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(3 I)
2. Concept Outline are given to introduce the topics which helps the
students to understand the concepts.
(4 I)
CONTENTS
AS 104/204 : INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
UNIT - I : CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
(5 I22 I)
Cell Structure & Function : The development of cell theory, Cell Size, The structure of
Cellular Membranes, Organelles composed of membranes, Plasma Membrane, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Perosisomes, Vacuoles & Vesicles, Nuclear
Membrane.
Metabolic Engineering : Biochemical Pathways-Cellular Respiration, An overview of
Aerobic cellular Respiration, Glycolysis, The Crebs Cycle, The Electron Transport System
(ETS).
UNIT II : DNA AND RNA : THE MOLECULAR BASIS
(23 I31 I)
DNA and the Importance of Proteins, DNA Structure and Function, DNA Structure, Base
pairing in DNA Replication, The repair of genetic information, The DNA code, RNA
Structure and Function.
Synthetic Biology : Protein Synthesis : Central dogma
Step-1 : Transcription --- Making RNA
Step-2 : Translation----Making Protein
The Control of Protein Synthesis : Controlling Protein Quantity, Controlling Protein Quality.
UNIT-III : CELL DIVISION
(32 I36 I)
Asexual Reproduction, Sexual Reproduction, The Cell Cycle and Mitosis, The G1 stage of
Interphase, The S stage of Interphase, The G2 stage of Interphase.
Mitosis : Cell Replication, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
Controlling Mitosis.
UNIT-IV : GENETIC ENGINEERING
(37 I50 I)
DNA Fingerprinting : DNA Fingerprinting Technique, DNA Fingerprinting Application,
Polymerase Chain Reaction, Electrophoresis.
Gene Sequencing : Gene Sequencing and Human Genome Project, Human Genome Project
Techniques, Human Genome Project Application, Cloning Genes, Genetically modified
Food, Gene Therapy.
Stem Cells : Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells, Personalized Stem Cell Lines.
UNIT-V : HUMAN REPRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
(52 I64 I)
Human Reproduction, Sex and Sexuality : The Male Reproductive System, The Female
Reproductive System, Gametogenesis, Menstrual Cycle, Fertilization and Implantation,
Pregnancy and Embryonic Development, Parturition and Lactation.
Reproductive Health : Problems and Strategies, Birth Control, Medical Termination of
Pregnency.
Contraception : Barrier Methods, Chemical Methods, Hormonal Control Methods, The
Timing Methods, Intra-uterine Devices, Surgical Methods.
CHAPTER
6 I
1.2. What is cell ? Discuss the ultra structure of a generalized eukaryotic cell.
Draw a well labelled diagram of cell.
Cell is often defined as smallest unit of structure and function in living organism.
Broadly cells are classified into two types i.e. prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Different
types of cells may vary in shape and size. Various component of cell for academic
convenience may include three parts :
(1) Cell membrane or plasma membrane
(2) Cytoplasm
(3) Nucleus
The outer boundary of a cell is called plasma membrane. In plant cell, cell wall is also
present on outerside of plasma membrane. It is made of protein and lipid molecule.
The plasma membrane play vital role.
The part of the cell between nucleus and membrane is called cytoplasm. Cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm together form protoplasm. Cytoplasm is highly organised part of cell.
The ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol. It contain water, protein,
carbohydrate, fat and other substance. Granular nature of cytosol is due to presence
of several organelles like, chloroplast, mitochondria, golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes etc.
All these organelles have different structure and functions like :
(a) Chloroplast perform photosynthesis.
(b) Mitochondria perform respiration.
(c) Endoplasmic Reticulum and ribosomes are important for protein synthesis.
Nucleus is generally present in the centre of all eukaryotic cell. Nucleus carries all
genetic information of individual. It is made up of nucleoplasm, nuclear membrane,
nucleolus and chromatin fibre.
7 I
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
1. Nuclear body
Incipient nucleus.
No nuclear membrane
True nucleus.
Nuclear membrane present.
2. Mitosis
No Mitosis
Mitosis found
3. DNA arrangement
In several or many
Chromosome (histone present
in Chromosome)
4. Respiratory system
In mitochondria
5. Photosynthetic apparatus
In internal membranes,
chloroplasts absent
In chloroplasts
6. Golgibodies, Endoplasmic
reticulum, Lysosome
Absent
Present
7. Ribosomes
70S types
80S types
8. Cell wall
Thin
9. Flagella
Submicroscopic
11. Vacuoles
Absent
Present
12. Lysosome
Absent
Present in animals
13. Capsule
May be present
Always absent
Plant cell
1. Cell wall is present.
2. Plastids are present.
3. Vacuole are of very large size.
4. Centrioles are absent.
5. Both present.
8 I
1.5. Describe the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane (cellular membrane).
OR
Describe the structure and function of plasma membrane.
One feature common to all cells and many of the organelles they contain is a thin
layer of material called membrane. Cellular membranes are thin sheets composed
primarily of phospholipids and proteins.
At present, the most widely accepted model of membrane structure is the fluid mosaic
model given by S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson (1974).
According to this model, the membrane contains a bimolecular lipid layer, the surface
of which is interrupted by proteins. Some proteins are attached at the polar surface
of the lipid (i.e., extrinsic or peripheral proteins). While other penetrates the bilayer
or span the membrane entirely (i.e., integral or intrinsic proteins). The lipid
molecule is made up of glycerol and fatty acids. The lipid molecules of membrane
have one end (the glycerol portion) soluble in water and therefore called
hydrophilic (hydro = water; phile = loving). The other end is not water soluble called
hydrophobic (hydro = water; phobia = fear). We commonly represent lipid molecule
as balloon with two strings.
The inflated balloon represents the glycerol and negatively charged phosphate; the
two strings represent the uncharged fatty acid. Consequently when lipid molecules
are placed in water they form a double layered sheet, with hydrophilic portion of
molecules facing away from each other. This is commonly known as lipid bilayer.
Other molecules found in cell membranes are cholesterol and carbohydrate.
1.4.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
9 I
10 I
is pinched off inside the cell to form a sac containing the engulfed material. This sac
is called phagosome. The lysosomal enzyme then digest food particle.
If cell is merely engulfing some molecules dissolved in water, the process is called
pinocytosis, and the sac that are formed are very small in comparison to those formed
during phagocytosis.
11 I
12 I
13 I
14 I
The large mitochondrial cavity is filled with dense, gel fluid called mitochondrial
matrix. This matrix contain protein, lipid, DNA, 70S ribosome, Mn, K+ etc.
The cristae and inner membrane is studded with numerous spherical or knob like
protuberances called F1 particles or oxysomes.
Origin : Mitochondria are self duplicating organelles. Mitochondria are belived to be
bacterial endosymbiont of cell because :
(i) They have DNA, RNA and 70S ribosome.
(ii) They show binary division.
(iii) Their membrane resemble those of bacteria.
Mitochondria are dependent upon nucleus and cytosol (for raw material). Therefore
structure and working of mitochondria is partially controlled by cell nucleus and
cytosol. Hence mitochondria are semi autonomous organelle.
15 I
Function :
(i) Mitochondria are power house of the cell.
(ii) Mitochondria bring about oxidation of carbohydrate, protein and -oxidation of fat.
(iii) These are site of aerobic respiration, where Krebs cycle occur in matrix, while
ETS and oxidative phosphorylation enzyme are located on inner membrane.
(iv) Mitochondria are site for formation of certain intermediates which are important
in synthesis of chlorophyll, steroids and alkaloids etc.
(v) Mitochondria help in the synthesis and elongation of fatty acid.
1.11. Discuss the structure and function of plastids/chloroplast.
E. Haeckel gave the term plastid. These are of three types :
Chloroplast green in colour
Leucoplast
colourless
Chromoplast orange, red, yellow in colour.
Shape, size and number of chloroplast varies from species to species.
Shape : Ovoid, spheroid, disc shaped.
No. : Chlamydomonas : Single chloroplast, Cup shaped.
Spirogyra : 1 16
Higher plant : 20 40
Ultra Structure of Chloroplast :
Each chloroplast is bounded by two
unit membrane, separated by space
called periplastidial space. Part inner
to membrane is divided into two
portion : (i) Grana and (ii) Stroma.
Grana
fraction
consists
of
membranous or lamellar system.
This lamellar system is made up of
thylakoid. Thylakoid is a sac like
structure.
Thylakoid are placed one above other
in the form of stacks and form
granum (singular).
The number of granum per chloroplast is 40 60 and number of thylakoid per
granum is 2100. Thylakoid is a site of light reaction of photosynthesis.
Larger thykoids are also present between two grana known as fret channel.
Stroma : Dark reaction of photosynthesis occur in this fraction. Stroma is a
proteinaceous complex. It has 26 copies of circular double stranded DNA. Ribosome
are 70S type. Enzyme for dark reaction are also present here. Chloroplasts are
semiautonomous cell organelles. They are capable of self duplication. For duplication
they have DNA, RNA, ribosomes.
Chloroplast are also believed to be bacterial endosymbionts of cell.
Function :
(1) Photosynthesis : In which light energy of sun is converted into chemical form
of energy, which is utilized by all living organism to perform their activities.
16 I
17 I
18 I
cytochrome, and the energy is used to pump proton (H+) from one side of membrane
to the other.
As the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) increases on one side, a proton gradient
builds up. Because of this concentration gradient, membrane channel is opened, the
protons flow back to the side from which they were pumped (mitochondrial matrix).
As they pass through the channels. ATPase (a phophorylase enzyme) speeds the
formation of an ATP molecule by bonding a phosphate to an ADP molecule. When all
the electrons and hydrogen ions are accounted for, a total 32 ATP. ATPs are formed
from the electron and hydrogen removed from the original glucose molecule. The
hydrogen are bonded to oxygen to form water.
Fundamental summary of electron transport system :
32 ADP + 10 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 6O2 32 ATP + 10 NAD+ + 2FAD+ + 12H2O
Total number of ATP produced by complete oxidation of one glucose molecule 36 is
eukaryotes.
1.14. Explain what happen in glycolysis. How many net ATP are produced.
OR
Discuss the process of glycolysis in detail.
Cellular respiration has three steps. The first step of cellular respiration takes place
in the cytoplasm. This step is known as glycolysis, consists of the enzymatic breakdown
of a glucose molecule into pyruvic acid. Because no oxygen is required glycolysis is
called an anaerobic process. In first reaction glucose reacts with ATP to form glucose
6phosphate, which is converted to fructose6phosphate. When fructose6phosphate
reacts with ATP, it is converted to fructose16Bisphosphate.
Due to cleavage of fructose16Bisphosphate 2 molecules of 3C compound are formed.
Both these compounds (Glyceraldehyde3phosphate and Dihydroxy acetone
phosphate) are interconvertable. In this way 2 molecules of Glyceraldehyde3phosphate
are produced from 1 molecule of glucose. Now Glyceraldehyde3phosphate is converted
into 13bisphosphoglycerate.
Now a series of reduction follows, in which energy is released by breaking chemical
bonds that hold the phosphates to 13bisphosphoglycerate. The energy and phosphates
are used to produce ATP. Since there are two 13bisphosphoglycerate molecule each
with 2 phosphates, a total 4 ATPs are produced. Because 2 ATPs were used to start
the process a net yield of 2 ATPs result.
In addition four hydrogen atoms detach from the carbon skeleton and their electrons
are transferred to NAD+ to form NADH, which transfer the electrons to ETS. Two
molecules of pyruvic acids are produced from the break down of glucose also.
Fundamental summary of one turn of glycolysis :
Glucose + 2ATP + 2NAD + 4ATP + 2NADH + 2 pyruvic acid
19 I
20 I
1.16. Describe the principle steps of electron transport chain. How many ATP are
produced by glucose molecule.
Of the three steps of aerobic cellular respiration (Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron
transport system) cell generate greatest amount of ATP from the electron transport
system (ETS). The series of reactions in which energy is transferred from the electron
and proton carried by NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP is known as ETS.
The reactions of ETS are associated with inner mitochondrial membrane. In ETS
there are 4 enzyme complex (I to IV) :
The electrons carried by NADH enter reaction in enzyme complex I, where they
lose some energy and are eventually picked up by coenzyme Q.
21 I
Electrons from FADH2 enter enzyme complex II and also eventually transferred
to coenzyme Q.
Coenzyme Q transfers the electrons to enzyme complex III.
In complex III, electron lose additional energy and are transferred to cytochrome
C which transfer the electrons to enzyme complex IV.
In complex IV the electrons are eventually transferred to oxygen.
As electron lose energy in complex I, complex III, complex IV, additional proton are
pumped into perimitochondrial space from mitochondrial matrix. As concentration of
proton increases on one side, a proton gradient builds up. Because of this concentration
gradient, a membrane channel is opened, the protons flow back to side from which
they pumped. As they pass through the channel a phosphorylase enzyme (ATPase)
speeds the formation of an ATP molecule by bounding a phosphate to an ADP molecule.
Total ATP production from one Glucose molecule :
A total 12 pair of hydrogen and electrons are transported to the ETS from glycolysis
and Krebs cycle for each glucose that enter the process. In eukaryotic organism, the
pair of electrons can be accounted as follow :
2 pairs are carried by NADH and were generated during glycolysis outside the
mitochondria.
8 pairs are carried by NADH and were generated inside mitochondria.
2 pairs are carried by FADH2 and were generated inside mitochondria.
For each of the 8 NADH generated within mitochondria enough energy is released
to produce 3 ATP. Therefore 24 ATP are released from these electron carried by
NADH. In eukaryotic cell, the electron released during glycolysis are carried by
NADH and converted to FADH2 in order to shuttle them into mitochondria. Once
they are inside the mitochondria, they follow same path as the other 2 FADH2 from
the Krebs cycle.
The electrons carried by FADH2 are lower in energy. They release enough energy to
produce 8 ATPs (from one FADH2 2 ATP can be produced). Therefore, a total 32 ATPs
are produced from the hydrogen that enter the ETS. Finally, a complete accounting
of all the ATPs produced during all three parts of aerobic cellular respiration result
in total of 36 ATP : 32 from the ETS, 2 from glycolysis and 2 from Kreb cycle.
Aerobic ATP production :
Stage of Aerobic
respiration
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
ETS
Total
38 ATP
36 ATP
22 I
CHAPTER
24 I
Sugar : Nucleic acids also have two type of sugar i.e. ribose in RNA and deoxyribose
in DNA.
Phosphoric acid : It is orthophosphoric acid and is often referred as phosphate.
Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphoric acid
Nucleoside = Sugar + Nitrogenous base
In nucleotide base is attached to sugar at its C1 position and phosphoric acid is
attached to sugar at its C5 position. The nucleotide link together to form polynucleotide
strand.
25A
RNA
DNA
(1) Occurrence
(2) Bases
(3) Sugar
Ribose
Deoxyribose
(4) Hydrolyzing
enzyme
(5) Function
Ribonuclease
Deoxyribonuclease
26 I
(i) store information that determine the characteristic of cell and organism.
(ii) direct the synthesis of proteins essential to the operation of cell or organism;
(iii) chemically change (mutate) genetic characteristics that are transmitted to future
generations; and
(iv) replicate prior to reproduction by directing the manufacture of copies itself.
2.4. What is gene ?
Gene is a fragment of DNA that is capable of producing a particular protein by the
process of transcription and translation.
2.5. What is a base pairing rule and what factor stabilize the DNA double helix ?
The two paired strands of DNA form double helix. The double helix is stabilized
because nitrogenous bases are only able to match with certain other nucleotide on
opposing strand. Pairing is determined by the molecular shape of bases and their
ability to form hydrogen bond. Just which pair come together is referred to as basepair rule. The rule states that Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G)
pairs with Cytosine (C).
2.6. Why DNA replication is necessary ? Write down the process of replication.
When a cell grows and divide, two new daughter cells result. Both daughter cells need
DNA to survive, so the DNA of parent cell is copied. One copy is provided to each new
cell. DNA replication is a process by which a cell makes copies of its DNA. DNA
replication is also necessary for the repair of damage DNA.
Process of DNA replication : The process of DNA replication relies on DNA base
pairing rule and many enzymes. The process of DNA replication involve following
steps :
(1) DNA replication begins as helicases enzymes
gets attach to DNA and separate 2 strand. This
forms a replication bubble. In prokaryotic cells,
replication starts at ony one place along the
cells DNA molecule. This place is called origin
of replication. In eukaryotic cells the replication
process starts at same time in several different
places along the DNA molecule.
(2) Unwinding is followed by synthesis of new
opposite the parental or template strand.
(3) Initiation of replication is done by RNA
polymerase enzyme which synthesize a small
streach of RNA, known as primer. This RNA
primer is extented by DNA polymerase III. DNA polymerase III attach new incoming
nucleotide one at a time onto the surface of parent strand. Nucleotide enter each
position according to base pair rules (A) binds with (T) and (G) pairs with (C).
RNA primer is removed once initiation of DNA synthesis occur.
(4) DNA replication occur in 5 3 direction during synthesis of new strand. When DNA
replication proceeds, of the 2 parental strands the enzyme forms one new strand
(daughter strand) in continuous streach in 5 3 direction. It is known as leading
27A
strand. On the other parent strand enzyme forms short pieces of DNA in 5 3
direction starting from RNA primer. This is called lagging daughter strand. These
short pieces of DNA is called Okazaki fragment.
Short pieces of lagging strand are joined by enzyme DNA ligase. RNA primer is also
replace with DNA. Thus continuous DNA strand is formed.
In this way 2 DNA molecule are formed from one DNA molecule. Each daughter
molecule of DNA consists of 2 strand one parental (old) and other new. Hence newly
synthesized molecule would conserve one of the 2 strands from the parental molecule
and other would be assembled new. This is known as semiconservative mode of
replication.
2.7. List the sequence of event that take place when a DNA message is translated
into protein.
OR
Discuss the process of protein synthesis
OR
What do you understand by transcription and translation ?
Proteins are synthesized in two steps, that is, transcription and translation.
Step one : Transcription Making RNA :
Transcription is a process of using DNA as a template (stencil) to synthesize RNA.
This work is performed by RNA polymerase enzyme. RNA polymerase enzyme attaches
to the DNA at specific site, known as promoter sequence. This is the specific sequence
of DNA nucleotide that indicate the location of protein coding region and identifies
which of the 2 DNA strand should be used. One of the 2 strand of DNA is used as
template for RNA synthesis. This strand is known as coding strand. As RNA polymerase
moves down the coding strand, new complementary RNA nucleotide are base-paired
to template (coding) strand. The base paired RNA nucleotide are linked together by
RNA polymerase to form new RNA molecule that is complementary to nucleotide
sequence of DNA.
RNA polymerase stop transcribing the DNA when it reaches to termination sequence.
Termination sequence are DNA nucleotide sequences that indicate when RNA
polymerase should finish making of an RNA molecules.
The cells have mainly 3 types of RNA (r-RNA, t-RNA, m-RNA). In a prokaryotic cell
all types of RNA are synthesized by only one type of RNA polymerase. In eukaryotic
cell, RNA polymerase are of 3 types :
(i) RNA Polymerase I (r-RNA) ribosomal RNA synthesis
(ii) RNA Polymerase II (m-RNA) messenger RNA synthesis
(iii) RNA Polymerase III (t-RNA) transfer RNA synthesis
28 I
In eukaryotic cell RNA Polymerase II produces nascent RNA. This nascent RNA must
undergo the process of processing to become mature messenger RNA. The process of
processing includes :
(a) Splicing (Removal of introns)
(b) Modification of 5' end of m-RNA by capping (Methylated guanosine cap is added at 5'
end of m-RNA).
(c) Polyadenylation at 3' end (Poly (A) is added to 3' end of m-RNA).
Step Two : Translation Making Protein :
DNA (or RNA) carries all genetic information. It is expressed in form of proteins.
Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids. The information about number and
sequence of these amino acids forming protein is present in DNA and passed on to
m-RNA during transcription. Hence, translation is a process of using information in
RNA to direct protein synthesis by attaching amino acids to one another.
The m-RNA is read linearly in sets of three nucleotides called codons. Each codon
codes for the placement of a specific amino acid. Hence sequence of codons in m-RNA
determines the sequence of amino acids in protein.
29A
Amino acid are taken to m-RNA-ribosome complex by transfer RNA (t-RNA). The
portion of t-RNA that interact with codons of m-RNA is called anticodon. The anticodon
of t-RNA is a short sequence of nucleotide that base-pair with the nucleotide in
m-RNA molecule. The other end of t-RNA carries an amino acid. The correct match
between t-RNAs and amino acids is made by an enzyme in cell.
The first codon is always AUG that codes for methionine amino acid. So methionine
is always the first amino acid of each protein.
After the first methionine t-RNA molecule is lined up over the start codon, the larger
subunit of ribosome joins the smaller subunit to bind the m-RNA.
(ii) Elongation : Now second t-RNA (whose anticodon is complementary to second codon
of m-RNA) along with its amino acid attaches to m-RNA ribosome complex. A peptide
bond is formed between methionine and second amino acid. Now second t-RNA has
2 amino acid and first t-RNA is released. Once the new amino acid has been added
to growing polypeptide chain the ribosome moves one codon along the m-RNA.
Now next t-RNA enters with its amino acid and ribosome adds the new amino acid
to growing chain. The ribosome continue to add one amino acid after another to
growing protein unless it encounter a stop signal.
(iii) Termination : The stop signal in m-RNA is also a codon. The stop codon can be
either UAA, UGA, UAG. When any of these three codon appear during elongation
process, a chemical release factor enter the ribosome. The release factor causes the
ribosome to detach from protein. When protein releases the ribosomal, subunits
separate and release the m-RNA. The subunits of ribosome can also be reused. They
can be used to make another copy of protein or can be broken down according to cells
need.
2.8. What is genetic code.
DNA determine the sequence of amino acids in protein. Proteins are not synthesized
directly on DNA. Infact they are manufactured in cytoplasm along ribosomes involving
RNA.
The genetic information is passed through m-RNA on to the protein. Hence it was
needed to prepare a dictionary for translating the language of RNA to language of
protein. One language has 4 alphabets (A, U, G, C) and other has 20 alphabets (20
different amino acids). It is not possible that one alphabet or single base of RNA may
be equivalent to single alphabet or amino acid of protein. A single code could give only
4 codons, a doublet code could have 16 codon and a triplet code would express 43 (64)
triplets. These 64 triplets could be enough to code for 20 amino acids.
Following are the 20 common amino acids used in the protein synthesis operation of
a cell. Each has a known chemical structure and is coded for by specific m-RNA
codons.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
30 I
Table : Amino acid-mRNA dictionary and the 20 common amino acids and
their abbreviations
Characteristics of genetic code :
Genetic code is triplet : A triplet code consisting of 3 nucleotide is required for each
amino acid.
Genetic code is degenerate : More than one triplet codon can be used for one
amino acid. This characteristics of code is known as degenerate.
Genetic code is non-overlapping : The same letter is not used for 2 different
codons of same message, this is called non-overlapping code.
Genetic code is non ambiguous : There is no ambiguity about particular codon
which will always code for same amino acid. Thus each codon has specific meaning.
Genetic code is commaless : After one amino acid is coded, the second amino acid
will automatically coded by next codon. Thus there is no gap or punctuation between
two consecutive codon or synthesis of 2 consecutive amino acids.
Genetic code is universal : Bacteria, Algae, protozoa, plants, fungi and animals, all
of them uses the same codon to code for same amino acids.
31A
CHAPTER
Cell Division
3.1. What are the three general types of cellular reproduction ?
The ability to grow and reproduce are two basic features of life. Both these feature
depend on the process of cell division. Cell division is a process by which single cell
generates new daughter cells.
Cell division is a mean of increasing the number for single celled organism. For
multicellular organism, cell division is a process that lead to growth, healing of
injuries and formation of gametes.
There are three general type of cell division i.e., Binary fission, Mitosis and Meiosis.
Binary fission is a method of cell division used by prokaryotic cell (Bacteria). During
binary fission, the bacteria DNA replicates and becomes attached to the plasma
membrane inside the cell. As a membrane forms inside the cell, two DNA copies
become separated into two daughter cell.
Mitosis is a method of cell division used by eukaryotic cells. Mitosis also results in
two daughter cells that are genetically identical to parent cell. It is a complex process
by which chromosomes of eukaryotic cell are replicated and divided into two daughter
cells.
Meiosis is a method of cell division used by eukaryotic cells. As a result of meiosis
daughter cells are produced but they have half the genetic information of parent cell.
3.2. What do you understand by sexual and asexual reproduction ?
For a single celled organism, binary fission and mitosis are method of asexual
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction requires only one parent that divides and result in two organism
that are genetically identical to parent.
Prokaryotes (Bacteria) typically undergo binary fission whereas single celled and
multicellular eukaryotes undergo mitosis.
For multicellular organisms mitosis is a process that lead to growth, the replacement
of host cells, the healing injuries, and formation of reproductive cells.
Sexual reproduction require two parents to donate genetic information when creating
offspring. The result of sexual reproduction is genetically unique individual.
32 I
33 I
CELL DIVISION
Meiosis is a process that produces cells (gametes) needed for sexual reproduction.
Gametes (reproductive cell) receive half of the parent cells genetic information.
3.3. Give difference between asexual and sexual reproduction.
Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction :
Asexual Reproduction
(i) Only one parent is required
(ii) Type of cell division are mitosis and
binary fission
(iii) Daughter cell is genetically identical
to parent cell.
Sexual Reproduction
(i) Two parents are required
(ii) Type of cell division is meiosis.
(iii) As a result of meiosis (egg and sperm)
reproductive cells are formed. These
cells are fused to form unique
individual.
3.4. Outline briefly the event that take place in each stage of cell cycle.
OR
Discuss the process of Mitosis with the help of suitable diagram.
The sequence of event which occur between one cell division and the next is called
cell cycle. It has three main stage :
(i) Interphase (ii) Mitosis (iii) Cytokinesis/Cell division
(i) Interphase : It is metabolically most active
stage. Interphase is the longest phase of cell.
It is divided into three parts : (a) G1 phase
(b) S phase (c) G2 phase.
(a) G1 phase : This is period of high activity
of RNA and protein synthesis. This is
longest phase of interphase in which cell
grows in size. The decision to divide is
taken during G1 phase. Synthesis and
organisation of substances and enzyme
necessary for DNA synthesis take place
during this phase.
(b) S phase : It is a period of DNA replication and histone synthesis. The structure
of chromosome consists of DNA wrapped around histone proteins to form
chromatin. The individual strands of chromatin are too thin and tangled to be
seen with a compound microscope. As a cell gets ready to divide, the chromatin
coils become visible as chromosome. As chromosome become more visible at the
beginning of mitosis you can see two thread like part lying side by side each
parallel thread is called chromatid. After DNA replication chromosome contain
two DNA molecule, one in each chromatid.
(c) G2 phase : It is a final stage of interphase. In this phase synthesis of protein for
spindle formation, division of chloroplast and mitochondria occur. The doubling of
centriole occur.
(ii) Mitosis : G2 phase is followed by mitosis phase. During which duplicated chromosome
CELL DIVISION
34 I
are separated into two nuclei. Mitosis phase includes four stages :
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase (c) Anaphase (d) Telophase.
35 I
CELL DIVISION
In cells of higher plants centriole and asters are absent such mitosis is called
anastral mitosis.
(c) Anaphase : Each centromere divides to
separate two sister chromatids. The sister
chromatids, now called chromosome
migrate towards the opposite poles by
contraction of spindle fibres of respective
sides. During their migration centromere
again foremost so that chromosome
characteristically appear U, V and J shaped.
After the arrival of chromosome at the
poles, the spindle fibres disappear. Anaphase
is shortest phase of all stages in mitotic
cycle.
(d) Telophase : This may be called as
reconstruction and reorganization phase.
The chromosome uncoil, become thinner
and longer and finally form chromatin.
A nuclear membrane appears around
each set of chromosomes, leaving the
centriole outside it, to form daughter
nuclei. A nucleus appear in each
daughter nucleus. The asters gradually
disappear.
(iii) Cytokinesis : At the end of telophase cell has two nucleus. The division of nucleus
is called karyokenesis, is followed by division of cytoplasm. The latter is known as
cytokenesis. Cytokenesis occur by two method :
(a) Cell furrow method
(b) Cell plate method
Cell furrow method occur in animal cells. In the centre of or at equator of cell, the
cell membrane begins to invaginate. This furrow develop during telophase and gradually
deepens to separate daughter cells.
Cell plate formation occur in plants cell. To separate two daughter cells, a cell plate
is formed in the centre of cell and then it proceed to periphery. In the equator of cell
interzonal microtubules are deposited around a plasma body called phagmoplast. Golgi
body vesicles are deposited and fuse with phagmoplast to form cell plate. Around cell
plate primary cell walls are deposited on each side.
The completion of mitosis and cytokenesis marks the end of one round of cell
division.
3.5. What is a difference between plant and animal cell mitosis ?
Difference between plant and animal cell mitosis :
CELL DIVISION
36 I
Animal cell
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Plant cell
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
CHAPTER
Genetic Engineering
4.1. Write down a short note on electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis is a technique used to separate different pieces of DNA on the basis
of their length. Electrophoresis involves movement of DNA fragments or molecules
under high voltage electricity. The mixture of DNA is loaded in well created on one
edge of the gel. The dimension of gel is usually 10 cm long and 0.5 cm thick. The most
commonly used gel is agarose which is a natural polymer extracted from sea weed.
Since DNA is negatively charged molecules they can be separated by forcing them to
move towards anode under electric field through gel. The rate of the movement of
molecule is inversely correlated with the size of fragments or molecules, so heavier
fragment will remain closer to the site of loading and lighter fragments will move
away.
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
38 I
The separated fragment can be visualised only after staining the DNA with ethidium
bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation. You can see bright orange coloured
bands (fragments) of DNA in ethidium bromide stained gel. The separated band of
DNA is cut out from the agarose gel and extracted from gel piece. This step is known
as elution. This purified fragment can further be used for different purposes. In some
case polyacrylamide gel is also used in place of agarose gel.
4.2. Discuss the technique by which you can multiply the DNA in laboratory.
OR
Discuss the polymerase chain reaction.
Polymerase reaction is a laboratory procedure for copying, or multiplying the particular
DNA segment. With PCR, a single cell may provide enough DNA for analysis and
identification. It is a newer technique, having been developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis,
for which discovery he won Noble prize in 1993.
Requirement of PCR :
(i) DNA from the sample specimen serve as template for replication.
(ii) Tag polymerase is an enzyme. It is used to catalyze the reaction or DNA synthesis.
(iii) DNA primers are short segments of single stranded DNA, which are used to direct
the Tag DNA to replicate only certain region of the template DNA. These primers are
specifically designed to flank the ends of the target regions DNA sequence.
(iv) All four free DNA nucleotides (A, G, T, C) are used to assemble new strands of DNA.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Procedure :
To begin a PCR amplification, enzyme, template, primer and all four types of nucleotide
are added and incubated so that it synthesizes new complementary strand.
The mixture is then heated to 94C so that newly synthesized strand gets detach from
template. This process is known as denaturation.
Now cooled the reaction mixture, enabling more primers to hybridize at their respective
position, including position on newly synthesized DNA. This process is known as
hybridization.
Now carry out the second round of replication.
The cycle of denaturationhybridizationSynthesis is repeated, usually 25 30 times,
resulting in the eventual synthesis of several hundred million copies of amplified DNA
fragment. At the end of a PCR sample of the reaction mixture is usually analyed by
agarose gel electrophoresis.
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
Fig.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
40 I
Fig.
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
GENETIC ENGINEERING
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
42 I
A given persons VNTRs come from the genetic information donated by his or her
parents; he or she could have VNTRs inherited from his or her mother or father, or
a combination, but never a VNTR either of his or her parents do not have. Because
VNTR patterns are inherited genetically, a given persons VNTR pattern is more or
less unique. The more VNTR probes used to analyze a persons VNTR pattern, the
more distinctive and individualized that pattern, or DNA fingerprint, will be.
The process of the DNA fingerprinting includes following steps :
The first step to making a genetic fingerprint requires getting a sample of DNA. This
sample can come from blood, semen, hair or saliva, and may be an extremely small
sample. The root from a single strand of hair is enough for researchers to work with.
PCR is used to make many copies of the portions of the DNA that contain VNTR.
Next the restriction enzymes are used to cut the VNTR DNA into smaller pieces.
Restriction enzymes work by cutting the DNA at a specific sequence. So that VNTR
can be detected.
To detect the differences in VNTR, the pieces are separated by electrophoresis.
Comparison between patterns can be made.
Applications of DNA Fingerprinting :
Paternity and Maternity : Because a person inherits his or her VNTRs from his
or her parents, VNTR patterns can be used to establish paternity and maternity. The
patterns are so specific that a parental VNTR pattern can be reconstructed even if
only the childrens VNTR patterns are known. Parent-child VNTR pattern analysis
has been used to solve standard father-identification cases as well as more complicated
cases of confirming legal nationality and, in instances of adoption, biological parenthood.
Criminal Identification and Forensics : DNA isolated from blood, hair, skin cells,
or other genetic evidence left at the scene of a crime can be compared, through VNTR
patterns, with the DNA of a criminal suspect to determine guilt or innocence. VNTR
patterns are also useful in establishing the identity of a homicide victim, either from
DNA found as evidence or from the body itself.
Personal Identification : The notion of using DNA fingerprints as a sort of genetic
bar code to identify individuals has been discussed, but this is not likely to happen
anytime in the foreseeable future. The technology required to isolate, keep on file,
and then analyze millions of very specified VNTR patterns is both expensive and
impractical. Social security numbers, picture ID, and other more mundane methods
are much more likely to remain the prevalent ways to establish personal identification.
Problems with DNA Fingerprinting :
Like nearly everything else in the scientific world, nothing about DNA fingerprinting
is 100% assured. The term DNA fingerprint is, in one sense, a misnomer: it implies
that, like a fingerprint, the VNTR pattern for a given person is utterly and completely
unique to that person. Actually, all that a VNTR pattern can do is present a probability
that the person in question is indeed the person to whom the VNTR pattern belongs.
Given, that probability might be 1 in 20 billion, which would indicate that the person
can be reasonably matched with the DNA fingerprint; then again, that probability
might only be 1 in 20, leaving a large amount of doubt regarding the specific identity
of the VNTR patterns owner.
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patients target cells. Currently, the most
common vector is a virus that has been genetically altered to carry normal human
DNA. Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to
human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists have tried to take advantage of this
capability and manipulate the virus genome to remove disease-causing genes and
insert therapeutic genes.
Target cells such as the patients liver or lung cells are infected with the viral vector.
The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene
into the target cell. The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic
gene restores the target cell to a normal state. Some of the different types of viruses
used as gene therapy vectors are : Retroviruses, Adenoviruses, Adeno-associated
viruses.
4.8. What factors have kept gene therapy from becoming an effective treatment
for genetic disease ?
Following are various factors :
Short-lived nature of gene therapy : Before gene therapy can become a
permanent cure for any condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells
must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be longlived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and
the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any
long-term benefits. Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.
Immune response : Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues,
the immune system is designed to attach the invader. The risk of stimulating the
immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always a
potential risk. Furthermore, the immune systems enhanced response to invaders
it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients.
Problems with viral vectors : Viruses, while the carrier of choice in most gene
therapy studies, present a variety of potential problems to the patient--toxicity,
immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In
addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may
recover its ability to cause disease.
Multigene disorders : Conditions or disorders that arise from mutations in a
single gene are the best candidate for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some the most
commonly occurring disorders, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimers
disease, arthritis, and diabetes, are caused by the combined effects of variations in
many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially
difficult to treat effectively using gene therapy.
4.9. Discuss the human genome project in detail.
Human Genome Project : The sequence of bases in DNA determines the genetic
information of a given organism. In other words, genetic make-up of an organism or
an individual lies in the DNA sequences. If two individuals differ, then their DNA
sequences should also be different, at least at some places. These assumptions led to
the quest of finding out the complete DNA sequence of human genome. With the
GENETIC ENGINEERING
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47 I
GENETIC ENGINEERING
GENETIC ENGINEERING
48 I
(iii) Third example is golden rice. Normally rice eaters suffer with vitamin A deficiency
because vitamin A is not present in rice. Genetically modified rice have gene for
vitamin A production (i.e. beta carotene gene).
(iv) Production of human insulin from bacteria : Insulin is a hormone that maintains
the blood glucose level. Diabetic patients do not have proper amount of this hormone.
Hence management of adult onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at regular
time intervals.
The gene-cloning process is used to place a copy of human insulin gene into bacterium.
As the bacterial cell reproduce (divide) the human DNA it contains is replicated along
with bacterial DNA. The insulin gene is expressed along with bacterial gene and
colony of bacteria produce insulin. This bacteria-produced insulin is both more effective
and cheaper than previous therapies, which involved obtaining insulin from the pancreas
of slaughtered animals.
4.11. What do you understand by stem cells.
Stem cells are the cells that are self renewing and have not yet completed determination
or differentiation. So they have potential to develop into many different cell types.
Stem cells are involved in many processes like tissue regeneration, wound healing,
cancer, other disease treatment. Some kinds of degenerative disease occur because
specific kinds of cell die or cease to function properly, e.g., Parkinsons disease results
from malfunctioning brain cell, and many form of diabetes are caused by malfunctioning
cells in pancreas.
If stem cells could be used to replace these malfunctioning cells, normal function
could be restored and the disease cured.
Embryonic stem cell : Embryo stem cell as their name suggests, are derived from
embryo.
Once sperm cell and egg cell have fused, cleavage produces a blastocyst. The inner
cell mass of the blastocyst develops into embryo.
Adult stem cell : Embryonic stem cell reach an intermediary level of determination
at which they are committed to becoming a particular tissue type, but not necessarily
a particular cell type. Scientist call these partially determined stem cell tissue specific.
These type of stem cells are found in adult, e.g., Hematopoietic stem cells from which
different type of blood cells (R.B.Cs, W.B.Cs and platelets) are formed.
Disadvantage of this type of cells is that they can differentiate only in a particular
tissue not all type of tissue.
Personalized stem cell line : One potential use of biotechnoloy is the production
of customized stem cell lines. In this application a somatic cell nucleus from patient
would be inserted into human egg from which the nucleus has been removed. The
egg would divide and generate stem cells. These cells could then be cultured and used
for therapy.
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
4.12. What is somatic cell nuclear transfer technique. Discuss its use in cloning
of organism.
OR
Who is dolly ?
OR
What do you understand by clone and cloning of organism.
Cloning does not always refers to exchanging just a gene. Another type of cloning is
the cloning of entire organism. The technique used to accomplish cloning in vertebrates
is called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Somatic cell nuclear removes a nucleus from
a cell of the organism that will be cloned. After chemical treatment, that nucleus is
placed into an egg cell that has had it original nucleus removed. The egg cell will use
the new nucleus as genetic information. Now electric shock is used to stimulate the
egg to begin to divide as if it were a normal embryo. After transferring the egg with
its new nucleus into a uterus, the embryo grow normally. The resulting organism is
genetically identical to the organism that donate nucleus. Dolly is sheep who was first
mammal clone.
Cloning of Organism
GENETIC ENGINEERING
50 I
CHAPTER
51 I
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
52 I
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
54 I
the age of puberty due to significant increase in the secretion of gonadotropin releasing
hormone (GnRH).
The GnRH then acts on pituitary gland and stimulate the secretion of (LH) leutunising
hormone and (FSH) Follicle stimulating hormones. LH acts on leydig cells and
stimulates the secretion of androgens. Endrogens, in turn, stimulate the process of
spermatogenesis. FSH is responsible for spermiogenesis.
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
of cells, granulosa cells (or follicle cells), and form a structure known as primodial
follicles. During womans fertile years one primodial follicles per month develops into
a mature follicle, known as Graafian follicle. This is in reponse to FSH (follicle
stimulating hormone).
Within each developing follicle, a primary oocyte starts to develop into an egg. The
primodial follicle first become a primary follicle as the granulosa cells multiply and
form many layer of cells around the primary oocyte. In addition cell form, cell from
the stroma of the ovary form further layers outside these cells collectively as theca.
Outer part of theca contains blood vessels and merges with stroma, the general
background material of the ovary. The inner part of theca secrete female sex hormones
as do the granulosa cells.
As primary follicle develops, a fluid is secreted by granulosa cells contains oestrogen,
one of the female sex hormone. A fluid filled space, the antrum develops in the
follicle. It is now referred to as a secondary follicle. Oestrogen stimulates growth of
the follicle, which eventually become mature follicle, also known as a Graafian follicle.
It contains a secondary oocyte and a polar body formed when the primary oocyte is
divided by meiosis I. The secondary oocyte is haploid. The second meiotic division
proceeds as far as metaphase but does not continue until sperm fuses with oocyte. At
fertilization the secondary oocyte undergoes the second meiotic division producing
large cell, the ovum and a second polar body.
Fig. Section through a human ovary showing the stages in the development of a Graafian follicle,
ovulation and the formation and degeneration of the corpus luteum. Not all these stages would
be seen together. The numbers indicate the sequence of the stages.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
56 I
5.5. What is menstrual cycle. Discuss the role of different hormones involved in
this cycle.
Menstrual Cycle : The reproductive cycles in the female primates (e.g. Monkeys.
Apes and Human beings) is called menstrual cycle. With every cycle, a womans body
prepare for a potential pregnancy whether or not that is womens intention. The term
menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of uterine lining. The first menstruation
begins at puberty and is called menarche. In human females, the menstruation is
repeated at an average interval of about 28 days, and the cycle of events starting from
one menstruation till next is called menstrual cycle.
The major events of menstrual cycle are discussed as follow :
(i) The cycle starts with menstrual phase, where menstrual flow occurs and lasts for
35 days. The menstrual flow is a result of breakdown of inner layer (endometrium)
of uterus wall.
(ii) The menstrual phase is followed by follicular phase. During this phase, primary
follicles in ovary grow to become Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometrium
of uterus regenerates through proliferation. LS and FSH hormones are responsible
for these changes in ovary and uterus. FSH and LH stimulate follicular development
as well as secretion of estrogen by growing follicles. Both LH and FSH attain a peak
level in middle of cycle (about 14th day). Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum
level during the mid cycle called LH surge induce rapture of Graafian follicle and
thereby release the ovum (Ovulation).
(iii) The ovulation is followed by the
luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian
follicle transform as corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes large
amount of progesterone which is
essential for the maintenance of
endometrium.
Such
an
endometrium is necessary for
implantation of fertilised egg and
other event of pregnancy. During
pregnancy all events of the
menstrual cycle stop and there is
no menstruation. In absence of
fertilisation, the corpus luteum
degenerates.
This
causes
disintegration of endometrium
leading to menstruation, making
a new cycle. In human beings
menstrual cycle ceases around 50
years of age that is termed as
Fig. Changes occurring during the menstrual cycle. Levels
menopause.
of the hormones FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone are
shown, and the associated changes in the ovaries and uterus
can be seen.
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
5.6. Discuss the different events that takes place during fertilization and
implantation.
Fertilisation : Fertilisation is the fusion of sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus to
form a diploid cell known as the zygote. During copulation semen is released by penis
into vagina (insemination). The sperms make their way through the cervix into
uterus and then on to the fallopian tubes, where fertilization takes place. The process
of fertilization takes place in following stages :
The enzyme released by sperm digest a path through the material holds the granulosa
(follicle) cells together.
The sperm move by lashing their tail and reach the outer surface of zona pellucida,
a thick surrounding of secondary oocyte.
Another enzyme digest a path through the zona pellucida and sperm moves through
to the surface of the secondary oocyte.
As a sperm is entered inside the egg, a fertilization membrane is formed outside the
secondary oocyte. It prevents the entry of further sperm and therefore the possibility
of more than one sperm fertilising the same egg.
The entry of sperm act as stimulus for completion of the second meiotic division of
the secondary oocyte which produce ovum and polar body.
Now the nucleus of sperm fuses with the nucleus of ovum and hence diploid zygote
is formed.
Implantation : As a result of fertilization zygote is formed. The mitotic division
starts as zygote move through fallopian tube (oviduct) towards uterus and forms 2, 4,
8, 16 daughter cells called blastomere. The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called
morula. The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves
further into the uterus. The blastomere in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer
layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called
inner cell mass. The trophoblast layer then gets attached to endometrium and inner
mass get differentiated as the embryo. After attachment, the uterine cells divide
rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a result the blastocyst become embedded in the
endometrium of uterus. This is called implantation and lead to pregnancy.
5.7. Discuss the different events occurring during the embryonic development of
human beings.
Embryonic development : As a result of fertilization, zygote is formed. Then this
zygote is implanted in the uterus. After implantation, a finger like projection appear
on trophoblast called chorionic villi which are surrounded by uterine tissue. The
chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly
form a structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal
body called placenta. Placenta plays a major role in nourishing and removing waste
from developing embryo. The placenta is connected to embryo through an umbilical
cord. Placenta produces several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG),
human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen, progestron etc. These hormones plays an
important role in maintenance of pregnancy.
The cells of inner cell mass, form a structure called embryonic disc, which give rise
to the embryo. The cells of embryonic disc differentiated and form an outer layer of
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
58 I
cells (ectoderm) and an inner layer (endoderm). At later stage the mesoderm is
formed and all these 3 germ layers give rise to all tissue of embryonic development.
The development of three layers in this way is called gastrulation and occurs in
1012 days after fertilisation. The brain and spinal cord develop in the third week
from a tube called neural tube which arise from ectoderm. After 6 weeks, the embryo
is recognisable human called fetus. The fetus normally completes a total of about 38
weeks of development, the gestation period, before birth occur. Most of the major
organs are formed by twelfth week of pregnancy, and remainder of the gestation
period is taken up by growth. The major events during pregnancy can be summarised
as follow :
Diary of development of the human foetus :
Week 1 : Fertilisation. Cleavage to form a blastocyst 45 days after fertilisation. More
than 100 cells. Implantation 69 days after fertilisation.
Week 2 : The three basic layers of the embryo develop, namely ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm. No research allowed on human embryos beyond this stage.
Week 3 : Woman will not have a period. This may be the first sign that she is
pregnant. Beginnings of the backbone. Neural tube develops, the beginning of the
brain and spinal cord (first organs). Embryo about 2 mm long.
Week 4 : Heart, blood vessels, blood and gut start forming. Umbilical cord developing.
Embryo about 5 mm long.
Week 5 : Brain developing. Limb buds, small swellings which are the beginnings of
the arms and legs. Heart is a large tube and starts to beat, pumping blood. This can
be seen on an ultrasound scan. Embryo about 8 mm long.
Week 6 : Eyes and ears start to form.
Week 7 : All major internal organs developing. Face forming. Eyes have some colour.
Mouth and tongue. Beginnings of hands and feet. Fetus is 17 mm long.
By week 12 : Fetus fully formed, with all organs, muscles, bones, toes and fingers.
Sex organs well developed. Fetus is moving. For the rest of the gestation period, it
is mainly growing in size. Fetus is 56 mm long from head to bottom. Pregnancy may
be beginning to show.
By week 20 : Hair beginning to grow, including eyebrows and eyelashes. Fingerprints
developed. Fingernails and toenails growing. Firm hand grip. Between 16 and 20
weeks baby usually felt moving for first time. Baby is 160 mm long from head to
bottom.
Week 24 : Eyelids open. Legal limit for abortion in most circumstances.
By week 26 : Has a good chance of survival if born prematurely.
By week 28 : Baby moving vigorously. Responds to touch and loud noises. Swallowing
amniotic fluid and urinating.
By week 30 : Usually lying head down ready for birth. Baby is 240 mm from head
to bottom.
40 weeks (9 months) : Birth.
5.8. Define the term parturition and lactation.
The average pregnancy is about nine months, which is called gestation period. Vigorous
contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes delivery of foetus. This
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
process of delivery of foetus is called parturition. The signal for parturition originate
from fully developed foetus and the placenta which induce mild uterine contraction
called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin hormone from pituitary
gland of mother. Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine
contractions, which in turn stimulate further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory
reflex between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion continues resulting in
stronger and stronger contractions. This lead to expulsion of the baby out of the
uterus through birth canal parturition. Soon after the infant is delivered the placenta
is also expelled out of the uterus. The mammary gland of female undergo differentiation
during pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by the
process of lactation.
The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which
contain several antibodies, absolutely essential to develop resistance for new born
babies. Upto the sixth week of the development, there is no structural difference
between male and female. After that sex chromosome determine whether the system
continues to develop as female or male.
It is the presence or absence of the sex determining region Y (SRY) gene located on
the short arm of the Y chromosome that determines the sex of developing individual.
The SRY gene produces a chemical, called testes determining factor (TDF), which act
as master switch that triggers the events that converts the embryo into male. Without
this gene, the embryo would become female.
5.9. Name the two developmental abnormalities associated with nondisjunction
of chromosomes.
Spermatogonia and oogonia are diploid cells (having 46 chromosomes which undergo
meiosis to produce haploid sperm (22 autosomes + X chromosomes and 22 autosomes
+ Y chromosomes) and ovum (22 autosomes + X chromosome) respectively.
An abnormal meiotic division that results in sex cells with too many or too few
chromosomes is a form of non disjunction.
If nonjunction affects the X and Y chromosomes, a gamete might be produced that
will be abnormal.
5.10. Describe the process that cause about 50% of babies to be born male and 50%
to be born female.
OR
What do you understand by sex determination.
OR
What triggers sexual differentiation in embryo.
There are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) present in the nucleus of each somotic (diploid)
cell of human being. 44 chromosomes are known as autosomes and 2 chromosomes
are known as sex-determining chromosomes (X and Y chromosomes). Gametes (Sperm
and Ovum) are haploid structures. Sperm carries 22 autosomes and a sex determining
chromosome. Unlike eggs, which always carry an X chromosome, half the sperm cells
carry X chromosome, and the other half carry Y chromosome.
If an X-carrying sperm fertilizes with X-containing egg cell, the resultant embryo will
develop into a female.
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If a Y-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg cell, a male embryo will develop. In the early
stage of embryonic development a pair of embryonic gonads, the genetial ridges,
develops together with he beginning of male and female reproductive system. 22
chromosomes and lack a sex ditermining chromosome, on the other hand, it might
have 24, with 2 sex determining chromosomes. If a cell with too few or too many sex
chromosomes is fertilized, sexual development is usually affected. If a normal egg cell
is fertilized by a sperm cell with no sex chromosome the off spring will have only 1X
chromosome. These people always women are designated as X0. They develop a
collection of characteristics known as Turners Syndrome.
A female with this condition is short for her age and fail to mature sexually resulting
sterility. In addition she may have thickened neck, hearing impairment etc. An
individual who has XXY chromosomes is basically male. This genetic condition is
called klinefelters syndrome. Individual with klinefelters syndrome may be sterile
and show breast enlargement, incomplete masculine body form, lack of facial hair and
some minor learning problems.
5.11. Define the term Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP).
Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical
termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion. Nearly 45 to 50 million
MTPs are perormed in a year all over the world which accounts to 1/5th of the total
number of conceived pregnancies in a year. Obviously, MTP has a significant role in
decreasing the population though it is not meant for that purpose.
5.12. What are the causes of infertility.
Causes of Infertility : Infertility is a problem that has generated a major branch
of medicine to diagonse and treat the causes. Either or both partners can be the cause
of the infertility in a relationship, so both need to be assessed in the process of
diagnosis and treatment. In about 35% of cases, the fertility problem involves the
female; in about 35%, of cases, the fertility problem involves the male. In about 20%
of cases, both partners have a problem, and no cause has been identified in about 10%
of cases.
Common Causes of Infertility :
(i) Lifestyle Causes : Heavy use of alcohol and drugs Low body fat or anorexia in
women Tight clothing in men may raise the temperature in the scrotum and affect
sperm development.
Stress may cause irregular ovulation in women or reduce sperm count in men.
(ii) Infections : Sexually transmitted diseases often result in scarring of blockage of
reproductive tubes. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common cause of
infertility in women.
(iii) Physical Causes : Fibroids and endometriosis may cause blockage. Retrograde
ejaculationthe semen is forced into the bladder rather than being ejaculated.
(iv) Developmental Causes : Undescended testes, Swollen veins (varicocoele) in scrotum.
Undeveloped ovaries or testes (developmental defect, infection, etc.)
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(v) Hormonal Causes : Any imbalance in the timing and quantity of the several sex
hormones can result in lack of ovulation. The uterus may not be prepared to accept
the embryo. Low progesterone levels may cause premature shedding of the uterine
lining. Low testosterone levels results in low sperm counts.
(vi) Immune System Causes : Females may develop antibodies against her partners
sperm. Males may develop an autoimmune response to their own sperm.
(vii) Illness and Medication Causes : Diseases such as diabetes, kidney disease, and
high blood pressure contribute to infertility. Tranquilizers and blood pressure drugs
may interfere with erection.
5.13. Explain the terms : ART, IVF, GIFT, ZIFT.
Assisted Reproductive Technology : The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention
defines assisted reproductive technology (ART) as all fertility treatments in which
both eggs and sperm are manipulated. In general, ART involves surgically removing
eggs from a womans overies, combining them with sperm in the laboratory, and
returning them to the womans body or donating them to another woman. It does not
include procedures in which only sperm are manipulated (i.e., artificial insemination
or intrauterine insemination) or procedures in which a woman takes drugs only to
stimulate egg production, without the intention of having eggs retrieved. There are
three types of ART : in vitro fertilization (IVF), gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT),
and zygote intra-fallopian transfer (ZIFT).
IVF : In vitro fertilization is a method that uses hormones to stimulate egg production,
removing the egg or eggs from the ovary, and fertilizing it with donated sperm. The
fertilized egg is incubated to stimulate cell division in a laboratory dish and then
placed in the uterus.
GIFT : GIFT relies on the same hormonal treatment as IVF to stimulate ovulation.
The physician observes the transfer of unfertilized eggs and sperm into the womans
fallopian tube through an instrument inserted through a small incision in her abdomen.
Once fertilized, the zygote moves down through the fallopian tube into the uterus and
implants. GIFT is only an option for women with open fallopian tubes.
ZIFT :In the ZIFT procedure, a womans mature eggs are collected and fertilized in
the laboratory. Then, the zygote is inserted into the fallopian tube through a small
abdominal incision. The embryo will then travel down the fallopian tube and implant
in the uterus in a normal manner.
5.14. Define the term reproductive health. Write down the major elements of
Reproductive and Child Health programme (RCH) programme.
Reproductive Health : World Health Organization (WHO) has defined reproductive
health as follows :
Within the framework of WHOs definition of health as a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity,
reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all
stages of life. Reproductive health, therefore, implies that people are able to have a
responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce
and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
(i).
(ii).
(iii).
(iv).
A.
B.
62 I
63 I
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
64 I
They do this because they contain a spermicide an agent that attacks sperm. The
most common spermicide used in these products is nonoxinol-9. It's moderately
effective, but it can't be relied on to get rid of all sperm.
Hormonal Control Methods : The first successful method of hormonal control was
the pill, or birth-control pill. Birth control pills contain man-made forms of hormones
that are normally made in a woman's ovaries. These hormones are called estrogen
and progesterone. Birth control pills will have either both of these hormones, or
progesterone only.
Both hormones prevent a woman's ovary from releasing an egg during her menstrual
cycle (called ovulation). They do this by changing the levels of the natural hormones
the body makes. Progesterone also help prevent sperm from entering the uterus by
making the mucus around a woman's cervix thick and sticky.
The Timing Method : Not all methods of birth control require the use of physical
barriers, spermicides, or hormones. Any method that prevents sperm from reaching
the egg prevents conception. One method is to avoid intercourse during the times of
the month when an egg may be present. This is known as the rhythm method of
conception control. Although at first glance it appears to be the simplest and least
expensive, determining when an egg is likely to be present can be very difficult.
Intrauterine Devices (IUD) : The modern intrauterine device (IUD) is a form of
birth control in which a small 'T'-shaped device, containing either copper or
progesterone, is inserted into the uterus. IUDs are a form of long-acting reversible
contraception, which is the most effective type of reversible birth control. IUDs are
the most inexpensive long-term birth control method available.
Surgical Methods : Surgical sterilizations are considered permanent and may only
be reversed in special cases. Only men and women who have no intentions of ever
having children should consider using these surgical methods of contraception. Two
contraceptive methods that require surgery are tubal ligation and vasectomy.
Vasectomy : A vasectomy is usually performed by either a urologist or a general
surgeon. Under local anesthesia, the vas deferens (tubes that carry sperm from the
testicles into the urethra, also known as spermatic ducts) from each testicle is severed.
The open ends are then closed off. A vasectomy can be performed in the clinic and
involves making two small openings in the scrotum. A vasectomy does not interfere
with the ability of a man to have an erection or the quantity of his ejaculation fluid.
Vasectomy reversals are possible, but they tend to be expensive and are not guaranteed
to be effective. A vasectomy should be considered a permanent form of birth control.
Tubal ligation : Tubal ligation is also known as "having one's tubes tied," or having
a "tubal." Tubal ligation is for women, and like a vasectomy, should be considered a
permanent form of birth control.
A tubal ligation is performed under general, regional, or local anesthesia and can be
performed as an outpatient procedure. The surgeon uses one of several procedures
in order to access a woman's Fallopian tubes (which run from the top part of her
uterus to each ovary). A laparoscopy is a procedure in which a small incision is made
just below the navel. A viewing tube (scope) can then be inserted through this incision
to view and reach the Fallopian tubes. A minilaparotomy is a small incision in the
lower abdomen that is sometimes used for tubal ligation most commonly in the
postpartum period (after childbirth).