INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

- UNIT I

Brief History Of Islam In Terms Of Birth, Spread Across Countries

And Principles- Influences On Islamic Architecture-Evolution Of
Building Types In Terms Of Forms Anf Functions-The Mosque, The
Tomb, Minaret, The Madarasa, The Palace, The Caravanserai,
Vernacular Architecture, The Market-Important Principles,Elements
And Character Of Islamic Architecture In Terms Of Structure,
Materials And Methods Of Construction-Elements Of Decoration,
Color, Geometry,Light-Important Examples To Illustrate Development
Of Islamic Architecture.

BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAM

ISLAM Devotion of God, specifically Allah One God.
Those who practice such devotion and submit themselves, to the WILL OF ALLAH,
followers of Islam called as Muslims.
It is Youngest World Religion-Though it regards itself as a revival of an ancient
monotheistic religion.
Its early success and speed, to which it spread to the other Non-Arab cultures, after
Mohammeds death makes it unique in religious history.
Within the common religion, many distinctive local and cultural / ethnic features
developed. Islam started to absorb the elements of culture of the conquered and the
converted.
WHAT UNITES MUSLIMS?
Belief in One God.
Mohammed as his prophet-to whom the message of God is revealed.
Book of Islam Koran.
Obedience to the five pillars of faith
Use of Arabic as the classical language.
ISLAM Duty to speak about
Mohammed the prophet.
Sunni & Shiites.
Five pillars of Islam.
Koran.
1. MOHAMMED THE PROPHET
Born in 570 AD, a rich caravan city of the Hijaz (near Red Sea) in Mecca.
Brought up by an uncle, according to Arabic tradition.
Met a Christian monk, who introduced him the text of gospels.
At 25, he married a rich widow, had many children, only one survived Fatima.

At 40, Arch angel Gabriel to recite the name Allah,from which came the KORAN.
Preaching in Mecca (12 Years), due to the scorn of many, he moved with a few disciples
to (Medinat al Nabi) Medina.
Expatriation in 622 A.D. This marks the beginning of the HEGIRA (emigration),
founding of the Islamic Empire.

2. SUNNI & SHIITES

Majority of Muslims (88 90%) Sunnis. Described from the Arab word, (Sunna
Usual practice and custom).Muslims, who followed, the historical tradition of the Four
Rightly Guided caliphs, and successor called themselves, Sunnis-traditionally orthodox.
Rise of Shiites (minority) falls into the period of dispute our legitimate succession of the
Prophet. Defended the principles that the sole legitimate. Successors are prophet cousin
and son in law and his direct descedents from his marriage to Mohammeds Daughter
Fatima. They are a Strong influence on Islamic intellectual and political life.
3. FIVE PILLARS OF FAITH (PRINCIPLES)
Religious practice is based on the Five Pillars. The 5 pillars of faith and Islamic law
(SHARIA) are the most important elements in the life of the Muslim community.
These Pillars (Arkan), place emphasis on the Cohesion of the, Islamic community
(Umma).

First Pillar

Shahada Represents the simplest, most important Religious act.

Consists of the passage. Three is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger
of god

Second Pillar

Salat praying five times a day at fixed times.

Most important Prayer Midday On Friday

Third Pillar

Zakat- Giving of Alms.

All Muslims should share their wealth poor and needy, orphans, sick, pilgrims.

Fourth Pillar

Saum- Ritual Fasting in the month of Ramadan (9th Month)

Fifth Pillar

The Haj- Pilgrimage to Great mosque, Mecca and its surrounding once in their
lifetime.

4. KORAN
Emphasis god as free creator, preserver of mankind

No explicit creation story compared.

EVOLUTION OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

The first followers of the Holy Prophet (SAW) that is the Arabs had no native artistic traditions.
As Islam spread, its art forms developed and were modified by the different climatic conditions
and materials that were available in the lands where Islam spread, adapting indigenous art styles

Islamic Art encompasses:

Architecture,
Decorative art,
Pottery,
Glass,
Calligraphy,
Painting,
Textiles

Roman,
Early Christian
Byzantine styles
The influence of Sassanian art - the architectural and decorative styles of pre-Islamic
Persia - became prominent.
The Turks and the Mongols brought in Central Asian influences on styles.

Development of Islamic Art - Influence of Styles :

The development of Islamic art began in the 7th century

The Ummayad Caliphs (661-750) who spread Islam from Syria to Spain.
Abbasid Caliphs (750-1258) who became well-known for their promotion of learning
and culture,
Art also flourished under Ottoman Turks, Seljuk Turks who ruled Iran in the 11th and
I2th centuries.
Earlier in Egypt and Syria, distinctive styles were associated with the-Fatimid
reign(909-1171)

SPREAD ACROSS COUNTRIES AND PRINCIPLES

SPREAD:
Maghreb in the west
Parts of china
Southeast Asia in the east
Entire Arab and Persian area
Part of northern Africa
Strong presence in Europe.

Compared to other world religions, Islams spread was swift and comprehensive. The spread in
the early period was unique and Unparalled.It was a historical phenomenon. In their religious
zeal, and fighting force, they were historically Fortunate. Sudden death of prophet, coincident
with 632 AD.Death of prophet, did not hamper the expansion.

YEMEN 628 Partially to Islam

- 634 Fully converted to Islam
- ABU BAKR caliph (Khalifa representative)
- (Community Umma)
-First caliph ABU BAKR (632 634)
-II nd caliph UMAR IBN AL KHATTAB (634-644)
-Umar Founder Of Islamic Empire
-He planned wars, organized military campaigns.
-Brought in land distribution/pension systems/ poll tax on NonMuslims
-Died in 644, (Murdered by Christian)
635 Damascus
636 Jerusalem
637 Syria , Palestime, Mesopotamia
639 641 Eygpt
640 644 South of Persia
647 Libya
667 Carthage (Tunisia)
680 Algeria
681 / 82 Morocco
711 Gibraltar to Spain
694 A campaign to central Asia / India
711 Afghanistan / parts of Pakistan.

PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Symmetry Spatial planning and Massing.
Repetition of designs creating pattern.
Contrast -textures and colour.
Geometry plans an important role in Islamic Architecture.
The manipulation of planes, regardless of form, material or scale.
Islamic decorations-Calligraphy, Arabesque.
Repetition and Multiplication of elements -floral and figural motifs.
Water and Light are also of paramount importance to Islamic architectural decoration.
Space is defined by surface and since surface is articulated by decoration, there is an
intimate connection in Islamic architecture between space and decoration.
INFLUENCES ON ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

It is the requirements of prayers that constitute the prima progenitor of architrave used in
Islam.
First modest examples of Islamic architecture Appeared during the prophets life time.
They were infact, transformations which Mohammed made to his own house to adapt to
the needs of his faith.
Architecture in this instance might be an overstatement.
Because, this was a land of semi nomads and sedentary Arabs.
Building known as mosque appropriately associated with Islam.

PROPHETS HOUSE EARLY CHARACTERISTICS

First mosque dwelling erected by Muhammad in medina.
It was only during the first century of Islam, that the mosque appeared.
As a separate and individualized building with an architectural typology of its own and a
set of technical requirements.
On the east, a service of rooms, facing a square courtyard measuring about 50m a side,
2500 square meters.
All were enclosed by a wall.Vast dimension camel drivers had the habit of fencing the
herds at night.
When a necessity of prayer arose; the Courtyard, was provided with a lean to roof
along the north wall.
ROOF Palm branches and supported by 2 rows of palm trunks, forming a sort of a
portico
Earlier, the orientation was towards, Jerusalem 624 AD.Later, in 630 was replaced by
prostration towards the Kabba in Mecca (why? To distinguish the Muslims from Jews).
Later on, due to the enlargement of the Muslim community the two rows of palms
became three rows of palm trunks columns.
Early Characteristics, of an Islamic space, in comparsion to the elongated hall of the
Byzantine.
Against the wall (QIBLA), there was a raised Wooden Seat & Pulpit, where Mohammed
sat to address the people (Minibar).
Verandah formed of palm trunks, provided cover for a limited no.of worshippers.
The main hall and a shelter for the homeless on the opposite side were added later.
There is no Mihrab, but later on added in 709, by the Umayyad successor.
His living quarters became the tomb.
The Pre-eminence of the Prophets mosque served as a model for subsequent mosques.
KABBA - MECCA, Saudi Arabia.
Kabba means (cube), main shrine of Islam
Grey stone building, Covered with a black veil of silk and cotton.
First building dedicated to God, Which was brought down to earth by Gabriel and built
by Abraham itself.
36 ft (11m) in height,which is replaced by draperies of white fabric during pilgrimage.

PROMINENT EXAMPLES
1. The Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem
2. The Mosque of the Umayyads, is Damascus
3. The Mosque of the Aghlabids, in Kairouan , Tunisia.
4. The Great Mosque of the Caliphate of Cordoba, in spain.
The above are masterpieces of Arabic art, expressing the splendor of early Islam.
1. THE DOME OF THE ROCK IS JERUSALEM (687 AD and 692 AD)
A GEOMETRIC MARVEL (QUBBA AL SAKHARA)

Introduction:
Caliph AbdAlMalika had the Dome of the Rock built on the same place where the Temple of
Jerusalem had stood.The temple, stood in the centre of the sacred site on Mount Moraih.

Planning :

The central octagonal plan is 54m in diameter

The Cuppola, rises to height of 36m.
The facades of the octagon, facing the four cardinal points have doors with porches.
The largest facing south, has a porch supported by 8 paired columns, in 2 rows on either
side of the entrannce
Dominating the sacred rock, and supported on a drum, is the DOME- Suggestive of the
horseshoe arch, rises high above.
Inside there is a Double Ambulatory, used for ritual circumambulation.These ring like
spaces are bounded by concentric porches.
The outr most is Octogonal and runs parallel to the walls of the buildings.
On each wall of the Octagon, there are two columns between the corner pillar.
Portico comprises of 8 pillars and 16 columns.
Interior Portico Circular, having 4 pillars Between which there are 3 columns
supporting 4 arches on either side.
Thus there 12 shafts, along with pillars, supporting 16 arches surrounding the rock.
Above this arcade is the high cylindrical drum on which the dome rests.
It has been noted that the concentric arcades are laid out in the figure of an external
circles with radius 26.87m, Inside which are inscribed 2 square set at 45 angles.
The intersecting point of these squares describes the Inner Circle with radius-20.56m.
By connecting them vertically and horizontally, new intersection are made describing a
circle, which corresponds to the outlines of the inner arcadewith radius-11.13.
From the exterior circle, 2 logical smaller circle arrives which describe the entire
construction.
Through the ritual of circumambulation, the pilgrim experiences the squaring of the
circle, the union of body & soul.

The Dome :

On top of the cylindrical drum, which emerges from the octagon, rises the proud domeGilded copper roofing
Dome was made with two wooden farmes, one inside the other.
Prophet rose from the rock to the heavens, leaving an imprint of his foot in the central
row.
The outer shell, slightly raised and salient.
Constrains an inner shelf which is strictly hemispherical
Use of wood other than stone comes from the Syrian builder.
This allows creation of light structures, which is span large spaces.

Elements Of Decoration:

Reminiscent of Byzantine ornamental languages.

The exterior of the octagon was redone in Polychrome Tiles-blue Colour dominates.
Coloured Marbles columns rest on Cube Shaped Bases.
Gilded Corinthian Capitals topped with dados.
Walls and arcades - mosaics depicting vines and branches on a gold background.
Floral compositions are abundant, only Plant Motifs, no human figures.
Conscreated by Abraham and Prophets night journey the rock was
Reused ancient columns capitals with blossoming corbeils.

Walls

Veneer of polished marble in geometric patterns.

Sparsely decorated Mirhab.

Windows

Of the octagon were originally lined with finely carved marble screens (CLAUSTRA).
Later polychromes, stained glass set in plaster lattice work.

Dome

Is supported by an arcade with alternating black and white arch stones.

Arcade crowned with mosaics, above which are clerestory opening.

2) THE MOSQUE OF THE UMAYYADS IN DAMASCUS (705 715)

Introduction:
In the beginning of 8th Century, Caliph al walid built this sumptuous mosque in the centre of
Damascus. Style is reminiscent of Byzantine architecture.Ist Century AD Church dedicate to
Roman god Jupiter - 4th Century AD St John the Baptist , 635 Islamic conquest, - divided
between Muslims / Christians dual purpose. After 664, Damascus capital of ummayad
dynasty- Remodelled to suit Muslim architecture.
- Profound Byzantine influence

Spatial plan is reminiscent of a church

Demolition and reconstruction
Re-use of materials, where hypostyle hall is recurrent.
Redistributed the materials.
Strong Byzantine Character.

Planning :

Oriented in the east west direction, rectangular enclosure, to the north, vast oblong
courtyard 120m X 150m long.
Courtyard surrounded on 3 sides by arcades porticoes, fourth side faade of the prayer
hall.
HARAM (space in mosque where rituals/ prayers take places) Prayer Hall. Central
Pediment surmounted by cupola.
Two symmetrical Wings on either side, 56m to east and west extending sideways.
Each is formed of 3 bays, emphasized by arcades. Each arcade supported by 10 massive
columns.
2 level of arches, half as wide supported by small columns - Corinthian Capitals,above
one arch, two smaller arches.
Prayer hall facing south occupies the entire southern side-136 X 38m.
Towers : Mosque enclosed by minarets at the two opposite ends of Qibla-A third
minaret, stands on north side on the central axis. To the right of north minaret is the gate
of paradise-This corresponds to the cupola, which dominates the Mirhab.
Courtyard Portico :Double arcade on the north side of mosque-Result of a
medieval restoration-Reuse of columns
Eagle Dome:Central building dominated by a cupola, known as Eagle DomeDivides the oblong prayer hall into 2 wings-Inherited imperial Roman dimensions.
Clock Tower:To the east of the courtyard stands a small building, Which once
housed a clock- indicated times of both day night by using bells & light.
Treasury :Chamber perches on top of eight reused marble columns-Is an octagon
covered with mosaics on a gold black background-Surmounted by a lead lined cupola

Section / Interiors :
Elevation of portico, with double arcade above
Alternating interplay of two columns and one pillar
Turn bays on the upper level,Creates an even rhythm in the surrounding gallery
Supported on Corinthian capital
Elements Of Decoration
Mosaics:

centre of the main hall (prayer) is the main entrance,completely covered with mosaics
Faade is covered with decorations, depicting a paradise of foliage and dwellings.
Typical Byzantine capitals, with dados, on the portico columns in the courtyard.

In the spandrils, the foliage of large trees shades believers in paradise.

Foliage recalls the theme of the Greens of paradise.

Main Entrance:

A high plinth of marble ran along the galleries and prayers hall.
At head height, there were fine, multicoloured mosaics.
Theme of decoration in the great mosque convey on image paradise
Gardens, trees, rivers, spanned picturesque bridges, villas, pleasure pavillions.
Based on the description of the joys promised by the prophet, to those who followed the
word of god.

EVOLUTION OF BUILDING TYPES IN TERMS OF FORMS AND

FUNCTIONS
STRUCTURES
Islarnic architecture can be divided in religious and secular structures
Religious structures:
The rnosque(masjid) and the
The madressah or religious school,
The mausoleum which served a dual purpose - as a tomb for a ruler or a holy man and as
a symbol of political power.
Secular structures:
The palaces,
Caravansaries,
The Markets
RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES
1) THE MOSQUE

Introduction
MOSQUE or Masjid- literally means a place for prostration. The Mosque is a place of
community gathering and prayer. It is an important building of the faith and is the key-note of
the Islamic Style. Derived from the dwelling of the last prophet of the creed,Muhammad
(SAW) at Medina in Arabia.
Everything was done according to the Sunnah- the practices & traditions of the Prophet which
are required to be adopted by all Muslims. Internally no specific structure for devotional
practices was required. But due to climatic reasons & the need for an environment away from
the distraction of everyday life-a house of prayer came into being.
Principal parts of the mosque:

This unique religious edifice had various prominent features - the 'Mihrab', enclosed 'Courtyard'
with arcades at the side, the 'Minaret,' the 'Mimbar'(pulpit). The principal parts of the Mosque
include:
The Sahnor a rectangular open Courtyard- Public space for meetings for the entire
Muslim community, private meeting with family members.
Fountain or tank in the centre of the courtyard - for ablutions which is described as the
hall of faith & the key of prayer.
Liwans or an oblong hall- Pillared Cloister on the 4 sides of the sahn. Cloister on the
Mecca side (West in India) was elaborated & expanded into a pillared hall or sanctuary.
Mihrab - The Western wall of this hall had a recess or alcove called the Mihrab
indicating the Qibla or direction for prayer.
Mimbar- On the right side of the Mihrab was the Mimbar or pulpit. Mimbar is a raised
wooden seat or pulpit, generally used for preaching and addressing the congregation present in
the mosque.

Minaret -An elevated plaftform from where the Muezzin Summons the faithful to prayer
was necessity & usually it was in the form of a high tower or Minaret.
Maqsura - Space revised for rulers and his entourage.
A portion of the sanctuary was screened off into a compartment for women.

In every town & city there was one mosque called the Jamma Mosque for congregational
prayers (Jumah prayers) on Fridays.To produce the structural effect of a house of prayer two
important elements were imposed on the exterior of the sanctuary:
A screen was thrown across its front to form a faade- the maqsura screen.
Above the central space of the nave a dome was raised. The task was to coordinate these
two dominating features to form a unified architectural composition.
As a rule the view of the central dome was obstructed by the parapet crowning the faade & this
combination is sometimes pleasing to see from the sides & back of the building.
EXAMPLE:
The Mosque of the Umayyads, is Damascus.
The Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem.
THE TOMB
In spite of the Islamic restrictions on the construction of elaborate mausoleums, tombs, erected as the
symbols of the power of departed leaders, became important structures of Islamic architecture. In Islam

construction of memorials is prohibited. In spite of this due to external influences and cultures
they came to be built in India.The most outstanding example of this form is the 'Taj Mahal at Agra in
India.

Parts Of A Tomb:
Tomb consisted of Vaulted halls & towering domes enclosed with a spacious garden all on a
grand scale just to enshrine a mortuary chamber below.

A tomb consists of a single compartment or Tomb Chamber-Huzah (or)

Estanah.
The centre of the Tomb chamber has the Cenotaph or Zarih
The whole structure in roofed over by a dome.
In the ground underneath resembling a crypt in the morthery chamber called the
Maqbarah Or Takhana C the grave on Qabr in the middle.
In the western wall of the Tomb chamber there in a mihrab. In large mausoleums
there is a separate mosque building.
The entire building is contained within one enclosed called a Rauza.

Tomb Types
Six tomb types in the Islamic world may be noted by plan:

The Canopy Tomb which is open on all sides and generally possesses four or eight
supporting pillars or piers, (Eg. SaYYid Usman Rauza)

A Modified Canopy Tomb in which a qibla wall is established. An enclosed square with
one, three or four entrances and may be surrounded by a covered verandah of one or two
aisles (a Qibla wall being the feature of the one and three Entranced square tomb).Ex:
Tomb of Sultan Iltutmish.

An Enclosed Tomb generally square but may also be octagonal with a single entrance. A
square plan with four corner towers or minarets.Generally this type is shown with a Qibla
Ex: Tomb of SuItan Ghari or Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus .

A Tomb with a Courtyard attached to it. An enclosed octagon set within an octagonal
verandah. This type may be found with one, three, four, seven or eight entrances to the
central area. Ex: Tomb of Shah Rukn-i-Alam or Tomb of Sher Shah.

Combination generally of square and octagon- the plan in which a central chamber is
surrounded by eight smaller chambers or areas, four at the cardinal points and four at the
intercardinal points Ex: The Tomb of Humayun or the Taj Mahal

The Mashhad or a domed, square area with an ambulatory on three sides.

Connected Tombs - A Tomb to which other tombs are attached creating a single roofed
area.

Example 1: Qubbat As-Sulab1yaa,Samarra, Iraq(9th century)

First known mausoleum, in a Muslim country, built in samara, Iraq.Qubbat as-Sulabiyaa is
considered to be the oldest surviving example of Islamic Tomb Architecture.
Plan:
An octagonal structure with an octagonal inner chamber and possibly a rudimentary dome.

Its internal space is not as vast as tile dome of rock.

Form the plan, it seems that, sulabiya derived its inspiration from the dome of the rock, of
Jerusalem and also of Byzantine shrines.
The preference of the octagon over the square or the hexagon not only finds roots in these
precedent structures, but possibly in the importance of the no 8
Octogonal plan,Square funerary hall inside.
Ambulatory-rite of circumambulation was practiced (emphasing the sovereigns sacred
nature)
Constructed of artifical stone moulded into a brick like form.
Each piece measured 33cm, 10cm thick,Covered with stucco & perious materials

Example II: The Tomb Of Samanids, Bukhara, Uzbekistan

This is an example of a tomb with a Square Plan.
The square is utilized as an eminently suitable form for Islamic Tomb Architecture
Of further interest is the material of construction-Brick.
Although not large it is monumental in propotions.
It is a Square plan with engaged columns, which act as a support for the taper of the cube
slight as "T is
An architrave with a set in arcade topped by a balustrade encircles the top of the cube.
At the corners, over the engaged columns, are small finials in the form of elongated
hemispheres.
A hemispherical dome caps the whole and provides a dramatic interior as well as exterior.
The internal space is diminished due to the thickness of the brick construction.
THE MINARET
What Is A Minaret??
Tower near to, or built into, the structures of a mosque, which is used by the muezzin call out
the Adhan in order to make people to come to prayers in Islam.

Minaret is a tall, slender tower on a mosque with one or more projecting balconies from
which muezzin summons the people to prayer.
Evolution Of Minarets
Minarets began as low square masonry towers on the pattern of pre-Islamic Syrian
towers, which had been built for both pagan and Christian purposes.
As soon as Islamic architects desired to make them higher, however, they resorted to the
stepped storied construction typical of Roman lighthouses.
From there it was but a short step to the introduction of varied shapes on different storey.
Eventually a common form of minaret developed, which began as a square, changed in
the next storey to a polygon and then to the cylindrical main shaft.
The balcony was constructed of light wood, or cantilevered on brackets or Superimposed
niches.

 The top of the minaret formed another storey, frequently contrasting, in shape and it was
then crowned by a dome or a conical roof
The stability of high minarets was assured, not merely by the storey of superimposed
stories of decreasing size, but also by the use of the staircase construction to tie the outer
skin of each minaret to its central core.
With stone treads the tie was simple and strong, with brick it was created by building an
arch under each tread, or a sloping barrel vault under each flight.
Minarets of square plan were further strengthened by introducing arches under the
landings. In this way the whole height of the minaret was constructed as a hollow screw
of greater strength than its slender appearance suggested.
Using this technique, Ottoman minarets rose to heights of more than seventy meters.
EXAMPLE :
The Minaret of the Great Mosque at Qairwwan (724 AD)
The Minaret of the Mosque of al-Hakim in Cairo (1002-1 3 AD)
Qutb Minar, Delhi.
THE MADARASA
Evolution of Madrassa
Madrassas did not exist in the early period of Islam.Their formation can probably be
traced to the early Islamic custom of meeting in mosques to discuss religious issues.
At this early stage, people seeking religious knowledge tended to gather around certain
more knowledgable Muslims: these informal teachers later became known as the
Shaykhs: and these shaykhs began to hold regular religious education sessions called
majalis.
The 'Madressah (religious seminary) came into being in eastern Iran.Established in 859,
Jamiat alQarawiyyin (located in Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque) in the city of Fas (Fez) is
considered the oldest madrassa in the Muslim world. It was founded by Fatima Al-Fihri,
the daughter of a wealth merchant named Mohammed Al-Fihri.
What is Madrassa?
"Madrassa" literally means "a place where learning/teaching is done".
This unique type of religious building has long been a part of Islamic civilization
The Madrassa, a school for the training of spiritual and legal leaders, became one of the
most typical institutions of the Muslim world of the 12th century.
Most madrassas were endowed (waqf) with private funds.
A typical Islamic school usually offer-s-two- courses of study: a hifz course- that is
memorization of the Qur'an (the person who commits the entire-Qur'an to memory is
called a hafiz)- and an alim course leading the candidate to become an accepted scholar
in the community.
The Madressah has halls on four sides (with a larger one in front of the Qibla), connected by
two-story arcades which lead to dormitories.

Madarssa is typical of Persian Architecute (Vaulted architectural space):

a. Iwan a large covered area with mainly open facade usually constructed at the
edge of a courtyard.
b. Stalactite Decorations a Muqarnas covering vaults/ cupolas.(Ornamental
motif bordering cornices, lending emphasize frieze).
Examples:

The 11 th century Friday Mosque at Isphahan in Iran, is an early great example of

madressah-mosque.

Mustansiriya , in Baghdad, Iraq.

Ex: Mustansiriya , in Baghdad, Iraq.

Built by caliph al Mustansis (1226-1242) 13th Century
Oblong, Bldg 100 X 50cm
Courtyard 63 X 28cm
Double axial symmetry.
Emphasised by 4 iwans facing each other.
Around a central pool, for ablutions.
Pointed arches framed by majestic cornices.
Typical persian influence.
THE PALACE
During Ummayad and early Abbasid eras, the caliphs' families built desert palaces in Syria and Iraq some
of which had hunting parks - like those of the Sassanian kings. Or they had domed baths, derived from'
late Roman types of buildings. These palaces demonstrate the Western and Eastern artistic influences
which characterized Islamic art.

History:
The caliphs (successors of' Muhammad) conquered new territories in the name of Islam.
The sultans (emperors or kings) began to administer the vast empire and carried on
extensive trade.They became rich and their palaces reflected this.
Because the sultan's power was also tied to being a good Muslim, the rulers also built
mosques as part of their palaces.
Palaces also included living quarters for the wives of the sultan called a harem,
bathhouses, kitchens and dining areas, and quarters for the Sultan's family, and servants.
Male servants and guards who lived in the palace near the women were usually eunuchs
(castrated males). Soldiers were housed in a separate part of the palace or outside of it.
THE ALHAMBRA PALACE OF THE MOORISH KINGS AT GRANADA, SPAIN

Introduction:
In the l3th century, the last Muslim dynasty of Spain made Granada its capital. The Alhambra
became the dynasty's royal city. The Alhambra (Arabic: Al-Hamra', means "the red palace") is a
palace and fortress complex of the Moorish monarchs of Granada, in southern Spain (known as
Al-Andalus).

One of the most famous examples of Islamic architecture, the Alhambra was built in the 14th
century and served as the royal palace for the Caliph, Abd-el-Walid.Once the residence of the
Muslim kings of Granada and their court, it is currently a museum exhibiting exquisite Islamic
architecture. The Alhambra was redesigned in the last half of the 14th century by Muhammad

Planning :

The terrace or plateau where the. Alhambra settles, measures about 740 m X205 m
It is enclosed by a strongly fortified wall, which is flanked by thirteen towers
Within the walls of the Alhambra were Mosques, Baths, houses, gardens and a royal
burial place.
Except for the outer walls, the citadel and two large architectural units, little remains of
the original construction.
The plan of the Alhambra basically includes two great inner courts set at right angles to
each other.
Tile courts of the Alhambra lead to halls, and tile halls to apartments, each in turn giving
way to smaller courts and baths, all richly dressed in geometric designs of stucco,
ceramic and wood.

The Patio De La Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the

Pond):

This court is 42 m by 22 m, and in the centre there is a large pond set in the marble
pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides.
There are galleries on the north and south sides;On the south 7 m high, and supported by
a marble colonnade.
Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and over it are three elegant
windows with arches and miniature pillars.
From this court the walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the
north and reflected in the pond.

The Celebrated Pa Tio De Los Leones (Court Of The Lions)

An oblong court, 35 m by 20 m, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white

marble columns.
A pavilion projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and light domed
roof, elaborately ornamented.
The square is paved with colored tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the
walls are covered 1.5 m up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border
above and below enamelled blue and gold.
The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed and the general form
of the piers, arches and pillars is most graceful.
They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a large square of
arabesques; and over the pillars is another square of exquisite filigree work.
In the centre of the court is the celebrated Fountain of Lions, a magnificent alabaster
basin supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble,

Not designed with sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength and courage.

Palace Room And View Of Court Of Lions

"Honeycomb," "stalactite," or mocarabe vaulting in the "Hall of the Abencerrajes

Although the Alhambra is a royal palace, it was given no center or focus to emphasize
power.
It is a maze of rooms and courtyards, of passages and corridors, of water basins and
canals that link the open and covered spaces, of fountains and of decorations that are
undoubtedly among the most extraordinarily complex and technically accomplished in all
Islamic architectural design
The Gardens and Fountains (shown above) are a symbol for "Paradise" or Heaven. (This
connection between "garden" and "Paradise" are in the Qur'an.)
A garden (al-janna, "The Garden") is usually four rectangles with fruit trees arranged in
rows parallel to a watercourse.The symbolic value of the formal Islamic garden was as an
earthly anticipation of paradise.

THE CARAVANSERAI
Both the Arabs and the various non-Arab conquerors from Central Asia were originally nomadic
and inherited a tradition of travel. Large armies were constantly oil tile move.
Students and scholars undertook long journeys to sit at the feet of famous masters. The wealth of
cities depended upon the transport of goods.
And the Faith of Islam imposed upon the Faithful the most powerful of all motives for travel -performance of the Hajj or Pilgrimage.In the harsh conditions and inhospitable countryside of
most Islamic countries, travellers had a frequent need for places of rest and shelter in areas
between the widely spaced cities and towns. This led to the construction of caravansaries.
What is Caravanserai?
The term caravanserai is a composite Turkish term derived from caravan (i.e. a group of
travellers) and serai (palace).
A caravanserai (Persian: karwan ara) was a roadside inn where travellers could rest and
recover from the day's journey.
Roadside building which provides accommodation and shelter for travellers.
Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information, and people across the
network of trade routes covering Asia, North Africa, and South-Eastern Europe.
Generally it refers to a large structure which would be capable of coping with a, large
number of travellers, their animals and goods.
The term first seems to have been used in the twelfth century under the Seljuks and may
indicate a particularly grand form of khan with a monumental entrance.
Why was caravanserai built?

In the harsh conditions in the countryside of most Islamic countries, travellers needed places of
rest and shelter as they travelled between the widely spaced cities and towns. This led to
the construction of caravanserais (or "khans"). They were often built by the rulers to encourage
trade which they taxed.
The main function of a caravanserai was to receive travellers and merchandise. These
caravanserais consisted of courtyards to take care of animals, rooms to lodge the travellers, and
storage areas for their goods. The caravanserais which survive today show the spread of travel
and trade which developed from the First centuries of Islam onward.
What was inside a caravanserai? What happened there?
This colourful drawing of a caravanserai shows a central courtyard where animals are watered
and fed, storage areas below, and apartments above for the travellers. There was always a
mosque and bathhouse in the caravanserai. Caravans generally stayed only one or two nights
before continuing their journeys.
Why did rulers build caravanserai?
Caravans travelled along the Silk Roads to China, One of the most travelled routes is from China
to Istanbul, Turkey (Constantinople). Caravanserai were built about one day's travel apart, about
30 - 40 miles away. It was along routes like these that caravanserai were built by powerful rulers
who wanted to encourage trade. (Rulers taxed traders and therefore they wanted to keep trade
routes safe and open.)
Typical Plan:
It was a building with a square or rectangular walled exterior, with a single portal wide
enough to permit large or heavily laden beasts such as camels to enter.
The courtyard was almost always open to the sky, and the inside walls of the enclosure
were outfitted with a number of identical stalls, bays, niches, or chambers to
accommodate merchants and their servants, animals, and merchandise.
Caravanserais provided water for human and animal consumption, washing, and ritual
ablutions.
Sometimes they even had elaborate baths. They also kept fodder for animals and had
shops for travellers where they could acquire new supplies.
In addition, there could be shops where merchants could dispose of some of their goods.
Ex: Caravansary in Karaj, Iran of safavid era.
Ex: Rustem Pasha Caravanserai -Edirne,Turkey.

The Islamic culture was characterised by the extraordinary mobility of people.Travel was very
customary in Islamic community (Hajj pilgrimage).Those who returned carried goods with
them to compensate the cost of travel.
Islamic markets-Three types of structures:
Network of covered streets

Khans (urban- equivalent to caravanserai)

Secured gated and covered edifice

Market - souq / suq (normally covered)

Canvas tents food stuff
Temporary but regularly occurring
Cario - Madrassa of sultan Hassan permanent remainders.
Strictly organized according to what was being sold.
Bazaar gates, secured at night
This feature QAYSARIVYA
Oblong hall
Roofed (domed)
Kesaria
Door / locket
Byzantines
Hammams Public baths law demanded completed immersion
Mosque / Bazar / Hammam
Gropued at the intersection / cross roads
Chahar suq (four sides) 4 road

ELEMENTS AND CHARACTER IN TERMS OF MATERIALS

Introduction
The countries into which Islam first expanded were already rich in building materials. And
the important techniques of exploitation of natural resources for building work and trade in
building materials had long been established. Islamic architecture made use of locally
available materials for construction. Indian Islamic architecture in its early stages sees the use of
locally available materials scavenged from the earlier Hindu buildings.
Even in India there is a vast difference in the materials used from one region to another.The materials
used in western India varies from the one used in eastern India.Contrast was a major element in their
architecture. Hence the kind of materials that they used reflects the wonderful contrast that can be
achieved in colour and texture.Massive strictures, constructed of materials, characteristic of

there geographical location. (Brick-making and walling in mud brick alluvial plains and
eastern Iran, stone bearing areas Syria).
MATERIALS USED :

1. Brick for the structure (Eg: Tomb at samarra , IRAQ)

2. Stone Red sand stone
3. Marble In the form of relief and inlay work, decorative marble slabs, grills, plate
tracery.
4. Polychrome Stones Inlay work (Dome of rock, Jerusalem).
5. Mosaic coloured external surfaces of Islamic arch (Great mosque, Damascus)
6. Lime for mortar and plaster (Great mosque of Jibla south of sana).
7. Stucco In plaster
8. Wood Timber played important structural role in the history of Muslim building.
9. Gold Plating For ornamental use in religious and secular building. Screen wall in
the (Taj Mahal)) was proposed to be in gold.
10. Glass glass manufactures was sufficiently advanced to provide window glass.
11. Ceramic fettering in Ceramic was used by the jimurid architects
12. Lead / Brone lead working and bronze casting and use of iron (dome construction).
1. MOSAIC
Ummayads used mosaics either as paving or wall facing. The technique is no longer,
Roman, but strictly Byzantine. The mosaic, displays brighter colours, and has surface that
glistens because the basic materials, is now Glass, not stone. In 5th century Glass mosaic
technique covering stone cubes with a layer of glass. In 6th Century produce gold plated
glass itself ( Glass Gold leaf Glass).On this uniform plaster surface, the contours of the
motif were drawn with a sharp point, which served to fix the precise spot where each cut was
too placed.
These mosaics show, no living creatures, usually demonstrate an underlying vegetal theme.In
the great mosque at Damascus, the mosaics represent a landscape (With majestic tree,and
group of buildings and villas, set along the tanks of a stream). In great mosque at Corbola,
Spain, the mosaics are purely ornamental
Prominent Examples :
1. Dome of rock, jerusaleum
2. Great mosque of Ummayacle, Damascus, Isyria
3. Palace complex of Khilbat al Mafjar , near jeeicho

2. STUCCO
A Simple plaster based manual coating stucco is the most widespread method of
ornamentation in Islamic world (Central Asia, India to North Africa and spain). Produced
form Oypsum, abundant in the Middle East. Modest price. It does not require a high
temperature to be transformed into plaster; an important consideration where wood is scarce.
Advantages :
Easily fashioned / carved.
Shaped and moulded.
Construction materials, disappears behind finely wrought veils of STUCCO.
Adaptable to all architecture elements walls, pillars, vault etc.
Depends on the skill of craftsman
Preparation:
Preparation of coating material
Its application
Tracing
Cutting of pattern
Finishing touches
Examples
15th Century Friday mosque of Varamin , Ibn-Julum-mosque, cairo
Qass-al-hair-al gharbi
Achambra, spain
Samarra, iran
3. BRICK
Brick is the principal construction material in Iran, central Asia, Indus and Mesopotamia.
The formal characteristic of brick, offered the builder both a problem and solution.
Advantages :
Brick bends itself to all sort of manipulations, which can disrupt the monotony.
Eg:- tomb of the samanids, Bukhara
Fascinating in the art of Brick Assembalage, is the perfect interaction between the
construction technique and the ornamental pattern.
Disadvantages:
Repeated use over a large surface, kings brings about monotony.
Ornamental Panels In Brick
Fragments of bricks are cut, according to Geometric or calligraphic shapes, assembled
face down.
A layer of plaster is then applied
The whole template then shifted to the actual bldg.
Example :
Minaret of MasUd at Ghazna (12th Century)

4. CERAMIC
Ceramic tiles were in the beginning limited to only monochromatic, colours in brick
glazing.Then the polychrome tiles, in the 11th & 12th Century, announced a revolution in
Islamic architecture.
Colours Commonly Used:
1. Turquoise Blue,
2. Cobalt
3. Navy Blue
4. Emerald green
5. White/Black
6. Saffron Yellow
Each one require a specific firing time in order to achieve maximum beauty
Example:- Shah-i-zinda. Necropolis-Samarkand
Baghdad, Samarra.

Symmetry was a strong concept in all Islamic buildings. Ex: Garden Plans.
Plans:The plans were usually geometric in shape-Square, Rectangular being
predominately used.(Ex: Damascus, Qairwan).
Division into bays:The plan was normally divided into nine bays.The central bay was
large surrounded by 8 smaller bays, indicative of the 8 levels of precise.(Ex: Ak Serai,
Samarqand)
Axis: A strong axial planning resulting in symmetry. Most of the Islamic gardens are
formally laid out with a dominant axis. (Ex:- Caravanserai, KARAJ IRAN,
Madrassa, MUNSTASIR, BAGHDAD)
Octogon:The use of octagon in tomb architecture and other mosques was prevalent.
There was preference of the octagon, over usage or the hexagon.Possibly in the
importance of the no: 8,Coz 8, the first cubed no.(EX: Dome of Rock, Jerusaleum
format at samara).
Power Architecture: Begins, primarily, with military and defensive architecture.
Resulting in structures, such as citadels walled cities, moats.
(Ex: ALHAMBRA, Spain).

Methods of construction
1. Arches : Used for entranceways
Intersecting arches,
Pointed Arch
Horse shoe arch
Stacked transverse arches-,Transition from the ogee arch to the bifoliated cusped
arch.
Development From Corbelled To True Arch.
Ancient Indian way of constructing Corbelled Arch.
Corbelled Arch, with courses turned down vertically at the crown.

Indo-Islamic radically cut arch.

2. Domes : Corbelled domes, Squinch arch domes.Transition form the semicircular dome to
the onion shaped domes .
3. Squniches, Turkish Triangule, Pendentives :
In Mediterranean lands, the construction of domes was possible, over only small areas.
This was until architects, had derived a suitable transition between the ground plan which
was square and circular springing of the dome. The most ingenious solution of this problem,
which involved both the form and stability (Ex. Santa Sophia, Constantinople. 6th Century
AD)
i) Spherical Pendentive:
The spherical penentive is an interspace, formed by intersecting a hemisphere with a
cube.
Although equally unsatisfactory in terms of both stability and form, it was confined to
the Mediterranean area.
ii)Conical Pendentive:
Variant of the previous one.
Interspaced formed by intersecting a cone with a cube.
In Persia, the structure of domes developed without influenced by western
prototypes, which proved to be of great importance in the evolution of Indian domes.
The Persian architect proceeded from the fact that by changing a square Ground Plan
to a Octogon the Dome could rest on 8 points.
So that the difference shapes of the Octogon: Circle would not present any problems,
regarding Stability.
iii)Turkish Triangule:
Discovered independently in Turkey & India.
Intersecting a pyramid with & cube.
The architraves, which form the Octagon, at the springing of the dome, rest upon a
projection layer, of masonry , set diagonally across the corners.
Iv) Interspaces between Ribs (Squnich Nets)
The planes of the triangle (Turkish) were multiplied to make the transition to a 16
sided polygon in Persia, similarly a second Squnich Zone, was formed over the first.
All arches are of the same shape and size.
Each panel in this network has the form of a small squinch- Cluster of Squnich Nets.
Ex: Mosque at ISFAHAN
4. Stalactite / Muqarnas
Muqanna is a honeycomb decoration that can reflect and refract light.
Arabs, call it Muqaranas,referred to by most architectural historians as
Stalactites
Usually situated at a great ht. below the domes.

 In constructing Stalactites, the plaster was not generally applied to flat base.
Instead, birck or stones were made to project in such a way that only small niches had
to be filled with Stucco.
Used as transition from square panels of the ground floor plan to small Cupolas
Above.
Ornamental, motif, bordering cornices, emphasis to frieze.
Ex: Alhambra Palace At Granada.
Muqanna which coated archways and ceilings were premoulded in plaster and fitted
ingeniously together to create the effect of stalactites in a grotto. The walls are covered with
tapestry-like plaster relief, in a seemingly endless variety of geometrical and abstract patterns.
The panels are framed by holy texts from the Koran, carved by the Moorish masters in
contrasting calligraphically styles which dazzle the viewer with their intricacy and elegance.

ORNAMENTAL MOTIFS
1. The Figure
2. Plaint Forms
3. Geometry

In spite of condemnation by jurists, Figurative Art did exists in Islamic World.

The use of Animal, and above all Human Forms, had only a marginal place in
architecture.
Images only appear sporadically in the form of little scenes, included in a Vegetal
Scroll, or within the narrow limits of Ceramic Tile.
Images were mostly induced by external cultural influence or surviving local custom.
Figuration appeared most frequently in architecture, when Islamic art began evolving
under Umayyad, Specifically to glorify their power.

Example:
Most spectacular ex:of this accumulation of images Quasiramar Ammam
Here, where the sovereign held his reception, is the representation of an Enthroned
Prince, further Hunting Scenes, Bathings Scenes, Buildings, Animal Figures.
Qasr-Al-Hair Al Gharbi, palymra - horse man hunting with bow and arrow.
Great Mosque Of Diyrabakr (12th Centery) Ancient Mesopotamian Astrological
symbol Lion hunting down a Bull symbol of power.

2.Plant Form

Islamic Vegetal Ornamentation takes its basic vocabulary from Middle Eastern, Greco
Roman, and Byzantine.
Islamic artists reproduced nature with a great deal of accuracy. Flowers and trees
might be used as the motifs for the decoration of textiles, Objects and buildings.
The relationships between vegetal ornamentation and the Theme of Paradise, is set out
in certain buildings Ex: Mosque at Damascus, / Entrance to the Taj Mahal.
Trees on Faade Dome of Rock, it has been compared to the Mesopotamian Tree of
Life, a promise of resurrection and immortality.
Other basic element in Islamic Vegetal ornamentation is the Stem Line of unvarying
thickness, with no beginning and no limits to its growth, which extends infinitely.
Permanent link exists between architectural ornamentation and the tradition of the
Garden maintained in Iranians Mesopotamian world.

3. Geometry
What is the meaning given to Islamic Geometric ornamentation?
1. Interpretation of different levels of meaning Aesthetic, Philosophical, and Symbolic
2. Complex art reflects developments in mathematical sciences.
3. Islamic invented the dynamic mathematical concept of trignometry.

Geometric motifs were popular with Islamic artists and designers in all parts of the
world, for decorating almost every surface, whether walls or floors, pots or lamps,
book covers or textiles.
Aniconism - The development of this new distinctive art may have been due to the
discouragement of images in Islam.
Instead of covering buildings and other surfaces with human figures, they developed
complex geometric decorative designs, as well as intricate patterns of vegetal
ornament (such as the arabesque).
Geometric ornamentation in found in all materials Stone, Brick, Mosaic, Marble
facing, Wood.Most common Ceramic Tile Facing.
One way, which was very popular with the ceramicists of Baghdad and Kashan, was
interlocking pattern of two perfectly complementary modules Eight Pointed Star
and a cross with triangular extremities.
The circle, and its centre, are the point at which all Islamic patterns begin and is an
apt symbol of a religion that emphasizes one God, symbolising also, the role of
Mecca, the centre of Islam, toward which all Muslims face in prayer.
The circle has always been regarded as a symbol of eternity, without being and
without end, and is not only the perfect expression of justice-equality in all directions
in a finite domain.
From the circle come three fundamental figures in Islamic art, the triangle,the square
and the hexagon.
Islamic iconography is the Star which radiates equally in all directions. Rays of star,
reach out in all direction, making the star, a fitting symbol for the spread of Islam.
Ex: Six Pointed Star Inscribed in Ceramic Tile Qutaish Mosque Siclon (15th
Century)

One feature that is unique to the Shi'a branch of Islam is the use of mirrors in the
ornamentation of the interior architecture of holy places.
A dazzling arrangement of tiny pieces of mirrors using complex principles of
geometry in three dimensional inlays, usually decorates the domed ceilings and walls
of mausoleums (Ex. Holy Ahlul Bayt).

4. Calligraphy (Khatt in Arabic)

Calligraphy is considered one of the most important of the Islamic arts. Nearly all Islamic
buildings have some type of surface inscription in the stone, stucco, marble, mosaic and/or
painting. The inscription might be a verse from the Qur'an, lines of poetry, or names and
dates. The written script rapidly attained a major ornamental element. 10th, 11th century it
bloomed out and became the visual element which contributed, to the architectural Islamic
world.
Calligraphy and Geometry
Like other Islamic decoration, calligraphy is closely linked to geometry.
The proportions of the letters are all governed by mathematics.
Inscriptions are most often used as a frame along and around main elements of a
building like portals and cornices. An inscription also might be contained in a single
panel.
Sometimes single words such as Allah or Mohammed are repeated and arranged into
patterns over the entire-surface of the walls.
Calligraphic texts might appear in pierced cartouches, providing a pattern for light
filtering through windows.
Different Scripts:
Kufic script
Nakshi script
Thuluth script
Taliq script
Diwani script
Examples:
The first ex: of the use of the written script in Islamic Arch is Mosaic Inscription,
which winds around the summit of the octagonal arcade in Dome of rock.
Cursive Style, Naskshi- (Wazir Khan Mosque Lahore).
Calligraphic ornamentation in conjunction with geometric patterns - Taj Mahal.

Origin and Development of Arabesque

Due to the dissuasion of representation of human figures and animals in Islamic Art, other
depictions of art emerged which evolved into highly stylized subjects like foliage, flowers
and an extensive use of abstract geometric designs. Depiction of foliage in its varied forms
became a very prominent feature of Arabesque art.

Characteristics:
Characterized by continuous Stem, which splits regularly producing a series of
counterpoised leafy, secondary stems, which can in turn split again or return to be
reintegrated into the main stem.
In arabesque the lines clearly define space.
This limitless, rhythmical alteration of movement, conveyed by the reciprocal
repetition of curved lines, produces a design that is balanced and free from tension.
Combination of various materials also played on important role in highlighting the
Arabesque.
One can find the principles of geometry along-with a keen sense of balance in
composition strongly embedded in Islamic art.
One can visualise a strong link between art and nature in Islamic monuments where
scrolling vines, surreal flowers and gracefully flowing leaves can be seen everywhere
from the decoration of Qur'anic manuscripts to the grandiosity of architectural
monuments.
Such art does seem to evoke a feeling of heavenly grandeur although it is not a direct
depiction of heaven.
Light in Islamic Architecture

For many Muslims there is no more perfect a symbol of the Divine Unity than light.
"God is the light of the heavens and the earth ...
Light can add a dynamic quality to architecture, extending patterns, forms and designs
into the dimensions of time.
And the combination of light and shade creates strong contrasts of planes and gives
texture to sculpted stone, as well as stocked or brick surfaces.
Light viewed directly is blinding; it is through the harmony of colours that bears
visual phenomenon within itself.
In Islamic architecture, light functions decoratively by modifying other elements or by
originating patterns.
Covering the interior surface of a mosque with mosaics, ceramic tiles and
transforming other surfaces into perforated reliefs to filter the light.
"Stalactites' also serve to trap light and diffuse it with the most subtle gradations.
Carved marble screens allow light to flood rooms.
This is further seen in mughal paintings where the ruler is often depicted with a ring
of light around the head- known as paradisiacal imagery.

Water in Islamic Architecture

In hot Islamic climates, the water from courtyard pools and fountains cools as it
decorates.
Water can not only reflect architecture and multiply the decorative themes; it can also
serve as a means of emphasizing the visual axis.
Like the images they mirror, pools of water are immutable, yet constantly changing;
fluid and dynamic, yet static.
Water is a major component in Mughal gardens.

Water could be used in the from of- Still water, Ponds with pavilions, Channels,
Fountains, Flowing water on elaborately carved marble floors, Chadar-sheet of water
flowing down a slope. Baths

Opus Sectile
The modest, jewel-like building is remarkable for its delicate but exuberant decoration and
warm tonality.The traditional technique of inlay is the opus settle, which is
Marble intarsia of various colors,
Use of polychrome stones to create a variety of patterns in inlay work.
Pietra Dura
Opus Sectile been replaced by Pietra Dura, in which hard and rare stones such as lapis, onyx,
jasper, topaz, carnelian and agate were embedded in the marble.The inlaying of stone into
stone is an ancient Indian tradition.The inlaying of many different kinds of colored stones in
intricate patterns that depict flowers is something that was developed late in the reign of Shah
Jahan's father, Jahangir, and came into maturity under Shah Jahan himself.