Anderson, Loren Runar et al "NON-CIRCULAR CROSS SECTIONS"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000

Figure 9-1 Examples of non-circular cross sections of pipes used commonly in the corrugated steel pipe
industry, as described by AISI Handbook of Steel Drainage & Highway Construction Products.

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CHAPTER 9 NON-CIRCULAR CROSS SECTIONS

If the pipe cross section is not circular, "ring"
analysis must be modified. For most buried pipes, a
circular cross section is the most effic ient shape.
But even flexible circular rings deflect out-of-round
during installation. Morever, a demand exists for
non-circular cross sections. Some typical examples
are shown in Figure 9-1. A standing demand exists
in highway departments for culverts with reduced
height of cross section. Each inch of height of the
culvert requires an enormous amount of soil to raise
the highway by that amount. The pipe arch and low
profile arch are examples of efforts to serve
highway demands for reduced heights of culverts.
Multiple culverts serve to reduce heights, but also
increase costs, spread stream beds, and trap trash.

Mean radius is sufficiently accurate for thin-wall

pipe analyses. Outside radius is more accurate
especially for thick-wall pipes.

RING COMPRESSION STRESS

For non-circular cross section, ring compression
stress is simply, s = T/A; or, for plain pipes (smooth
cylindrical surfaces, no ribs or corrugations, etc.), s
= T/t. "Ring compression" is a misnomer in noncircular pipes. Nevertheless, the expression ring
compression stress is understood to mean
circumferential stress in the pipe wall.

RADIAL SOIL PRESSURE

A pertinent variable for ring analysis is radius of
curvature, r. The basic deflection of a flexible ring
is from circle to ellipse, for which radii of curvature
are shown in Chapter 3.
But non-elliptical
deformation could make it necessary to measure
radii of curvature. Techniques for measuring radii
are explained in Chapter 3.
Figure 9-2 shows the free-body-diagram of an
infinitesimal segment of pipe wall loaded by external
radial pressure P. The effects of bending moment
(ring deformation) can be combined by superposition
as discussed in this chapter. Reactions are thrust T
in the pipe wall. From static equilibrium in the
vertical direction, and noting that for the small
differential angle, sin(dq/2) = (dq/2), the equation of
vertical forces is Prdq = 2Tdq/2; and,

Another pertinent variable is radial soil pressure P on

the pipe. From Equation 9.1, if thrust T is constant,
P varies inversely as radius r. If the ring is flexible,
the soil must be able to provide enough pressure P
for equilibrium. It is conservative to neglect shearing
stresses between soil and pipe. Shearing stresses
reduce radial stresses. Moreover, any shearing
stresses that develop during installation are easily
broken down by earth tremors, variations in
temperature, rise and fall of the water table, wetting
and drying of the soil, etc. Without shearing stress,
thrust T is constant around the entire perimeter of
the pipe. This is evident from Figure 9-3 where, for
static equilibrium, T1 = T 2 = T = constant thrust
around the entire perimeter. From Equation 9.1,
P1r1 = P2r2 = Pr = T

T = Pr
where
T =
P

. . . . . (9.2)

. . . . . (9.1)

tangential (circumferential) thrust in the

wall,
external radial pressure (plus internal
vacuum),
mean radius of curvature (assuming that
the pipe is thin-walled and cylindrical).

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Wherever the radius r is small, the external pressure

P is large. This introduces the very important
concept that for a flexible non-circular cross section,
the external soil-bearing capacity must be increased
wherever radii are decreased. If the corner plates
on a pipe arch, Figure 9-4, have a radius equal to
one-third the top radius, then the external normal
pressure (radial soil support) must

Figure 9-2 Free-body-diagram of an infinitesimal segment of pipe from which ring compression thrust in the
pipe wall is T = Pr.

Figure 9-3 Free-body-diagram of sections of a pipe wall of varying radii of curvature from which the ring
compression thrust is constant, T = P1r1 = P2r2 = Pr. Shearing stress between the soil and the pipe wall is
neglected.

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Figure 9-4 Typical cross section of a corrugated steel structural plate pipe arch showing radii of the top plate,
corner plates, and bottom plate.

Figure 9-5 Elliptical cross section of a flexible ring showing the distribution of external pressure required for
equilibrium.

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rx

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be three times as great as the pressure on the top of

the pipe arch. The soil against the short-radius
corner plates must have adequate bearing strength.
It is noteworthy that only a little spreading of the
corner plates will allow reversal of curvature of the
bottom plate if hydrostatic pressure should act on the
bottom. Soil support at the corner plates is
imperative.
If a circular cross section is deflected into an ellipse,
then Pxrx = Pyry. See Figure 9-5. From Chapter 3,
the ratio of radii is ry /rx = (b/a) 3. But (b/a) 3 =
(1+d)3/(1-d)3, approximately. Therefore,

negligible if ring deflection is less than about ten

percent. Equation 9.3 is accurate enough for most
ring deflection analyses.
Example 2
A flexible pipe is deflected into an approximate
ellipse shown in Figure 9-5. Initial ring deflection is
do = 15.9%. If pressure on top is P = 1.0 ksf, what
is the required horizontal bearing capacity of the
sidefill soil at the spring lines? The horizontal
pressure Px at spring lines, from Equation 9.3, is,
Px = Py (ry /rx) = Py (1+d)3/(1-d)3 = 2.617 Py .

Px = Py(b/a) 3 = Py (1+d)3/(1-d)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.3)

Horizontal bearing capacity of the soil at the spring
lines must be greater than 2.62 ksf. With a safety
factor, specify soil-bearing capacity of 5 ksf. Sidefill
must be well compacted, otherwise the soil will be at
incipient slip, and the ring at incipient collapse. Ring
compression stress is s = Py ry /A, where A is wall
cross-sectional area per unit length.

where
a = r(1-d) = minimum semi-diameter
b = r(1+d) = maximum semi-diameter
d = /D = ring deflection
An accurate solution, from Chapter 3, is,
P x = Py

1 + 3d + 4d2 + 4d3 + ....)

. . . (9.4)

1 - 3d + 4d2 - 4d3 + ....)

The accuracy of Equation 9.4 is seldom justified.
The following example illustrates the point.
Example 1
Assume that ring deflection of the elliptical cross
section is d = 10%. What is Px in terms of Py?
From Equation 9.3, Px = 1.826 Py.
From Equation 9.4, Px = 1.826 Py.
This many significant figures of accuracy is not
justified either in practice or theory. It must be
remembered that: the elliptical cross section is only
a theoretical assumption; shearing stresses are
ignored; the perimeter is assumed to be constant; the
horizontal and vertical ring deflections are assumed
to be equal, etc. For an elliptical cross section,
vertical ring deflection is slightly greater than
horizontal ring deflection, but the difference is

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MEASURED CHANGE IN RADIUS

If the ring deflects into an ellipse, all that is needed
to evaluate maximum and minimum radii of
curvature is measurement of ring deflection. The
equations are shown in Figure 9-6.
For deformations other than ellipse, the change in
radius can be evaluated from changes De in the
middle ordinate e of a cord of length L. Figure 9-7
shows the analysis, from which the approximate
radius of curvature is r = L2/8e for small ratios of e
to L. The change in radius from r to r' is found from
change in the middle ordinate, D e = e - e':
1/r - 1/r' = D e/er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.5)
Procedures for measuring e (either inside or outside
the pipe) are described in Chapter 3. Minimum
radius is pertinent to soil strength analysis; maximum
radius is pertinent to ring stability, Chapter 10. Both
are pertinent to circumferential stress analysis.

CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS
Assume that within cord length L, a pipe is initially
circular and ring compression stress in the pipe wall
is Pr/A. Now if the ring is deformed, the change in
radius of curvature causes a change in Pr/A; and
also introduces a flexural stress, (E/m)(r'-r)/2r'. See
Equation 5.3. The ring compression stress is
essentially constant around the ring. However,
flexural stress is maximum where change in radius
is greatest; i.e., where the change in middle ordinate,
e, is greatest. Knowing the change in middle
ordinate, e, the circumferential stress within the
cord length is,
s = Pr/A + ( e/e)(Ec/r) . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.6)
where (See Figure 9-7)
e = middle ordinate for the original circle,
e = L2/8r, or can be measured before the pipe
is deformed,
D e = change in middle ordinate due to ring
deformation,
L =
length of cord
t
= wall thickness
m = r/t = ring flexibility
r
= initial radius of curvature at some location
before the pipe is deformed,
r' = radius of curvature at the same location
after the pipe is deformed,
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe wall per
unit length of pipe,
P = radial pressure on the pipe,
E = modulus of elasticity of the pipe,
I/c = section modulus per unit length,
e = change in middle ordinate due to ring
deformation,
c = distance from the neutral surface of the
pipe wall to the most remote surface.
For a plain pipe, c = t/2, and (Ec/r) = (E/2m) to be
used in Equation 9.6.
From Equation 9.6, for any allowable stress, s , or
strain, e , and external pressure, P; the allowable
change in middle ordinate, De/e, can be found. Ring
deformation must then be controlled so that the
measured De/e does not exceed the allowable.

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Internal pressure P' (no external constraint) causes

hoop stress s = P'r/A. A non-circular ring tries to
re-round and change its radii. Equation 9.6 still
applies.
Changes in radii would have to be
measured and then used to calculate flexural
stresses. Or knowing allowable stress, maximum
allowable changes in radii, or changes in middle
ordinate from a cord can be used by inspectors for
control of the pipe shape during installation.
Internal pressure in a pipe with external constraint is
sometimes analyzed by neglecting any changes in
radii of curvature. The presumption is that the soil
is rigid.
But, if the ring is constrained by
compressible soil, or by concentrated point loads and
reactions, further analysis may be necessary. A
finite element analysis may be a good option.
For flexible pipes even non-circular rings
flexural stresses due to change in radius, are not
performance limits in general. Brittle linings may
pose an exception. Many common pipe materials
can yield without fracture. Consequently, the
flexural stress term can be neglected. The ring
simply sustains permanent deformation without
fracture or inversion.
In summary, the circumferential stress analysis of
non-circular pipes is based on Equation 9.6 which
always includes ring compression stress and,
possibly, flexural stress.
Pr/A = ring compression stress (or hoop tension),
(D e/e)(Ec/r) = (D e/e)(E/2m) = (Mc/I)
= flexural stress.
where
(E/2m) = (Ec/r) = arc modulus used if either
change in radius of curvature or D e is known.
(I/c) = section modulus used if the moment M is
known. The moment M can be evaluated from
circumferential strains measured by electrical
resistance strain gages positioned both inside and
outside the pipe at locations where critical moment
is anticipated. Below yield, both thrust and moment
can be found from these strains.

Circumferential stress due to ring deformation is

dependent upon either the section modulus or the arc
modulus.

9-3 Figure 9-8 shows the cross section of a

corrugated steel culvert comprising circular panels
with radii as follows:

For brittle pipes the ring compres sion stress and

ring deformation stress must be combined for
analysis. Steel pipes with brittle linings or coatings
are not brittle pipes. Small cracks are not serious.

ry = 82.50 inches for top and bottom panels,

rx = 26.25 inches = radius of side panels.

For flexible pipes deformation is caused by the

soil.
Changes in wall thickness make little
difference. If soil is placed such that ring deflection
is constant, the performance limit is wall crushing at
yield stress due to ring compression stress, Pr/A.
This is an important basis for design. See Chapter
6. On the other hand, if ring deformation stress
exceeds yield, the deformation is permanent. But
deformation is not a performance limit until it
becomes excessive. For analysis of flexible buried
pipes, the stress due to ring deformation is not an
appropriate basis for design.
Design by ring
compression stress and design by ring deflection are
the two basic design procedures.
For corrugated and profile wall pipes, the combination of ring compression stress and ring
deformation stress may result in dimpling of
corrugations, or plastic hinging. But for buried pipes,
dimpling and incipient hinging are not collapse.

This culvert is to be installed under a highway with

the major diameter horizontal. Soil cover is 2 ft
including an asphalt concrete pavement which is
assumed to be flexible enough that the load is not
spread by the pavement. The road is designed for
HS-20 truck loads. Unit weight of soil is 135 pcf.
Because the pipe is a drainage culvert, the water
table is never more than a few inches above the
invert of the pipe. What is the minimum sidefill soilbearing capacity required at the spring lines if safety
factor is to be 2.0?
(Px = 12.2 ksf)
9-4 In Problem 9-3, if the sidefill soil is cohesionless
with a soil friction angle of f = 35o, what is the
safety factor against soil shear failure?
(sf = 0.4 incipient collapse)
9-5 The elliptical culvert of Problem 9-3 is rotated
90o to serve as a livestock underpass. See Figure 99. At what soil friction angle of sidefill at the spring
lines would the culvert collapse by reversal of
curvature of the 82.5-inch-radius side panels?
Neglect H-20 surface live load. Why?

PROBLEMS
9-1 Derive Equation 9.6. Remember that flexural
stress is Mc/I and that M/EI = 1/r - 1/r' for a circle
w here r is the original radius and r' is the deformed
radius.
9-2 In order to check the assumption that a flexible
pipe, ID = 42, with ring deflection of d = 10%, is an
ellipse, what should be the middle ordinate inside the
pipe to the spring line from a vertical cord (straight
edge) that is 10 inches long?
(e = 0.83)

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9-6 In cohesionless soil what soil friction angle is

required to assure that shearing failure does not
occur in the embedment of a pipe arch for which:
rc = 18 inches at corner plates,
rt = 60 inches at top plate,
rb = 180 inches at bottom plate,
Corrugations are 2 2/3 x . Assume high fill..
Neglect shearing stresses between the pipe and the
embedment soil.
(f = 33o)
9-7 In Problem 9-6, what is the minimum rc in terms
of rt if the soil friction angle is 30o?
(rc = rt /3)

Figure 9-8 Horizontal "ellipse" of corrugated steel plate to be used as a culvert and for which rx = 26.25
inches and ry = 82.5 inches and showing the radial soil pressure acting on it.

Figure 9-9. Corrugated steel plate underpass for

livestock with H=2 feet of soil cover.

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Figure 9-10. Cross section of a flexible circular ring

that has been deformed into an ellipse during
installation such that d=D /D=16% and for which the
required horizontal soil pressure is greater than the
vertical soil pressure at the crown.

9-8 In Problem 9-7 discuss the performance limits

based on soil-bearing capacity and soil compression.
What about deformation of the ring due to soil
compression?
9-9 A corrugated steel culvert has the following
properties:
Corrugations 2 2/3 x 1/2
D = 6 ft
t = 0.1046 inch
A = 1.356 in 2/ft
S = 36 ksi = yield strength
sf = 2
d = D/D
Assume elliptical cross section
What is the horizontal soil-bearing capacity required
at the spring lines for this culvert if it is deflected by
d = 16% into an ellipse under a fill height of 20 ft at
soil unit weight of 125 pcf? See Figure 9-10.
9-10 What is the approximate ring deflection of
Problem 9-9 if the embedment is silty sand

compacted to 80% density AASHTO T-180?

(d = 2.3%)
9-11 What is the maximum ring compression stress
in Problem 9-9?
(s = 6.4 ksi)
9-12 In Problem 9-9, what is the middle ordinate
from a cord 12.65 inches long at yield point stress of
36 ksi at the crown of the deflected pipe?
9-13 If ring deflection, d = 16%, in Problem 9-9 is
increased by an additional Dd = 2%, what is the
required horizontal soil-bearing capacity?
9-14 See Figure 9-11. What vacuum in the soil is
required at invert level of a small-scale model buried
pipe if the internal vacuum at collapse is to be the
same for the model and a large prototype pipe? The
water table is at ground surface. Saturated unit
weight of soil is 125 lb/ft3
t = 0.281
tm = 0.0359
ID = 84
IDm =
H = 48
Hm =

Figure 9-11. Hydrostatic pressures (and vacuum) in soil required such that Pm = P.

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