Anderson, Loren Runar et al "PIPE MECHANICS"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000

46

STRUCTURAL MECHANICS OF BURIED PIPES

Figure 5-1 Nomenclature used in the ring analysis of buried pipes.

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CHAPTER 5 PIPE MECHANICS

Theoretical mechanics is the analysis of forces and
their effects on materials. In the case of buried
pipes, forces are statically indeterminate, and are
often indeterminable because the soil is not uniform.
Internal pressures, if any, may also be
indeterminable. Unknown soil loads are mitigated by
the ability of soil to arch over the pipe and relieve the
pipe of some load. The effect of force on material
is deformation. Traditionally, force per unit area is
stress, and deformation per unit length is strain.
Design is the analysis of stresses or strains to make
sure they do not exceed the maximum allowable.
Maximum allowable occurs at performance limits.
In the case of buried pipes, performance limit is
usually excessive deformation; i.e., that deformation
beyond which performance is not acceptable.
Excessive deformations include:
buckling,
collapsing, cracking, and tearing, as well as
excessive deformation of the pipe. Most useful,
then, is the analysis of deformation.
Some
deformations can be related to stresses such that
classical stress theories can be used. Stress theories
are more responsive to loads than are strain theories.
But strain and strain energy theories are more
responsive to deformation performance limits.
Traditional stress theories are presented in this text
wherever they contribute to understanding. In
general, stresses are analyzed by theories of
elasticity. Clearly, performance of pipes is not
limited to the range of elasticity. The following
comprises theoretical analyses of stresses, strains,
and deformations.
Some basic simplifications are justified because of
inevitable imprecisions such as deviations of the
geometry, non-uniformities of the soil and
indeterminable loads. Combined stress analysis is
not justified. Therefore, longitudinal analysis, and
ring analysis are each considered independently of
the other. Concentrated loads are the worst case
loads, because loads are, in fact, distributed over a
finite area. Ring instability is the worst case of
collapse analysis because instability is reduced by
the interaction of ring stiffness and longitudinal
stiffness.

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LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS
The two basic longitudinal analyses are axial and
flexural. Axial analysis considers the longitudinal
effects of temperature changes, catenary tension,
thrust at valves and elbows, and the Poisson effect
of radial pressure. Flexural analysis considers the
longitudinal effect of beam bending.
Longitudinal beam analysis of buried pipes follows
classical procedures.
Depending on the loads
(weight of the pipe and its contents plus soil loads)
and the reactions (high points or hard spots in the
bedding), bending moment diagrams can be drawn,
and deformations, strains, and stresses can be
evaluated. Longitudinal analysis is discussed in
Chapter 14. For most buried pipes, either the
manufacturer provides adequate longitudinal
strength, or the pipe is so flexible longitudinally that
it relieves itself of stress. Corrugated pipes, for
example, relieve themselves of longitudinal stresses
by changing length and by beam bending that
conforms with uneven beddings. Lengths of pipe
sections are limited by manufacturers in order to
prevent longitudinal failure.

RING ANALYSIS
Ring analysis considers stress, strain, deformation,
and stability of the cross section (ring) cut by a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. See Figure 51.

Stress
Stress theory provides an acceptable analysis for
rigid rings. Deformation and strain theories provide
better analyses for flexible rings.
Circumferential stresses comprise: 1. hoop or ring
compression stress, and 2. moment stress or its
equivalent ring deformation stress. Circumferential
stress analysis is analogous to the stress analysis

Figure 5-2 Comparison of stress analyses of a short column and a pipe ring.

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of an eccentrically-loaded short column, see Figure

5-2, for which, within the elastic limit,

For a plain (bare) pipe, Equation 5.2 becomes,

s = Pm + (E/m) (r'-r)/2r'

. . . . . (5.3)

s = F/A + Mc/I
where
s = maximum stress in the most remote fibers,
F = compressive load on the column,
M = moment acting on the cut section,
I/c = section modulus of wall.

where
m = r/t = wall flexibility,
r
= mean radius,
t
= wall thickness.

Strain
For a pipe ring, by theory of elasticity,
s = Pr/A + Mc/I

. . . . . (5.1)

Within the elastic limit, strain is e = s /E. Therefore,

Equation 5.2 can be written as,

where
P = radial pressure,
r = mean radius of the pipe,
A = wall cross-sectional area per unit length,
M = moment acting on the wall cross-section,
I/c = section modulus of the wall per unit length .

e = Pr/AE + cdq

For rigid rings, Equation 5.1 applies. Thrust, T, (=

Pr) and moment, M, are functions of the soil loading.
See Appendix A for values of T and M.

For a plain pipe with wall thickness, t,

Example

Deformation

Find stres, s , at spring line of a ring loaded as shown

in Figure 5-6a. From Appendix A, T = Pr and M =
Pr2/4. Let m = r/t = ring flexibility. Substituting into
Equation 5.1, s = Pm(1 + 3m/2).

For a flexible ring, deliberate control of ring

deformation is usually a better option than control of
soil pressure. The best control is specification of
maximum allowable ring deformation.

For flexible rings, Equation 5.1 is more useful if

flexural stress Mc/I is written in terms of change in
radius of the ring. From theory of elasticity,
M/EI = dq = 1/r - 1/r' where dq is change in radius
of curvature. See Figure 5-3. Solving for M and
substituting into Equation 5.1,

Where it is necessary to predict ring deformation,

the basic ring deformation of a buried circular pipe
is from circle to ellipse. See Figure 5-4.

s = Pr/A + Ecdq

But from Figure 3-2,

. . . . . (5.2)

where
dq = q - q' = 1/r - 1/r',
E = modulus of elasticity,
c = distance from NS to the most remote fiber.

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. . . . . (5.4)

where
e
= circumferential strain in the surfaces of the
pipe wall,
dq = 1/r - 1/r'.

e = Pm/E + (r'-r)/2mr'

. . . . . (5.5)

Ring deflection from circle to ellipse decreases

radius of curvature at B by, dq = 1/rx-1/r.

rx = r(1-d)2/(1+d)
for small ring deflections say less than 10%.

Figure 5-4 First mode ring deflection from a circle to an ellipse. Ring deflection is a function of the vertical
soil strain (compression) in the sidefill.

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Substituting, and neglecting higher orders of d,

for ellipse, by elastic analysis at spring lines
s = Pr/A + (Ec/r)3d/(1-2d)
comp deformation
term
term

. . . . . (5.6)
Pr3(1-n2)/EI = 3, or PD3(1-n2)/EI = 24
where n = Poisson ratio. For most pipe design, thirddimensional effects enter in such that the effect of
n 2 is reduced and may be neglected. Conservatively,

where
d = D/D = ring deflection =Dy /D ~
~ Dx/D.
For homogeneous plain pipe, wall thickness t, and
mean radius r; m = r/t = wall flexibility. Stress is,
s = Pm + 3Ed/2m(1-2d)

. . . . . (5.7)

It is noteworthy from Equation 5.6 that the

deformation term is insignificant at small values of d
(when maximum ring deflection is specified). If the
pipe wall can yield without fracture (such as metals
and plastics), wall buckling or crushing does not occur
until ring compression stress reaches yield strength.
The only exception is instability caused by external
pressure when the ring is not constrained to nearly
circular shape. For flexible pipes, stability analysis is
stiffness analysis not stress analysis.
Stability
Ring stability is resistance to progressive (runaway)
deformation due to persistent loads. The persistent
loads may be caus ed by internal pressure, beam
loading, or external pressure. Failure is usually
sudden and catastrophic. Failure due to internal
pressure is runaway rupture because, at yield stress,
the diameter of the ring increases and wall thickness
decreases. Failure due to beam loading is fracture or
buckling of the pipe wherever the bending moment is
excessive.
Failure due to external pressure is
collapse. The loading for progressive deformation
must be persistent; i.e., the load must bear against the
pipe even as the pipe deforms away from the load.
Persistent loads include constant or intermittent
internal pressure or vacuum, and gravity loads that
are not relieved by soil arching.
The term, instability, most often implies collapse due
to external pressure, P. See Figure 5-5. Classical

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analyses are available.

For example, a nonconstrained, circular, flexible ring will collapse
catastrophically under pressure if,

Pr3/EI = 3 and PD3/EI = 24

. . . . . (5.8)

where
Pr3/EI = ring stability number,
P
= critical uniform external pressure,
r
= mean radius = D/2,
EI
= wall stiffness per unit length of pipe,
3
EI/r = ring stiffness,
F/D
= pipe stiffness,
S
= strength.
F/D = 53.77 EI/D3 = 6.72 EI/r3

. . . . . . . . . . . (5.9)

where F/D, called pipe stiffness by the plastic pipe

industries, is the slope of the load-deflection diagram
from a parallel plate test. See Figure 5-5. The
deflected cross section is not an ellipse.
Ring stiffness, EI/r3, is that property of a circular ring
which resists collapse caused by external pressure.
EI/r 3 is related to elasticity E not to strength S.
In that respect, it differs from section modulus and
arc modulus, which are related to strength, SI/c.
Ring stiffness can either be calculated or measured
from a parallel plate test in which a plot of F vs
provides the slope F/D, called pipe stiffness, from
which
EI/r3 = 0.149 F/D.
Classical unburied analysis is not responsive to
buried pipe performance. If the pipe is buried
(constrained), soil support has a major effect on
stability. Pressure on the pipe is not uniform.
Moreover, the buried pipe will be out-of-round. It
may even have initial out-of-roundness, called
ovality. For these reasons, stability is considered
further in Chapter 10.

Figure 5-5 Notation used in deriving the equation for external pressure, P, at collapse of a flexible, circular ring,
based on pipe stiffness, F/D , from a parallel plate test (or three-edge bearing test).

Figure 5-6 Two soil loading assumptions for the analysis of rigid pipes.

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Example

Corrugated Pipes:

A steel pipe has a 51-inch mean diameter. Wall

thickness is 0.187 inch, E = 30,000 ksi, and yield
strength is 42 ksi. Neglecting Pm in Equation 5.3,
what is the deformed radius of curvature r' at tensile
yield stress on the inside surface? From Equation 5.3,
s = E(r'-r)/2mr'. Solving, r' = 41.25 inches.

Figure 5-8 is the wall of a corrugated pipe. Equation

5.10 may be used as demonstrated in the following
example.

What is r' at tensile yield on the outside surface?

Equation 5.3 now becomes s = E(r-r')/2mr'. Solving,
r' = 18.45 inches.

Example
Figure 5-8 is a typical 6x2 or 3x1 corrugation.
Values of section modulus are listed in industry
manuals but are all based on elastic theory.
What is the relationship of plastic theory to elastic
theory for this corrugation?

Plastic Performance Limits

The limit of normal stress, s , is strength S. For
design, s = S/sf. Performance limit is yield stress for:
internal pressure, ring compression, and longitudinal
stress. However, for instability, the performance limit
is ring collapse, which is a function of ring stiffness.

Ring stiffness, EI/r3, is derived from the theory of

elasticity. It is conservative. When mitigation or
failure analysis is needed, plastic theory may be more
appropriate. Plastic theory can be related to elastic
theory by moment resistance as follows.
See Figure 5-7. In the center is a cross section
(cross-hatched) of an element of pipe wall of
thickness t and of unit length along the pipe, located
at the top of the pipe, point A. On the left is the
elastic stress distribution due to ring deflection. The
resisting moment is Me = SI/c, where, I/c = section
modulus, and S = yield stress.
On the right is the plastic stress distribution. The
resisting moment is Mp = 3SI/2c. Elastic moment,
Me, at surface yield stress, is not collapse. Once the
surface starts to yield, stresses within the wall
thickness increase to the yield strength as shown at
the right of Figure 5-7. Performance limit is the
idealized plastic moment,
Mp = 3Me /2
. . . . . (5.10)
The ring is now buckling (plastic flow). Collapse is in
process.

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For a single corrugation, section modulus, I/c, is not

changed if the corrugation is compressed horizontally
as shown to the right of the corrugation. But the
section modulus for the compressed corrugation is
essentially the same as the rectangular equivalent
section for which Mp /Me = 1.5. From exact
analyses, the moment ratio can be as much as Mp
/Me = 1.7, but for design, it is conservative to hold to
a ratio of 1.5.

Ribbed and Reinforced Pipes:

Plastic analysis of ribbed pipe walls follows the same
procedure as the plain walls of Figure 5-7, but
requires location of the neutral surface, NS, and
evaluation of moment of inertia, I, of the cross
section. See texts on mechanics of solids.
Plastic analysis of reinforced pipe walls can be
related to elastic analysis by transforming the pipe
wall cross section into its equivalent section in one
material or the other. Procedure is then the same as
for ribbed pipe walls.
The procedure for
transformation to equivalent section is described in
texts on solid mechanics and on reinforced concrete
design.
However, reinforced concrete pipes
comprise steel which is somewhat plastic, and
concrete, which is not plastic. Therefore, plastic
analysis of reinforced concrete pipes is of
questionable value. In general, rigid pipes should be
designed by theories of elasticity, not theories of
plasticity.

Figure 5-7 Flexural stresses on a longitudinal section

(cross-hatched) of pipe wall at A showing maximum
elastic stress distribution to the left, and maximum
plastic stress distribution to the right. The plastic
resisting moment is 1.5 times the elastic resisting
moment.

Figure 5-8 Cross section of corrugated pipe wall,

showing how it can be compressed horizontally to an
equivalent rectangular section for evaluating section
modulus I/c.

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Values of section modulus, I/c,

per length of the pipe,
are listed in industry manuals.

PROBLEMS
5-1 A thin-wall pipe is initially an ellipse with ring
deflection, d. What is the maximum moment in the
ring due to rerounding?
5-2 Find the moment at B on the rigid pipe of Figure
5-6b if the vertical soil pressure is P and the
horizontal soil pressure is P/K; i.e., active horizontal
soil pressure (Appendix A).
5-3 If t = D/10 in Figure 5-6a, where and what is
the maximum tangential normal stress? Include ring
compression as well as flexural stresses.
(40 P at A, 43 P at B)
5-4 For a diametral line load F on a rigid pipe of
wall thickness t < D/10, what and where is the
maximum tangential normal stress ? Include ring
compression.
(s = 9.55F/t at location of load F)
5-5 From Equation 5.8 and the parallel plate load of
Appendix A, show that critical pressure on a flexible
circular ring is P = 0.446F/D, where F/D is the slope
of the F/-D diagram from a parallel plate test.
5-6 What is the maximum strain in a pipe ring if D/t
= 20 and the ring is deflected from a circle into an
ellipse with ring deflection of d = 10%? Neglect the
ring compression strain. Consider only flexural
=1.9%)
strains.
(C

5-7 Find ring deflection at yield stress in a steel pipe

if the ring deflects into an ellipse. Assume that ring
compression stress is negligible.
(d = 9.9%)
Given:
D
= 51 inch
t
= 0.187 inch
E
= 30,000 ksi
Sy
= 42 ksi
What can be said about ring deflection at plastic
hinging? Unstable? Indeterminable?
5-8 What is the external pressure on the pipe of
Problem 5-7 at collapse, if the pipe is not buried?
(2.9 psi)
5-9 What is external pressure at collapse of an
unburied PVC pipe with ribs? The pipe is stiffened
by external ribs, Figure 5-9.
(215 kPa)
Given:
ID
= 450 mm, smooth bore,
t
= 4 mm, wall thickness,
OD = 500 mm, over the ribs,
E
= 3.5 GPa, modulus of elasticity.
Ribs are 4 mm thick spaced at 50 mm.
5-10 What would be the external pressure at
collapse of the PVC pipe of Problem 5-9 if ID = 450
mm and t = 4 mm, but without ribs?
(4.8 kPa)

Figure 5-9. Wall cross section of an externally ribbed PVC pipe.

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