed and implemented in different
countries to promote and support teachers professional development from the
beginning of their career until they retire. The models are grouped in two sections. The
first model is organizational partnership models and the second model is small group or
individual model.

1. Organization Partnership Model

a. Professional-Development Schools
Professional-Development Schools (PDSs) are partnerships between teachers,
administrators and university faculty members created in order to improve teaching and
learning on the part of their respective students, and also in order to unite educational
theory and practice.

14

The professional-Development school model involves and requires institutional

support (Wise, 2000), and it is one of the models that work to provide opportunities for
teachers professional development from the beginning to the end of their career
(Koehnecke, 2001). The model of professional-Development school varies from setting
to setting. There are a number of recurrent themes found in professional-development
schools despite their differences in focus, goals, and organization. One is the
consideration of the need for dual restructuring; the school will not be transformed
unless the university is also transformed. The second is that teachers both in the schools
and in the university are of equal value to the partnership and to the process of
professional development. In the USA, as in most societies throughout the world,
university faculty members are sometimes thought of as being more important, or
having higher status, than schoolteacher. In this model, both are of equal importance
and play equal roles. The third theme is that of a common goal: all professionaldevelopment schools work to restructure the preparation and induction of teachers into
the teaching profession, improve the teachers working conditions, increase the quality
of education for students, and offer teachers and administrators opportunities for
professional development (Darling-Hammond, 1994b).
b. Other University-school Partnerships
Other university-school partnerships exist between universities and schools. These
partnerships are like networks in that they connect practitioners who share common
interests and concerns about education (Miller, 2001, p. 102), and are found in schools
and in institutions of higher education. According to Miller (2001, p. 105), schooluniversity partnerships have four core aims:

To establish firm bases in two distinct cultures, school and university

To cross institutional boundaries in order to respond to needs in the field
To ensure inclusive decision-making
To create new venues for educator development.

A number of university-school partnerships have been successful in promoting

teachers professional development. In most cases reported in the literature, the schools
and universities that have partnership are located in the same geographical area, but
there are also some that cross national boundaries. For example, partnerships between
university in the USA, a university in Chile, and a school district in Chile. In this
program, university faculty from both countries prepared and implemented a course on
how to improve the knowledge and skills of science teachers in Chile. Teacher and
15

university faculty reported the experience as successful and felt that it had effectively
promoted their professional development.
Another strategy for professional development based on university-school
partnerships is the practice (quite common in the USA) that some universities and
colleges have of offering vouchers to co-operating or mentor teachers to come to the
universities for more course work and experiences as a reward for their work with
student-teacher in particular institute. In such an arrangement, experienced teachers
who are willing to participate in educating and supervising student-teachers can also
attend courses and experiences in institutions of higher education, thus keeping
themselves informed of the latest theories, practices, and research studies in their field.
University faculty also benefit from sharing their knowledge and research with
experienced practitioners.
Creating partnerships between schools and institutions of higher education is, at
times, difficult as there seems to be a natural tension and sense of competition among
members of both institutions (McBride, 1996). The key to success seems to be to find a
balance where all those involved in the partnership consider their role important and
their contributions relevant, and where learning is promote in all those implicated.
c. Other Inter-institutional Collaborations
In a variety of countries around the world, many programs of in-service education
and professional development for teacher exist as a result of collaboration between
different institutions. For example, in Canada, there are few projects which involved
school districts, universities, and ministries of education. More specifically, the
University of Toronto initiated a centre for Teacher Development which works
alongside school boards to provide ongoing in-service programs in specific target area.
In British Columbia, all universities that prepare teachers are working closely with the
Ministry of Education and local school districts to deliver regionalized summer
institutes and ongoing workshops focusing on curriculum implementation (Wideen and
Holborn, 1990).
Another interesting form of inter-institutional collaboration is that between schools
and other professional organizations outside of the formal system of education. Bainer,
Cantrell, Barron (2000) describe a long-term partnership between teachers/schools and
natural resource professional who usually fulfill the role of informal teachers in
educating the public, and yet have no formal teacher preparation. The purpose of the
16

partnership was to help the natural resource professionals to acquire various teaching
skills and practices, and for teachers to develop more skills and knowledge about
science education.
d. School Networks
There have been several projects which have included the creation of school
networks to support teachers professional development, school change, and educational
reform at a higher level.
Two examples of such networks are reported by Sachs (2000) as successful
innovations that are taking place in Australia. One of these innovations is the National
Schools Network (NSN), whose primary propose was to act as a tool for system reform.
It was conceived as a national action research project, as policy-makers were interested
in indentifying obstacles that were preventing schools from implementing their own
ideas on improving teaching and learning. The NSN have provided to support for over
400 Australian schools and have linked professional development with ongoing school
based research initiatives. Teachers report a positive response to the fact that their
professional development is being designed and is gaining response from within the
schools, rather than from external sources.
The second innovation is the Innovative Link Project. This Australian nationwide
initiative complements the activities of the NSN. This project involves a formal
partnership between schools and universities in an attempt to carry out research and
implement practices that promote the professional development of teachers both in
schools and universities. Teachers associated with this project have developed skills and
competences that have enhanced their professional development, such as learning,
participation, collaboration, co-operation, activism, and research (Sachs, 2000).
e. Teachers Networks
Teachers networks bring teachers together to address the problems which they
experience in their work, and thus promote their own professional development as
individuals and groups. These networks can be created either relatively informally,
through regular meetings between teacher; or formally, by institutionalizing
relationships, communication and dialogue (Lieberman, 1999). Hiberman (2001)
present strong arguments for the importance of having these networks managed by
teachers themselves, and also that the network generate a process by which teachers can
17

communicate, address issue, observe each others work, bring in people who are experts
in other field.
There are many examples of effective teacher networks in different parts of the
world. Lauriala (1998) reports on new teacher groups and networks created within
many Finnish schools to support the professional development of teachers. Many
networks that exist are co-ordinate by Co-ordinate Council for Voluntary Educational
Study Associations, which was created in 1959. They organize projects such as the
research lesson, a model of professional development where groups of teachers work
together for a period of weeks, sometimes months, to prepare a master lesson to be
presented to many other teachers in the school, or even in other schools and district.
These teachers networks may be organized by schools. Almost every school has inhouse study group that organizes study activities, such as curriculum development,
demonstration classes, observation and discussion of teaching.
According to Zorfass (1999) presents that the teachers groups have purposely
involved teachers from multiple disciplines, as one of the main objectives of this group
has been that teachers reflect on and develop a multi-disciplinary perspective of their
professional role, so that they can be more helpful to students who must learn how to
integrate their knowledge in different fields. Also, in this particular case, teachers used
the process of developing an inter-disciplinary curriculum as a form of professional
development.
f. Distance Education
Perraton (1995) defines distance education as an educational process in which a
significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone removed in space and
time from the learner. In this broad definition, the key words are significant
proportion, as they imply that not all of the teaching will occur at a distance. However,
different countries have implemented distance education programs to support teachers
professional development using a variety of means, such as radio, television, telephone,
written and recorded material and electronic communications (Miller, Smith, and
Tilstone, 1998).
In Australia, distance education has allowed teacher, particularly women, to acquire
further qualifications so that they can be promoted to higher levels which are, more
often than not, occupied by men. In Brazil, on the other hand, both men and women
have benefited from distance education in their teacher preparation in the aim of
18

acquiring some social mobility. The literature offers few research studies that assess the
effectiveness of the use of distance education to support teachers professional
development. For example, there is very little evidence to support the claim that teacher
education at distance leads to improve classroom practice.
Traditionally, distance education has relied on self-study guides and readings, and
the use of radio and television. The use of radio as an instrument of distance education
has been mostly proposed in developing countries to satisfy the need to reach a vast
majority of teachers who are unprepared or unqualified, and to help them receive some
form of training at a lower cost than most other forms of technology (television,
computers, and interactive video-disks).
2. Individual or Small Group Models
a. Supervision in the classroom or Traditional and Clinical Supervision
In its traditional format, this process is typically completed by an administrator who
comes into classroom, either takes notes or checks according to a list of criteria whether
the teacher is achieving all the necessary requirements, and then leaves the classroom,
giving no feedback to the teacher. Most professional-development programs practice
classroom evaluation as an element in the program, but not exclusively. In this new
perception, supervision is considered as a means of offering helpful feedback and
suggestions on ways to improve a particular aspect of ones teaching. In many respects,
the traditional method of supervision has been slowly transformed into clinical
supervision. Clinical supervision is perceived as an effective model of professional
growth and development (Wanzare and da Costa, 2000), and it is one of the most
common elements of initial teacher education.
One of the commonest ways of implementing clinical supervision is by including a
pre-observation conference, an observation of classroom performance, the analysis of
the data collected during the observation, and a post-observation conference. Pavan
(1983) says the impact of clinical supervision is inconclusive; while Adams and
Glickman (1984) claim that the clinical model has a positive effect on teachers
performance and attitudes. This model has been implemented by few institutions in the
United Kingdom, primarily during an induction period designed for new teachers in
school (Shaw, 1992).
b. Performance Assessment of Students

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With a renewed interest in, and a recent tendency to focus on, standard-based
assessment and performance-based assessment, many experts are proposing a new
perception of students assessment as a form of teachers professional learning and
development, and the creation of a new evaluation system which would contribute
significantly to the quality of teaching. In developing this new system, quality assurance
would be merged with professional development (Danielson, 2001). In the same
document, three types of assessment initiatives that impact on teacher learning:

Teachers assessing students learning by observing, documenting, and collecting

students work over time with classroom-based assessment framework.

Teachers scoring students responses according to externally administered

standard-based performance tests.

Teacher examining and validating their own practice by participating in the
National Board of Professional Teaching Standards certification process.

The literature reports a few cases where assessment has been the core activity of the
professional development of teachers. Driscoll (1999) described a project where he
participated with some colleagues to create community of teacher dedicated to
transforming their approaches to classroom assessment. We saw assessment as a fertile
ground for teacher development, because when structured appropriately, assessment
activities can engage teachers in exactly the kind of active observation and reflection
characteristics of constructivist pedagogy (Driscoll, 1999, pp. 81-82). It is clear that in
order for assessment to be used as a form of professional development, the following
elements must be addressed: evaluation must be designed and implemented as a
process, an ongoing system of support and feedback to the teachers (Danielson, 2001).
A commitment from teachers unions and other professional organization is needed to
the successful implementation of such a process (Annunziata, 1997).
c. Workshops, Seminars, Institutes, Conferences, Courses
Perhaps the most traditional form of professional development is the typical inservice staff training that includes the use of workshops, short seminars, and courses.
Major criticisms abound in the literature about offering this form of in-service
education as the only form of professional development, as traditionally most of these
workshops and seminars are one-shot experiences, completely unrelated to the needs
of teachers and providing no follow-up.

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However, given the new understanding of professional development as an ongoing

process of growth and learning, there are some cases that show that offering workshops,
seminars, and courses, when accompanied by other types of professional-development
opportunities, can be quite successful. An example of such an approach is that reported
by Zeegers (1995), based on a series of three one-day workshops offered to teachers in
New Zealand as a first phase of a professional-development program designed to
prepare teachers to teach under the new national science curriculum. These workshops
were followed up by supplementary supportive and informative visits from in-service
facilitators, the results of which were positive. Another example is found in the North
Carolina Teacher Academy (USA) which, for many years, has offered over 40 one-week
summer seminars for teachers, and has trained over 200 teachers, who have themselves
become trainers. The topics of the workshops or seminars are proposed and decided
upon by the teachers based on their experiences, visions, and needs.
Workshops or institutes training that is development-oriented can be equally as
helpful as modern forms of professional development (Tillema and Imants, 1995). The
institutes included workshops, classes, laboratory time, work-group time to design
curricula, discussion groups, computerized activities and training in internet usage.
Many examples are found in the literature of courses specifically developed to train
teachers in a particular technique or to help them acquire certain knowledge. For
example, Ball (2000) describes the use of one course in particular to teach South
African and American teachers how to become more aware of their discourse when
teaching students of diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Also, Irving et al.
(1999) describe a successful course designed collaboratively by schools and universities
to increase the scientific knowledge of secondary-school teacher, and to improve their
pedagogical skill in science teaching.

d. Cases-based Professional Development

This model involves using carefully chosen, real-world examples of teaching to
serve as springboards for discussions among small groups of teachers. Cases can help
teachers discover ambiguity, conflict, and complexity within a deceptively simplelooking teaching situation (Barnett, 1999, p. 26). Using cases for teachers professional
development must be an ongoing process (Merseth, 1994), where teachers have the

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opportunity to reflect on each aspect of the situation, and frequently meet with the same
group of colleagues to discuss any issues raised.
There are several examples of the successful implementation of this form of
professional development, one being the Mathematics Case Method, which brought
together between 6 and 15 teachers once a month, for two-hours discussion on various
issues (Barnett, 1998, 1999), some of which were written by the teachers themselves.
The teachers assessment of the experience was positive. Shkedi (1998) mentions the
positive results of the use of the case-based model for in-service teacher professional
development in Israel, and yet adds that not all teachers were able to grasp all the
reflective aspects the cases presented. It can be concluded by recommending that one
does not rely exclusively on cases to promote the professional development of inservice or pre-service teachers.
e. Self-directed Development
In this type of professional development, teachers indentify one goal which they
consider to be of importance to them either individually or in small groups, lists the
activities that they will implement to reach that goal, the resources needed and the ways
in which their progress and accomplishment will be assessed. In such a situation,
teachers take responsibility for their own development, and the role of the
administrators and supervisors is to facilitate, guide, and support that development.
Objective feedback is certainly needed if this model is to be effective.
A good example of this kind of professional development can be seen in Japan,
where a survey of 3.987 teachers in 1981 indicated that more than half of them had
been active in some kinds of voluntary study-group, a self-directed process (Shimahara,
1995). Another example, described by Pierce and Hunsaker (1996) as a model of
professional development for the teacher, of the teacher, and by the teacher, is the
School Innovation Through Teacher Interaction (SITTI) model. The actions will be
taken by teachers in this model are:

To agree on how they would like the school to look and be;
To complete a needs assessment involving administrators in the process;
To decide on who will be the experts on the topics chosen to work on, and elect

people as team members who will participate in peer coaching;

The team of experts develops a module to address the needs and topics chosen
by all those involved;
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To measure students outcome versus objectives.

f. Co-operative or Collegial Development

In this model, teachers develop their own plan for professional development in
small groups. This can be implemented in the following ways:

Professional dialogues to discuss professional issues of personal interest;

Curriculum development where teams of teachers develop curriculum units;
Peer supervision;
Peer coaching or peer assistance;
Action research to collaboratively inquire about a real problem in their teaching.

The examples are found in Japan, Colombia, and Spain. In Japan, teachers report to
colleagues on their own personal case studies using narrative documentation or videotape recording of their teaching. In Colombia, the Escuela Nueva program (New School
Program), a reform to improve the quality of multi-grade teaching in rural schools in
the country. Finally, in Spain, a number of projects using this model have been created
and implemented successful. One is the School-Based In-Service Teacher Education
Project (FOPI) that was implemented in the early 1980s, and the other is the Education
of Teacher Educators Project, whose purpose was to develop staff who would work in
the new teacher centers and institutes (Benejam and Espinet, 1992).
g. Observation of excellent practice
A number of professional-development programs offer teachers the opportunity to
observe colleagues who have been recognized for their expertise and excellence in
teaching. In this way, teachers have the opportunity to learn and reflect on the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that excellent teachers implement in the classroom. One
example of this model is the Teachers International Profession Development Program,
implemented by the British Council. A similar program is that of the United Kingdom/
Australia Fellowship Scheme for Teachers of Science. This program, founded by the
governments of both the UK and Australia, provides funding for a handful of teachers
from one of these countries to spend a significant number of weeks in the other country,
observing excellent practice, participating in research projects, attending workshops,
and joining in discussion with colleagues in the host country (Robottom and Walker,
1995). The program has been successful in promoting teachers professional
development.

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h. Increasing Teacher Participation in New Roles

This model is based on the idea that the professional development of teachers is
improved by increasing the participation of teachers in, and their influence on, activities
such as: management, organization, support, and monitoring (Conley, 1991). An
example of the implementation of this model is a study reported by Tisher (1990) in
Australia, where participating teachers were asked to model for 10 days a teacher,
whose role characteristics were slightly different from their own self-portraits which
had been some changes, for example with respect to helping students and other
classroom routines, at the end of the 10-day period of modeling with discussions and
reflective activities.
i. Skill Development Model
This model, described by Joyce and Showers (1988), was designed to develop new
teaching techniques and skills such as higher-order questioning, inquiry teaching and
group work. In other for this model to be effective, a significant amount of time offthe-job, is necessary. Following that time, teachers are slowly reintegrated into the
classrooms with substantial coaching. The five components of their model are:

An exploration of theory through lectures, discussions, and readings;

The demonstration of skills through videos and life training;
Practice under simulated conditions (20 or 25 trials in a period of 8 to 10

weeks);
Feedback provided by peers under guidance (audio and video recordings are

encouraged);
Coaching during the transition from training to actual classroom teaching.

j. Reflective Model: Teacher as Reflective Practitioner

According to Glazer et al. (2000), a model which is based on the ideas of the
reflective practitioner requires that teachers reflect on the daily experiences in the
classroom, the changes or experiments that may be implemented in the classroom, and
their effect. Once this information is collected, the following steps should be taken:

A discussion concerning the information, possibly guided by pre-selected

questions;
Action planning for a modified practice or experiment;
Readings that can contribute to reflection and discussion;
The use of an external facilitator in the reflection process.

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An example of the implementing of such a model is reported by Adalbjarnardottir

and Selman (1997). They designed and implemented an intervention program that had
two goals: to promote students interpersonal competence and skills; and to provide
support for teachers professional development by encouraging them to reflect on their
pedagogical ideas, aims, teaching practices, and professional development as they relate
to the issues of childrens social behavior and development of children. The program
promoted two kinds of reflection: individual and group. It was observed that teachers
became more reflective of their practices, and provided significant opportunities for
children to do the same.
k. Project-based Models
These models prepare teachers for leadership roles in the classroom and the school,
and improve the general quality of their professional development. An example of such
a model is reported by Kieviet (1990). Secondary-school teachers in the Netherlands
were involved in a project which included an in-depth service course to learn how to
develop thematic learning materials. The course was offered in several formats, which
varied in the amount of time that was allocated to explanation and to practice. Teachers
were involved discussions, evaluations, reflections, and development of materials. And
then did an evaluation, together with the researcher, of the aspect of the program that
was most effective. It was noted that they learned more when a greater proportion of the
course was dedicated to practical activities. This learning became more effective when
they were coached by a tutor following completion of the course. These findings then
influenced the teachers and the school-administrators practices.
l. Portfolios
A portfolio is a collection of items gathered over a certain period of time to illustrate
different aspect of persons work, professional growth and abilities. In teaching
portfolio is usually a tool used to engage teachers and students in discussions about
topics related to teaching and learning. There are three forms of portfolio usually used
by educators: an employing portfolio, an assessment portfolio, and a learning portfolio
(Dietz, 1999). Teaching portfolio can accomplish formative assessment, summative
assessment, and self-assessment. Bush (1999) reported the successful use of portfolio to
support teachers professional development, as they provide an opportunity for teachers
to reflect on their own work, goals, and activities in and out of the classroom.

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m. Action Research
Action research is a process of investigation, reflection, and action which
deliberately aims to improve, or make an impact on, the quality of the real situation
which forms the focus of the investigation. Three reasons explain why action research
can be an effective model for teachers professional development: it is inquiry-based,
and allows teachers to investigate their own worlds, it is aimed at the improvement of
teaching and learning in school, and it leads to deliberate and planned action to improve
conditions for teaching and learning (OHanlon, 1996).
Implementing a model of action research for professional development does not
imply a process of individual inquiry or research in isolation. In fact, most initiatives
that have promoted action research have used at least one of the following collaborative
formats: whole-school projects, small-group action forms of collaborative action
research have been evaluated as being a very effective form of professional
development (Day, 1998).
n. Teachers Narratives
This model is reported by Schmidt (no date) in Colombia, where teachers are
engaged in learning how to use their narratives and writings in their own professional
development. In this particular case, the use of narratives is combined with reflective
model, as teachers reflect on their own and on others practices through the use of
writing.
A very significant case reported in the literature which focuses on writing as a tool
for professional development is the US National Writing Project (Lieberman and Wood,
2001). The National Writing Project is guided by a number of principles:

Teachers learn by teaching other teachers

Teachers learn from making their work public and having it discussed and

critiqued by a group of peers

Learning to write and learning to teach have a great deal in common; in order to
learn how to teach or how to write, teachers must teach or write, publicly expose

their work, be critiqued and revise

There are strong value commitments, but methods and means are non-

ideological
Teaching is accepted as being messy, uncertain and unfinished
Teaching learn by taking on different roles and seeing the world from different
perspectives
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Teachers take away with them leadership learning techniques

Networks provide powerful contexts for teacher learning, community, and
enhancement of teachers confidence and self-esteem.

o. The Generational Model, The Cascade Model, or The Training-of-Trainers

Model
In this model, a first generation of teachers is trained or educated in a particular
topic and aspect of teaching or subject matter, and after a certain amount of time
become the educators of a second generation. This model has been successfully
implemented in a number of settings. For example, Caverly et al. (1997) report on its
use to educate teachers in a school district of Texas (USA) in how to infuse the use of
technology into the curriculum. He describes the School Attuned project, in which a
small number of teachers are taught, through case study, how to identify and diagnose
eight areas of brain functioning. These teachers, in turn, teach their colleagues to do the
same assessment. This project showed very positive effect on the teachers, the children,
and the childrens families.
p. Coaching or Mentoring
Coaching is the process by which a colleague who is a critical listener or observer,
asks questions, makes observations and offers suggestions that help a teacher grow,
reflect, and produce different decisions (Harwell-Kee, 1999, p. 28). This process
provides opportunities and structures for teachers professional development. Mentoring
is a form of coaching that tends to be short-term, for example, for a beginning teacher
or for someone new to a school or a system. In other words, coaching is a learned skill,
therefore coaches and mentors need training. There are three possible models of
mentoring:

The apprenticeship model: the mentor is the master teacher to be emulated

The competence model: the mentor relates training and assessment to pre-

determined standards of practice

The reflective model: the mentor adopts the role of critical friend who assists
in the evaluation of teaching.

There are several studies that report the effectiveness of mentoring as a form of
professional development. For example, Holloway (2001) reports on two effective
mentoring programs in USA. He also examined how to different mentoring styles (one
that focus on providing multiple opportunities for the student-teachers to learn from,
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and the other one that focus on the particular teaching experience of the studentteachers in that specific place and at that particular time) affected the learning process
of their students. Both were found to be effective, and when the style matched that of
the student-teachers, the experience was positive for both members involved in the
relationship.

CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
3.1 Conclusion
The professional Development is very needed by the teachers to teach the students
especially in this globalization era, many students have different behavior weather good
or bad. If the teachers have professional development, they can manage their students
be better. In education, the term professional development may be used in reference to a
wide variety of specialized training, formal education, or advanced professional
learning intended to help administrators, teachers, and other educators improve their
professional knowledge, competence, skill, and effectiveness.
The teachers must have four competences to develop their teaching skill and to be
better teacher. The fourth competences are pedagogical competence, professional
competence, social competence, and personal competence.

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There are two models and types to improve professional development. The first
model is organizational partnership models and the second model is small group or
individual model.

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