EE 306 Lecture Notes

EE306ELECTRICALENGINEERINGTECHNOLOGIES
LECTURENOTES
PREPAREDBY
Prof.Dr.BahattinKaragzolu
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTALELECTRICALENGINEERINGCOMPONENTS
MEASUREMENTANDERROR
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICALQUANTITIES
OSCILLOGRAPHICMEASUREMENTSANDPICTUREDISPLAYS
SOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENTOFDISPLACEMENTANDMECHANICALSTRAIN
PRACTICALANDREPORTING
KINGABDULAZIZUNIVERSITY
FACULTYOFENGINEERING
DEPARTMENTOFELECTRICALANDCOMPUTERENGINEERING
JEDDAHSAUDIARABIA
Shawwal1432HSeptember2011G
TableofContents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 16
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 17
ELECTRICALANDCOMPUTERENGINEERINGSPECIALTIES .......................................................... 18
MISCELLANEOUSELECTRICALENGINEERINGFIELDSOFACTIVITIES ............................................ 23
QUANTITIES,UNITSANDSTANDARDS ..................................................................................... 33
PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................................ 36
FUNDAMENTALELECTRICALENGINEERINGCOMPONENTS .............................................. 38
ENERGYSOURCES .................................................................................................................. 40
CONDUCTORSANDINSULATORS............................................................................................. 49
RESISTORS ............................................................................................................................ 60
CAPACITORS .......................................................................................................................... 77
INDUCTORS ........................................................................................................................... 93
TRANSFORMER .................................................................................................................... 101
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................... 105
MEASUREMENTANDERROR ....................................................................................... 108
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 109
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 110
CHARACTERISTICSOFMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ................................................................. 110
ANALYSISOFMEASUREMENTDATA ...................................................................................... 119
UNCERTAINTYANALYSIS....................................................................................................... 126
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................... 132
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICALQUANTITIES ................................................................ 141
PRINCIPLESOFMEASUREMENTS ........................................................................................... 143
MOVINGCOILINMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ........................................................................ 144
MCBASEDMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ................................................................................. 147
LOADINGERRORS ................................................................................................................ 153

ACVOLTMETERS .................................................................................................................. 157
ELECTRONICCOUNTERS ....................................................................................................... 167
THEDIGITALVOLTMETER(DVM) ........................................................................................... 179
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICITY ........................................................................................... 188
PROBLEMSONMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ........................................................................... 198
OSCILLOGRAPHICMEASUREMENTSANDPICTUREDISPLAYS .......................................... 207
WAVEFORMDISPLAYDEVICES .............................................................................................. 209
BASICOSCILLOSCOPEOPERATIONS ....................................................................................... 212
MULTITRACEOSCILLOSCOPES .............................................................................................. 222
DIGITALSTORAGEOSCILLOSCOPES(DSO) .............................................................................. 223
VIRTUALINSTRUMENTATION................................................................................................ 226
PICTUREDISPLAY ................................................................................................................. 231
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................... 244
SOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY ................................................................................ 253
LINEARREGULATEDPOWERSUPPLIES ................................................................................... 255
SWITCHREGULATED(SWITCHING)POWERSUPPLY ................................................................ 272
BATTERIES........................................................................................................................... 282
ELECTRICALSAFETY .............................................................................................................. 293
PROBLEMSONSOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY ................................................................... 305
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 316
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT .................................................................................. 317
BASICPRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................ 319
TEMPERATUREMEASURINGDEVICES .................................................................................... 320
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMOCOUPLES ...................................................... 327
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMISTORS ............................................................ 340

PROBLEMSONTEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTS .................................................................... 345
MEASUREMENTOFDISPLACEMENTANDMECHANICALSTRAIN ..................................... 350
DISPLACEMENTSENSORS ..................................................................................................... 352
STRAINGAGES(GAUGES) ..................................................................................................... 358
THEWHEATSTONEBRIDGE ................................................................................................... 363
BRIDGECONFIGURATIONSFORSTRAINGAGEMEASUREMENTS .............................................. 367
NOVELPRESSURESENSORS .................................................................................................. 372
PROBLEMSONMEASUREMENTOFMECHANICALQUANTITIES ................................................ 374
PRACTICALANDREPORTING ....................................................................................... 383
LABORATORYNOTESANDSHEETS ......................................................................................... 384
GENERALGUIDELINESFOREXPERIMENTS .............................................................................. 388
MEASUREMENTANDERROR ................................................................................................ 391
DETERMININGTHECHARACTERISTICOFANINCANDESCENTLAMP .......................................... 393
DETERMININGTHECHARACTERISTICOFACAPACITOR ........................................................... 395
REGULATEDPOWERSUPPLY ................................................................................................. 396
TERMPROJECT .................................................................................................................... 398
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 400
AQUANTITIES,UNITSANDSTANDARDS .............................................................................. 400
BOPERATIONALAMPLIFIERS .............................................................................................. 406
CPRETEST ........................................................................................................................ 409
DEXITSURVEY .................................................................................................................. 410
ERUBRICSFORSTUDENTOUTCOMESSUPPORTEDBYEE306 ............................................... 412
DetailedTableofContents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 16
ELECTRICALANDCOMPUTERENGINEERINGSPECIALTIES .......................................................... 18
DefinitionofElectricalandElectronicEngineering................................................................. 18
ElectronicsandCommunicationsGroup ............................................................................... 19
ComputerEngineeringGroup .............................................................................................. 20
BiomedicalEngineeringGroup ............................................................................................ 21
MISCELLANEOUSELECTRICALENGINEERINGFIELDSOFACTIVITIES ............................................ 23
Mechatronics..................................................................................................................... 23
AutomotiveIndustry .......................................................................................................... 25
Avionics ............................................................................................................................ 26
BiomedicalEngineeringExtensions ...................................................................................... 27
CognitiveRadio .................................................................................................................. 29
FiberOpticsCommunicationSystems .................................................................................. 30
QUANTITIES,UNITSANDSTANDARDS ..................................................................................... 33
Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 33
BasicUnitsandDerivedUnits .............................................................................................. 33
Standards .......................................................................................................................... 33
Prefixes ............................................................................................................................. 36
PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................................ 36
ReviewQuestions .............................................................................................................. 36
FUNDAMENTALELECTRICALENGINEERINGCOMPONENTS .............................................. 38
ENERGYSOURCES .................................................................................................................. 40
TheAtomandSubatomicParticles ...................................................................................... 40
Electricity .......................................................................................................................... 41
GenerationofElectricalEnergy ........................................................................................... 45
TransmissionandDistributionofElectricalEnergy ................................................................ 47
CONDUCTORSANDINSULATORS............................................................................................. 49
Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 49
WireConductors ................................................................................................................ 50
PropertiesofWireConductors ............................................................................................ 56
RESISTORS ............................................................................................................................ 60
DefinitionandUse ............................................................................................................. 60
TypesofFixedResistors ...................................................................................................... 61
AdjustableResistors ........................................................................................................... 66
ResistorMarking ................................................................................................................ 67
PreferredValues ................................................................................................................ 71
PowerRatingsofResistors .................................................................................................. 73
ResistorsatHighFrequencies .............................................................................................. 74
NoiseinResistors ............................................................................................................... 75
FailureModes .................................................................................................................... 75
CAPACITORS .......................................................................................................................... 77
NonIdealBehavior ............................................................................................................ 80
CapacitorTypes ................................................................................................................. 82
ApplicationsofCapacitors................................................................................................... 86
CapacitiveSensing.............................................................................................................. 89
HazardsandSafety ............................................................................................................. 90
SupercapacitorsElectricDoubleLayerCapacitors ............................................................... 91
INDUCTORS ........................................................................................................................... 93
TypesofInductors.............................................................................................................. 95
InductorsinElectricCircuits ................................................................................................ 99
TRANSFORMER .................................................................................................................... 101
DefinitionandUse ........................................................................................................... 101

OperationandPracticalConsiderations ............................................................................. 102
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................... 105
ReviewQuestions ............................................................................................................ 105
GeneralQuestions ........................................................................................................... 107
MEASUREMENTANDERROR ....................................................................................... 108
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 110
CHARACTERISTICSOFMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ................................................................. 110
DefinitionofTerms .......................................................................................................... 110
StaticCalibration.............................................................................................................. 111
AccuracyandPrecision ..................................................................................................... 112
AccuracyversusPrecision ................................................................................................. 113
SignificantFigures ............................................................................................................ 115
TypesofErrors(Uncertainties) .......................................................................................... 116
ANALYSISOFMEASUREMENTDATA ...................................................................................... 119
ArithmeticMean .............................................................................................................. 119
DeviationfromtheMean .................................................................................................. 119
ProbabilityofErrors ......................................................................................................... 121
SomeMSExcelFunctions.................................................................................................. 124
DeterminingRandomErrors.............................................................................................. 124
UNCERTAINTYANALYSIS....................................................................................................... 126
MathematicalAnalysisoftheUncertainty .......................................................................... 126
SampleandPopulationStatistics ....................................................................................... 130
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................... 132
SolvedExamples .............................................................................................................. 133
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICALQUANTITIES ................................................................ 141

PRINCIPLESOFMEASUREMENTS ........................................................................................... 143
MOVINGCOILINMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ........................................................................ 144
BalancingtheElectromagneticTorquebyaSpringTorque ................................................... 144
TheGalvanometer ........................................................................................................... 146
MCBASEDMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ................................................................................. 147
MCinAnalogElectricalMeasuringInstruments .................................................................. 147
BasicDCAmmeter(Ampermeter) ...................................................................................... 147
MultiRangeAmmeters .................................................................................................... 148
ABasicDCVoltmeter........................................................................................................ 149
MultiRangeVoltmeters ................................................................................................... 150
OhmandVOMMeters ..................................................................................................... 152
LOADINGERRORS ................................................................................................................ 153
InstrumentLoading .......................................................................................................... 153
LoadingErrorsinAmmeters .............................................................................................. 154
LoadingErrorsinVoltmeters ............................................................................................. 155
ACVOLTMETERS .................................................................................................................. 157
AverageandRMSValues .................................................................................................. 157
TheFullWaveRectifier..................................................................................................... 158
FormFactorandWaveformErrors..................................................................................... 159
ClampOnMeters............................................................................................................. 164
TrueRMSMeters ............................................................................................................. 165
ELECTRONICCOUNTERS ....................................................................................................... 167
OscilloscopeVersusElectronicCountersandDigitalVoltmeters ........................................... 167
TimeandFrequencyMeasurements .................................................................................. 168
DevicesCommonlyUsedinElectronicMeasuringInstruments ............................................. 169
TheCounterinFrequencyMode ....................................................................................... 172
TheCounterinTimePeriodMode ..................................................................................... 173

TheCounterinTimeIntervalMode ................................................................................... 174
ErrorsinMeasurementsUsingCounters ............................................................................ 175
MeasurementofRotativeSpeed ....................................................................................... 178
THEDIGITALVOLTMETER(DVM) ........................................................................................... 179
Use,AdvantagesandOperation ........................................................................................ 179
IntegratingTypeAnalogtoDigitalConverters ..................................................................... 181
SuccessiveApproximationTypeDVM ................................................................................ 186
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICITY ........................................................................................... 188
UtilizationofElectricalEnergy ........................................................................................... 188
MeasuringElectricPower ................................................................................................. 191
ElectricityMeasuringDevices ............................................................................................ 193
PROBLEMSONMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS ........................................................................... 198
SolvedExamplesonMovingCoilInstruments ..................................................................... 199
QuestionswithSolutions .................................................................................................. 203
OSCILLOGRAPHICMEASUREMENTSANDPICTUREDISPLAYS .......................................... 207
WAVEFORMDISPLAYDEVICES .............................................................................................. 209
OperatingPrinciplesofanOscilloscope .............................................................................. 210
SimplifiedBlockDiagramofanOscilloscope ....................................................................... 211
BASICOSCILLOSCOPEOPERATIONS ....................................................................................... 212
ElectrostaticDeflection..................................................................................................... 212
OperationinSweepMode ................................................................................................ 213
OperationinXYMode ..................................................................................................... 218
MULTITRACEOSCILLOSCOPES .............................................................................................. 222
DIGITALSTORAGEOSCILLOSCOPES(DSO) .............................................................................. 223
NecessityforDSOandItsAdvantages ................................................................................ 223

PrinciplesofOperation ..................................................................................................... 224
CurrentTrends................................................................................................................. 225
VIRTUALINSTRUMENTATION................................................................................................ 226
Definition ........................................................................................................................ 226
ComponentsofVirtualInstrumentation ............................................................................. 227
VirtualInstrumentationforDesign .................................................................................... 228
PICTUREDISPLAY ................................................................................................................. 231
GenerationandPresentationofPicture ............................................................................. 231
TheCathodeRayTube(CRT) ............................................................................................. 231
LiquidCrystals.................................................................................................................. 233
PaintingtheScreen .......................................................................................................... 237
AspectRatioandViewableArea ........................................................................................ 238
AdvantagesofLCDandCRTMonitors ................................................................................ 239
OtherDisplayTechnologies ............................................................................................... 240
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................... 244
SolvedExamples .............................................................................................................. 245
SOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY ................................................................................ 253
LINEARREGULATEDPOWERSUPPLIES ................................................................................... 255
Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 255
ACLineComponentsforAnUnregulatedPowerSupply....................................................... 257
Rectifiers ......................................................................................................................... 261
SmoothingFilters ............................................................................................................. 265
Linear(Dissipative)Regulators .......................................................................................... 268
ProtectionofCircuitsinCaseofRegulatorFailure ............................................................... 271
SWITCHREGULATED(SWITCHING)POWERSUPPLY ................................................................ 272

LinearVersusSwitching .................................................................................................... 272
PrincipleofOperation ...................................................................................................... 273
GeneralLayoutoftheSwitchingPowerSupply ................................................................... 273
RectifiersandFiltersofaSwitchingPowerSupply ............................................................... 274
SwitchingRegulatorConfigurations ................................................................................... 278
OverallLookIntoAdvantagesandDisadvantagesofSwitchingSupplies ................................ 279
SummaryofKeyFormulasthatHelpinSolvingPowerSupplyProblem ................................. 281
BATTERIES........................................................................................................................... 282
PrinciplesofOperation ..................................................................................................... 282
CategoriesandTypes ....................................................................................................... 283
BatteryCapacity............................................................................................................... 286
CareandMaintenanceofBatteries .................................................................................... 290
ELECTRICALSAFETY .............................................................................................................. 293
ScopeandPurposeofElectricalSafety ............................................................................... 293
WhatIstheElectricalShock?............................................................................................. 294
HowtheElectricalShockOccurs? ...................................................................................... 296
HowtoPreventElectricalShocks? ..................................................................................... 297
OfficeElectricalSafety ...................................................................................................... 302
PROBLEMSONSOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY ................................................................... 305
ExercisesonPowerSupplies ............................................................................................. 307
ExercisesonBatteries ....................................................................................................... 310
ExercisesonElectricalSafety ............................................................................................. 313
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 316
ReferencesonPowerSupplies .......................................................................................... 316
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT .................................................................................. 317
BASICPRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................ 319

DefinitionofTemperature ................................................................................................ 319
TemperatureScale ........................................................................................................... 319
ReferenceTemperatures .................................................................................................. 319
TEMPERATUREMEASURINGDEVICES .................................................................................... 320
Thermocouples ................................................................................................................ 320
ResistanceTemperatureDevices ....................................................................................... 321
RadiationDetectors(InfraredSensors)............................................................................... 323
IntegratedCircuit(I.C.)Sensors ......................................................................................... 324
BimetallicDevices ............................................................................................................ 325
FluidExpansionDevices.................................................................................................... 325
Chemical(ChangeofState)Sensors .................................................................................. 325
ComparisonofPracticalTemperatureMeasurementDevices .............................................. 326
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMOCOUPLES ...................................................... 327
EmpiricalLawsofThermocouples ...................................................................................... 328
MeasuringThermocoupleVoltagewithaDigitalVoltmeter(DVM) ....................................... 329
TheReferenceJunction .................................................................................................... 330
ReferenceCircuit:ExternalReferenceJunctionNoIceBath ............................................... 331
ExternalReferenceJunctionNoIceBath.......................................................................... 333
WhyThermocoupleisUsed? ............................................................................................. 334
ExamplesforThermocoupleandTemperatureMeasurement .............................................. 336
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMISTORS ............................................................ 340
ThermistorLinearization ................................................................................................... 341
ThermistorThermometry ................................................................................................. 342
PROBLEMSONTEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTS .................................................................... 345

MEASUREMENTOFDISPLACEMENTANDMECHANICALSTRAIN ..................................... 350
DISPLACEMENTSENSORS ..................................................................................................... 352
ResistiveSensors.............................................................................................................. 352
InductiveSensors ............................................................................................................. 352
CapacitiveSensors ........................................................................................................... 354
PiezoelectricSensors ........................................................................................................ 356
STRAINGAGES(GAUGES) ..................................................................................................... 358
MechanicalPrinciples ....................................................................................................... 358
ElectricalResistanceoftheStrainGageWire ...................................................................... 359
Examples ......................................................................................................................... 361
BondedandUnbondedStrainGages ................................................................................. 362
EffectofTemperatureandStraininotherDirections........................................................... 362
THEWHEATSTONEBRIDGE ................................................................................................... 363
Utilization........................................................................................................................ 363
CircuitConfiguration ........................................................................................................ 363
NullmodeofOperation .................................................................................................... 364
DeflectionmodeofOperation .......................................................................................... 364
BRIDGECONFIGURATIONSFORSTRAINGAGEMEASUREMENTS .............................................. 367
BridgewithaSingleActiveElement(QuarterBridge) .......................................................... 367
BridgewithTwoActiveElements(HalfBridge) ................................................................... 369
BridgewithFourActiveElements(FullBridge) .................................................................... 370
GeneralizedInstrumentationSystem ................................................................................. 371
NOVELPRESSURESENSORS .................................................................................................. 372
QuantumTunnelingComposites ....................................................................................... 372
Applications..................................................................................................................... 373
PROBLEMSONMEASUREMENTOFMECHANICALQUANTITIES ................................................ 374

MultipleChoiceQuestions ................................................................................................ 374
PRACTICALANDREPORTING ....................................................................................... 383
LABORATORYNOTESANDSHEETS ......................................................................................... 384
GeneralGuidelinesinPresentingTechnicalWork................................................................ 384
TheFormalLaboratoryReport .......................................................................................... 384
GeneralRequirements ...................................................................................................... 385
SpecificContentsoftheReport ........................................................................................ 385
MoreOnGraphs .............................................................................................................. 386
OnePageLabReport........................................................................................................ 386
GENERALGUIDELINESFOREXPERIMENTS .............................................................................. 388
PreparationforExperiments ............................................................................................. 388
SummaryofOperationofOscilloscopes ............................................................................. 389
MEASUREMENTANDERROR ................................................................................................ 391
PreliminaryWork ............................................................................................................. 391
ExperimentalProcedure ................................................................................................... 391
ResultsandDiscussions: ................................................................................................... 392
DETERMININGTHECHARACTERISTICOFANINCANDESCENTLAMP .......................................... 393
PreparationsBeforetheExperiment .................................................................................. 393
ExperimentalProcedure ................................................................................................... 393
Results ............................................................................................................................ 394
DiscussionsandConclusions ............................................................................................. 394
DETERMININGTHECHARACTERISTICOFACAPACITOR ........................................................... 395
Capacitorstobeused ....................................................................................................... 395
Reminderfortheexperimentalprocedures ........................................................................ 395

REGULATEDPOWERSUPPLY ................................................................................................. 396
Experiment ...................................................................................................................... 396
TERMPROJECT .................................................................................................................... 398
ImportantQuestionstoAnswer ........................................................................................ 398
Duties ............................................................................................................................. 398
ElementsoftheReport ..................................................................................................... 398
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 400
AQUANTITIES,UNITSANDSTANDARDS .............................................................................. 400
BasicandDerivedUnits .................................................................................................... 400
Standards ........................................................................................................................ 405
BOPERATIONALAMPLIFIERS .............................................................................................. 406
Characteristicsandbasicamplifiersconfigurationsusingopamps ....................................... 406
Invertingamplifiers .......................................................................................................... 407
CPRETEST ........................................................................................................................ 409
DEXITSURVEY .................................................................................................................. 410
ERUBRICSFORSTUDENTOUTCOMESSUPPORTEDBYEE306 ............................................... 412
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"b" .................................................................................. 412
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"d" .................................................................................. 413
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"f" ................................................................................... 414
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"k" .................................................................................. 415
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"l" ................................................................................... 415
Introduction / 16
INTRODUCTION
ELECTRICALANDCOMPUTERENGINEERINGSPECIALTIES
DefinitionofElectricalandElectronicEngineering
ElectronicsandCommunicationsGroup
ComputerEngineeringGroup
BiomedicalEngineeringGroup
MISCELLANEOUSELECTRICALENGINEERINGFIELDSOFACTIVITIES
Mechatronics
AutomotiveIndustry
Avionics
BiomedicalEngineeringExtensions
CognitiveRadio
FiberOpticsCommunicationSystems
Introduction / 17
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
Aftercompletingthischapter,thestudentsareexpectedto:
1. Defineelectricalandelectronicsengineering.
2. State the responsibilities of and career opportunities for graduates of electronics and
communications,computerandbiomedicalengineeringgroups.
3. Express novel and emerging application fields of electronics engineering such as mechatronics,
avionics.
4. Recognize the applications of electronics engineering in automotive Industry, ehealth,
biomechanicsandrehabilitation,cognitiveradioandfiberopticscommunicationsystems.
5. Definebasicandderivedunitsinengineering.
6. Identifiesengineeringstandardsandstandardunitsforagivenapplication.
7. Useengineeringprefixesinexpressingnumericalvalues.
Introduction / 18
ELECTRICALANDCOMPUTERENGINEERINGSPECIALTIES
DefinitionofElectricalandElectronicEngineering
Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the study and application of
electricity and electromagnetism. Its practitioners are called electrical engineers. Electrical
engineeringisabroadfieldthatencompassesmanysubfieldsandafter1980itisgenerallyreferred
to the engineering discipline that deals with electrical energy and its utilization. It has two major
branches:
Powerengineering:generation,distributionandutilizationofelectricalenergy
Machinesengineering:conversionofelectricalenergyintomechanicalactionandwork
Electronics Engineering is a specialized branch of Electrical Engineering which deals with
components such as semiconductor diodes, triodes, transistors, computer and similar microcircuit
chips, printed circuit boards, etc. Depending on where they are to be used (the applications),
electroniccircuitscanbebuilttohandleaverywiderangeofpower.Electronicsisthestudyanduse
of electrical devices that operate by controlling the flow of electrons or other electrically charged
particlesindevicessuchasthermionicvalvesandsemiconductors.Thepurestudyofsuchdevicesis
considered as a branch of physics, while the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve
practicalproblemsispartofthefieldsofelectrical,electronicandcomputerengineering.Figure1.1
illustratesafunctionaldiagramofelectronicsengineering.
Electronics Engineering (also referred to as electronic engineering) is an engineering
discipline which uses the scientific knowledge of the behavior and effects of electrons to develop
components, devices, systems, or equipment (as in electron tubes, transistors, integrated circuits,
andprintedcircuitboards)thatuseselectricityaspartofitsdrivingforce.Bothtermsdenoteabroad
engineering field that encompasses many subfields including those that deal with power,
instrumentationengineering,telecommunications,semiconductorcircuitdesign,andmanyothers.
The electronics engineering deals with communicating an information from one place into
anotherplaceanddevelopingtoolsandtechniquestoachieveit.Ittakesaphysicalprocessthatisin
form of mechanical and chemical in nature and converts them into electrical variables in form of
voltageandcurrentorotherderivedelectricalvariables.Adevicethatconvertsatypeofenergyinto
anothertypeiscalledthetransducer.Itiscalledthesensoriftheconvertedenergyiselectrical.The
information flow is in form of flow of electrons in electrical circuits. Several electronic utilities are
used to process the signal including amplifiers, filters, analog to digital and digital to analog
convertersanddigitalcomputers.
Introduction / 19
Thecomputerisaprogrammablemachinethatreceivesinput,storesandmanipulatesdata,
andprovidesoutputinausefulformat.ComputerEngineeringisabranchofengineeringthatdeals
with the machine (hardware) and programs (software) that are used to operate the machines
(systemandapplications).Computerengineeringhastwomajorbranchesascomputerhardwareand
software(systemandapplications).Thesoftwarepartiscalledasthecomputerscience.Computer
hardware and electronics have many components in common and they are almost remerging. It
deals with computer networks, interfacing computers with other electronic and nonelectronic
devices,embeddedsystems,robotics,visionandcontrolsystems,andcomputergraphics.
Figure1.1 Aschematicdiagram illustratingvariousactivitiesofelectronicsengineering
The information perceived by the user must be in form of mechanical and chemical
processes. The electrical information is converted into this convertible form using another type of
sensor that is called the actuator. Electronic engineering principles and devices are used in many
other engineering disciplines such as telecommunications engineering, biomedical engineering,
mechatronicsandavionics.
The activities of electronics engineering are handled by three distinct groups in the
ElectronicsandComputerEngineeringinFacultyofEngineeringatKingAbdulazizUniversity.
ElectronicsandCommunicationsGroup
TheGroupisconcernedwith :
Introduction / 20
The Electronics Engineering that covers electronic devices, circuits, systems, and
measurementandmeasuringinstruments,
The Communications Engineering that deals with signals, signal processing, signal
transmissionandtransmissionmediums,noiseandsignaldetection,andapplicationsof
electronicdevices,systemsandcircuitsinvariousareasofcommunication.
The Electronics and Communications Specialization has a very wide application area.
Graduatesfromthespecialtyworkin
Installation,managementandmaintenanceofvarietyofcommunicationsystemssuchas
microwave and radar systems, optical and laser communication systems, and mobile
communicationsystemsetc.
Design,construction,operationandmaintenanceof
Electronicinstrumentationinvariousindustrialinstallations,
Controlsystems,dataloggingstationsandrelatedinstruments,
Informationtechnologyandlocalareanetworks,
Buildingmanagementsystems,and
Electronicentertainmentdevices
ComputerEngineeringGroup
The computer Engineering Group deals with computer hardware and software (systems and
applications), computer networks, interfacing computers with other electronic and nonelectronic
devices,embeddedsystems,robotics,visionandcontrolsystems,andcomputergraphics.
Graduates from the specialty work in government and private organizations. Their
responsibilitiescover
Design,construction,operationandmaintenanceof
Computernetworks,
Informationtechnologydepartments,
Graphicworkstationsandelectronicpublishingutilities,
Specializedcomputerlabs,
Interfacing computers in measurement and control applications, control systems and

dataloggingapplications,
Computerizedautomotivesystems,
ComputerAidedDesign(CAD)andComputerAidedmanufacturing(CAM)systems,
Buildingmanagementsystems
Developmentofoperatingsystemsforspecialapplications,
Introduction / 21
Databasesystemdesign,operationandmaintenance.
BiomedicalEngineeringGroup
The biomedical engineering deals with applications of engineering principles and knowhow in
medicineandbiology.Thespecialtyareasare:
bioinstrumentation,
biomaterials;
biomechanics;
cellular,tissueandgeneticengineering;
clinicalengineering;
medicalimaging;
orthopedicsurgery;
rehabilitationengineering;and
systemsphysiology
TheprograminourDepartmentisconcentratedaroundmedicalelectronicsthatdealswith
measurement and processing of medical signals, and medical instrumentation for diagnostic,
monitoringandtherapeuticpurposes.
Bioinstrumentation:applicationofelectronics,computersandmeasurementtechniques
todevelopdevicesusedindiagnosisandtreatmentofdisease.
Medical Imaging: combines knowledge of a unique physical phenomenon (sound,

radiation, magnetism, etc.) with high speed electronic data processing, analysis and
displaytogenerateanimage.
ClinicalEngineering:applicationoftechnologytohealthcareinhospitals.
The clinical engineer is an engineer who is able to perform certain engineering tasks in a
health care facility and who has the knowledge and experience to work as a partner with health
professionalstoplanandimplementappropriateprogramsforimprovingthehealthcaredelivery.He
is generally an inhouse engineer working in the hospital to fulfill some of the following
responsibilities:
Supervision on proper operation and safety of instruments. Ensuring electrical safety in

medical environment, preparation and followup of the preventive (operational) and
correctivemaintenanceproceduresformedicalequipment;
Specificationandpurchaseofnewequipment,andtrainingofstaffonitsproperuse;
Introduction / 22
Workingwithphysicianstoadaptinstrumentationtothespecificneedsofthephysicianand
thehospital.Thisofteninvolvesmodificationofmedicalequipmenttomeetlocalneeds;and
theinterfaceofinstrumentswithcomputersystemsandcustomizedsoftwareforinstrument
controlanddataacquisitionandanalysis;
Coordinationofmedicalinformationflowbetweendifferentdepartmentsinthehospitaland
introduction of industrial or management engineering techniques to optimize information
handling; developing and maintaining computer databases of medical instrumentation and
equipmentrecordsandforthepurchaseanduseofsophisticatedmedicalinstruments.
A biomedical engineer in the medical instrumentation track is an engineer competent in medical

electronics and computer applications in medicine. He may work in the biomedical engineering
departmentofahospitalorinaprivatecompanythatprovidesservicestohealthcarefacilities.His
majorresponsibilitiesinclude:
Installation, planning and handling of maintenance procedures and repair of medical

equipmentunderhisresponsibility;
Designing of engineering systems and components of systems that are not commercially
available;
Preparationofbiddingformaintenancecontracts;
Pursuing technological developmentsinthe medicalinstrumentationfieldandenlightening

medicalpersonnelaboutthem.
An electrical engineer specialized in the general field of instrumentation, measurement and

control is an engineer who deals with signal detection, transduction, processing and information
presentation techniques used in biomedical engineering that are also widely utilized in industrial
applications. Hence, biomedical engineering graduates can easily adapt themselves into such
applications.
Introduction / 23
MISCELLANEOUSELECTRICALENGINEERINGFIELDSOFACTIVITIES
ThereareimportantapplicationfieldsthatarenotcurrentlycoveredintheDepartmentofElectrical
and Computer Engineering: mechatronics, avionics, biomechanics, rehabilitation engineering, e
healthandtelemedicine,cognitiveradioandfiberopticcommunicationsystems.
Mechatronics
Mechatronicsisthe
synergisticcombinationof
precisionmechanical
engineering,electronic
controlandsystems
thinkinginthedesignof
productsand
manufacturingprocesses.
Itrelatestothedesignof
systems,devicesand
productsaimedat
achievinganoptimal
balancebetweenbasic
mechanicalstructureand
itsoverallcontrol.Ithas
extensionsastherobotics,
Figure1.2 Logoofmechatronics(source:http://www.edn.com/article/511901
PLM_and_mechatronics.php)
microelectromechanicalsystems(MEMS)andapplicationsinautomotiveindustry.Thelogoof
mechatronicsisshowninFigure1.2andthedomainsofitsactivitiesareillustratedinFigure1.3.
Introduction / 24
Figure1.3Domainofactivitiesofmechatronics(source:http://www.uomcoe.org/ar/index.php?option=
com_content&view=article&id=580:20110808211549&catid=10:20100101205522&Itemid=140)
Robotics: a robot's design, manufacture,

application, and structural disposition. It is
related to electronics, mechanics, and software.
Figure 1.4 shows a gripper (mechanical hand)
whichisaverychallengingapplication.
MicroElectroMechanical
Systems
(MEMS): technology of very small mechanical

devices driven by electricity; it merges at the
nanoscale into nanoelectromechanical systems
(NEMS) and nanotechnology. MEMS are also
Figure1.4 Arobothand(gripper)(source:
referredtoasmicromachines(inJapan),orMicro
http://www.amazon.co.uk/Photographic
SystemsTechnologyMST(inEurope).Figure1.5 artificialSciencePhotoLibrary/dp/B001NJ9DLY)
Introduction / 25
showsanassemblydrawingforasafetylockanditsinterfaceusinganopticalfiber.
Figure1.5AsafetylockusingMEMStechnologyanditsinterface(source:http://spie.org/x35991.xml?ArticleID=x35991)
AutomotiveIndustry
Figure1.6Commonelectricalcomponentsinacar
The automotive industry contains many applications such as software design tools, electronic
gadgetsandcontrols,breakbywire,GPRS,etc.Figure1.6showsthecommonelectricalcomponents
inacar.
Introduction / 26
Figure1.7illustratesautomotiveelectronicsthatrangesfromentertainmentandnavigationsystems
intolightingandcontrolsystems.
Figure1.7Automotiveelectronicsystems
Avionics
Avionics: combination of "aviation" and "electronics". It comprises electronic systems for use on
aircraft, artificial satellites and spacecraft, comprising communications, navigation and the display
and management of multiple systems. It also includes the hundreds of systems that are fitted to
aircrafttomeetindividualroles,thesecanbeassimpleasasearchlightforapolicehelicopteroras
complicated as the tactical system for an Airborne Early Warning platform. Figure 1.8 shows the
controlpanelinthecockpitofanairplane.
Introduction / 27
Figure1.8Cockpitofanairplane
BiomedicalEngineeringExtensions
ehealth: relatively recent term for healthcare practice supported by electronic processes and
communication,datingbacktoatleast1999asillustratedinFigure1.9.
Figure1.9Illustrationofehealthtechnology
Rehabilitation: the process of helping an individual achieve the highest level of independence and
qualityoflifepossiblephysically,emotionally,socially,andspiritually.Rehabilitationengineeringis
Introduction / 28
to develop tools and facilities for the disabled people to help them in recovery and gain
independence in their activities. Figure 1.10 shows an instrumented wheelchair that provides
mobilityforthedisabled.
Figure1.10Aninstrumentedwheelchair
Biomechanics: the application of mechanical principles to biological systems, such as humans,

animals,plants,organs,andcells.PerhapsoneofthebestdefinitionswasprovidedbyHerbertHatze
in1974:"Biomechanicsisthestudyofthestructureandfunctionofbiologicalsystemsbymeansof
the methods of mechanics". The word biomechanics developed during the early 1970s, describing
theapplicationofengineeringmechanicstobiologicalandmedicalsystems.
Biomechanics is close related to engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering
sciences to analyze biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics and/or
materialssciencescansupplycorrectapproximationstothemechanicsofmanybiologicalsystems.
Appliedmechanics,mostnotablymechanicalengineeringdisciplinessuchascontinuummechanics,
mechanismanalysis,structuralanalysis,kinematicsanddynamicsplayprominentrolesinthestudy
ofbiomechanics.
Introduction / 29
Usuallybiologicalsystemaremorecomplexthanmanbuiltsystems.Numericalmethodsarehence
applied in almost every biomechanical study. Research is done in a iterative process of hypothesis
and verification, including several steps of modeling, computer simulation and experimental
measurements.Figure1.11showsamicroprocessorcontrolledlegprosthesis.
Figure1.11Amicroprocessorcontrolledprostheticleg
CognitiveRadio
Cognitive radio is a paradigm for wireless communication in which either a network or a wireless
node changes its transmission or reception parameters to communicate efficiently avoiding
interferencewithlicensedorunlicensedusers.Thisalterationofparametersisbasedontheactive
monitoringofseveralfactorsintheexternalandinternalradioenvironment,suchasradiofrequency
spectrum, user behavior and network state. Figure 1.12 illustrates the operation of the cognitive
radio.
Introduction / 30
Figure1.12Theprinciplesofoperationofthecognitiveradio
FiberOpticsCommunicationSystems
Optical communication is as old as the humanity. Optical communication systems in the past
consisted of techniques such as fire signals, smoke signals, flash lanterns, reflected sunlight and
signal flags. Such systems had limited bandwidth and were not competitive with electronic
communications(likeradio).Theinventionofthelaserhoweverprovidedacoherentopticalsource
capableoftransmittinginformationatextremelyhighdatarates.Yet,limitationsontransmissionof
light through the atmosphere (such as turbulence, haze, fog, absorption and rain) limited the
usefulness of lasers for transmission of information through the atmosphere. Modern optical
communication systems use semiconductor lasers that transmit light through optical fibers. Such
systemshavebecomewidelyusedfortelecommunications.Lasercommunicationsystemsareused
to transfer information from one point to a distant point. The information may be an audio
conversation, a stream of data from one computer to another, or several simultaneous television
broadcasts.Thedistancemayrangefromafewfeettothousandsofmiles.
Industrial revolution of 19th century gave way to information revolution during the 1990s.
Table 1 illustrates the milestones of developments in electrical and optical era. The optical era
startedinlate70'sbutexperiencedaspeedydevelopmentafter90's.Emergenceofinternetcauseda
newageinwhichtheworldisreshapingandtheFiberOpticRevolutionisanaturalconsequenceof
the Internet growth. The information flow is managed at a much economical rates yet with a very
highthroughputviatheopticalcommunicationsystems.
Introduction / 31
Table1.Milestonesofdevelopmentsinelectricalandopticalera
ElectricalEra
OpticalEra
Telegraph;1836
OpticalFibers;1978
Telephone;1876
OpticalAmplifiers;1990
CoaxialCables;1840
WDMTechnology;1996
Microwaves;1948
Multiplebands;2002
Microwaves and coaxial cables limited to B Optical systems can operate at bit rate >10
100Mb/s.
Tb/s.
Improvementinsystemcapacityisrelatedto
thehighfrequencyofopticalwaves(200THz
at1.5m).
Fiber optic is applied in parts of our life now from connecting peripheral devices up to advanced
telecommunicationsystemsasillustratedinFigure1.13.ThebandwidthextendsfromafewHzupto
10GHzandthelengthcoveredrangesfromafewmetersuptothousandsofkilometers.
Figure1.13Typicalfiberopticapplications
From:www.master-photonics.org/uploads/media/Govind_Agrawal1.pdf
ComponentsofalightwavesystemisillustratedinFigure1.14.Agenericsystemreceiveselectrical
inputsthatdrivetheopticaltransmitter.Acommunicationchannelcarriestheopticalsignalsintoan
opticalreceiverthatconvertsthembacktoelectricalsignals.Theopticaltransmitterhasanoptical
sources whose output is modulated by the incoming electrical signals. The optical receiver is
Introduction / 32
photodetector whose output is demodulated to obtain the original electrical signal. The
communicationchannelcontainsopticalfibersthatcarrythelightpulses.Theintensityoflightdrops
asitprogressesalongthefiber.Hence,opticalamplifiersareusedtoboostupthelightintensityand
eventuallytoregeneratethetransmittedpulses.
Figure1.14Componentsofalightwavesystem
An optical fiber is basically a thin glass rod as shown in Figure 1.15. The single mode fiber has a
claddingcoveredbyabuffermaterialthatisfurthercoveredbyafireproofjacket.Amulticorefiber
containsmanyopticalfibers.Thestructureismechanicallystrenthenedusingsteelcoreandsheath.
Again,theoverallstructureiscoveredwithafireproofjacket.
Figure1.15Examplesoffiberopticfibers
Introduction / 33
QUANTITIES,UNITSANDSTANDARDS
Definitions
A quantity is a quantifiable or assignable property ascribed to phenomena, bodies, or substances.
Examplesarespeedofacarandmassofanelectron.Aphysical quantityisa quantitythatcanbe
used in the mathematical equations of science and technology. A unit is a particular physical
quantity,definedandadoptedbyconvention,withwhichotherparticularquantitiesofthesamekind
arecomparedtoexpresstheirvalue.Thevalueofaphysicalquantityisthequantitativeexpressionof
aparticularphysicalquantityastheproductofanumberandaunit,thenumberbeingitsnumerical
value.Thus,thenumericalvalueofaparticularphysicalquantitydependsontheunitinwhichitis
expressed.Forexample,thevalueoftheheighthofalightpoleish=16m.Herehisthephysical
quantity, its value expressed in the unit "meter," unit symbol m, is 16 m, and its numerical value
whenexpressedinmetersis16.
BasicUnitsandDerivedUnits
Inallconversations,thephysicalquantitiesarepresentedwiththeirpropervaluescomparedtothe
standard,theunits.Thegeneralunitofaphysicalquantityisdefinedasitsdimension.Aunitsystem
canbedevelopedbychoosing,foreachbasicdimensionofthesystem,aspecificunit.Forexample,
the internationally established (SI) units are the meter for length, the kilogram for mass, and the
second for time, abbreviated as the mks system of units. Such a unit is called a basic unit. The
corresponding physical quantity is called a basic quantity. All units that are not basic are called
derivedunits.Inthemkssystemthederivedunitsforforceandenergyareaconvenientsizeinan
engineeringsense,andallthepracticalunitsfitinasthenaturalunitstoformacomprehensiveunit
system.
Ifwedefinethedimensionsoflength,mass,andtimeas[L],[M],and[T],respectively,then
physical quantities may be expressed as [L]x[M]y[T]z. For instance, the dimension of acceleration is
[L][T]2andthatofforceis[L][M][T]2.Inthemkssystemofunits,thesystematicunitofacceleration
istherefore1m/s2andthatofforceis1kgm/s2.
Systems of units in which the mass is taken as a basic unit are called absolute systems of
units, whereas those in which the force rather than the mass is taken as a basic unit are called
gravitational systems of units. The metric engineering system of units is a gravitational system of
unitsandisbasedonthemeter,kilogramforce,andsecondasbasicunits.
Standards
Theinternationalsystemofunits(SI)istheinternationallyagreedonsystemofunitsforexpressing
the values of physical quantities. In this system four basic units are added to the customary three
Introduction / 34
basicunits(meter,kilogram,second)ofthemksabsolutesystemofunits.Thefouraddedbasicunits
are ampere as the electric current, the Kelvin as the unit of thermodynamic temperature, the
candelaastheunitofluminousintensity,andthemoleastheunitofamountofsubstance.ThusinSI
units the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, candela, and mole constitute the seven basic
units.TherearetwoauxiliaryunitsintheSIunits:theradian,whichistheunitofaplaneangle,and
thesteradian,whichistheunitofasolidangle.
Many countries established standardization institutions and standard laboratories where
they keep the standard units that are calibrated against the world standards and kept as national
standards. All other standards in the country are calibrated against these national standards and
usedassecondarystandards.
InthiscourseswewillusenotationsinaccordancewiththecurrentInternationalStandards.
Unitsforengineeringquantitiesareprintedinuprightromancharacters,withaspacebetweenthe
numerical value and the unit, but no space between the decimal prefix and the unit, e.g. 275 kV.
Compoundunitshaveaspace,dotor/betweentheunitelementsasappropriate,e.g.1.5Nm,300
m/s , or 9.81 m.s2. Variable symbols are printed in italic typeface, e.g. V. For ac quantities, the
instantaneousvalueisprintedinlowercaseitalic,peakvalueinlowercaseitalicwithcaret(^),and
rmsvalueinuppercase,e.g.i,,I.Symbolsfortheimportantelectricalquantitieswiththeirunitsare
giveninTable1.
Table1Symbolsforstandardquantitiesandunits
Symbol
Quantity
Unit
Unitsymbol
geometricarea
squaremeter
m2
magneticfluxdensity
tesla
Capacitance
farad
electricfieldstrength
voltpermetre
V/m
mechanicalforce
Newton
Fm
magnetomotiveforce(mmf)
Ampere
AorA.t
conductance
Siemens
magneticfieldstrength
amperepermetre
A/m
electriccurrent
ampere
electriccurrentdensity
amperepersquaremetre
A/m2
momentofinertia
kilogrammetresquared
kg.m2
selfinductance
henry
mutualinductance
henry
numberofturns
Introduction / 35
Symbol
Quantity
Unit
Unitsymbol
activeorrealpower
watt
electriccharge
coulomb
reactivepower
voltamperereactive
VAR
electricalresistance
ohm
Rm
Reluctance
ampereperweber
A/Wb
apparentpower
voltampere
V.A
mechanicaltorque
newtonmeter
N.m
electricpotentialorvoltage
volt
energyorwork
joule
Reactance
ohm
Admittance
Siemens
Impedance
ohm
Frequency
hertz
Hz
iorj
squarerootof1
Length
Meter
Mass
Kilogram
kg
rotationalspeed
revolutionperminute
rpm
Numberofmachinepoles
Time
Second
linearvelocity
meterpersecond
m/s
Permittivity
faradpermeter
F/m
Efficiency
Angle
radianordegree
rador
powerfactor
Permeance
weberperampere
Wb/A
Permeability
henrypermeter
H/m
Resistivity
ohmmeter
.m
Conductivity
siemenspermeter
S/m
phaseangle
radian
rad
magneticflux
weber
Wb
magneticfluxlinkage
weberorweberturn
WborWb.t
radianpersecond
rad/s
angularvelocityorangular
frequency
Introduction / 36
Prefixes
TheSIprefixesusedtoformdecimalmultiplesandsubmultiplesofSIunitsaregiveninTable2.The
kilogramistheonlySIunitwithaprefixaspartofitsnameandsymbol.Becausemultipleprefixes
maynotbeused,inthecaseofthekilogramtheprefixnamesofTable2areusedwiththeunitname
"gram"andtheprefixsymbolsareusedwiththeunitsymbol"g."Withthisexception,anySIprefix
maybeusedwithanySIunit,includingthedegreeCelsiusanditssymbolC.
BecausetheSIprefixesstrictlyrepresentpowersof10,theyshouldnotbeusedtorepresent
powers of 2. Thus, one kilobit, or 1 kbit, is 1000 bit and not 210 bit = 1024 bit. To alleviate this
ambiguity, prefixes for binary multiples have been adopted by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) for use in information technology. This is beyond the context of this textbook.
ListingandfurtherdescriptionsofbasicandderivedunitsandstandardsaregiveninAppendixA.
Table2StandardprefixesfortheSIunitsofmeasure
Multiples
Fractions
Name
Symbol
Factor
Name
Symbol
Factor
100
100
Da
101
deci
101
102
centi
102
103
milli
103
106
micro
106
109
nano
109
1012
pico
1012
1015
femto
1015
1018
atto
1018
1021
zepto
1021
1024
yocto
1024
deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
tera
peta
exa
zetta
yotta
PROBLEMS
ReviewQuestions
1. Whatisengineeringandwhoisengineer?
2. Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenelectricalandelectronicsengineering?
3. Brieflydescribethefieldsofactivitiesofelectronicsengineering.
Introduction / 37
4. Definethecomputerscienceandcomputerengineering.
5. Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweencomputerscienceandcomputerengineering?
6. Statetheresponsibilitiesofandcareeropportunitiesforgraduatesofyourspecialization.
7. InterpretthelogoofmechatronicsthatwasillustratedinFigure1.2.
8. Discusstheimportanceofelectronicsindesignofmechanicalsystems.
9. List important electrical/electronic components in your car. What do you understand from the
term"brakebyawire"?
10. Define avionics and list critical applications of electronics and communications engineering
relatedtotheoperationandsafetyinairplanes.
11. Discusstheapplicationsofelectronicsandcommunicationsengineeringinthegeriatricmedicine
(careforelderly).
12. Stateafewexamplesinwhichtheelectrical/electronicengineeringcontributepositivelytothe
welfareofdisabledpeople.
13. Comparethecognitiveradiocommunicationtoconventionalradioanddiscussitsadvantages.
14. Makeawebsearchandidentifythesalientfeaturesofopticalcommunication.
15. Statesevenbasicinternationallyrecognized(SI)unitsandspecifyquantitiesthattheyidentify.
16. Pleasecirclethebestchoiceinthefollowingquestions:
1.
1pF(picofarad)is
a. 103F
2. 1Faradis
a. 1Coulomb/V
3. 1Coulombis
a. 1V/s
4. 1Hertz(Hz)is
a. 1radian
5. 1Wattis
a. 1A*s
6. 1Teslais
a. 1Weber/m2
7. 1ohmis
a. 1V*A
8. Thevelocityis
a. Distance*s
9. 1Siemens(mho)is
a. 1Ohm*m
10. 1Newtonis
a. 1kg*m
b.
106F
c.
109 A
d.
10V/s
b.
1A*s
c.
1Coulomb
d.
1ohm/s
b.
1Wb*s
c.
1F
d.
1A*s
b.
1radian/(2)
c.
1cycles/s
d.
1radian/s(rps)
b.
1Joule/s
c.
1A/s
d.
1Joule*s
b.
1Coulomb*s
c.
1Volt/m
d.
1V*A
b.
1Joule/s
c.
1V/A
d.
1Farad/s
c.
Distance/s2
d.
Force/area
b. Integralofacceleration
b.
1Farad/s
c.
1/ohm
d.
1A/s
b.
1Watt*s
c.
1Ampere*s
d.
1Pascal*m2
Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 38
FUNDAMENTALELECTRICALENGINEERINGCOMPONENTS
ENERGYSOURCES
TheAtomandSubatomicParticles
Electricity,GenerationofElectricalEnergy
TransmissionandDistributionofElectricalEnergy
CONDUCTORSANDINSULATORS
Definitions,WireConductors,PropertiesofWireConductors
RESISTORS
DefinitionandUse,TypesofFixedResistors,AdjustableResistors
ResistorMarking,PreferredValues,PowerRatingsofResistors
ResistorsatHighFrequencies,NoiseinResistors,FailureModes
CAPACITORS
DefinitionandUse,NonIdealBehavior,CapacitorTypes
ApplicationsofCapacitors,CapacitiveSensing
HazardsandSafety
SupercapacitorsElectricDoubleLayerCapacitors
INDUCTORS
DefinitionandUse,TypesofInductors,InductorsinElectricCircuits
TRANSFORMER
DefinitionandUse,OperationandPracticalConsiderations
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1. Identifythesubatomicparticlesandtheircontributionstotheelectricalactivitieswithinanatom.
2. Defineinprecisetermselectricity,magnetism,electricalcharge,electricalfield,magneticfield,
electricalconductionandelectromagnetism,andexpresstherelationshipbetweenthem.
3. Describevariousformsofgeneration,transmissionanddistributionofelectricalenergy.
4. Defineinprecisetermsconductors,semiconductorsandinsulators.
5. Classifywireconductors,cablesandtransmissionlines,recognizetheirinternationalstandards.
6. Explainpropertiesofwireconductorsintermsofampacity,resistanceandeffectsof
temperatureandfrequency.
7. Defineelectricalresistorsandtheirfunctionalities.
8. Classifyfixedresistorsaccordingtotheircompositionsandareasofapplications.
9. Describeadjustableresistors,theiruseandlimitations.
10. Identifyresistorsaccordingtotheircolorcodemarkingandtellthepreferredvalues.
11. Determinethepowerratingrequirementsofresistorsandchoosetheproperonesforagiven
applications.
12. Explainthebehaviorofresistorsathighfrequenciesandbefamiliarwithnoiseinresistors.
13. Befamiliarwiththereasonsforthefailuresofresistorsandfailuremodes.
14. Definethecapacitanceandcapacitors,theiruseinelectricalcircuits.
15. Describethenonidealbehaviorofcapacitorssuchasthebreakdownvoltage,ripplecurrentand
instability.
16. Identifyvariouscapacitortypes thatareusedinpracticeusingcapacitormarkings.
17. Selectthepropercapacitorforagivenapplication.
18. Discusstheprinciplesandapplicationsofcapacitivesensing.
19. Identifyhazardsrelatedtocapacitorsandrequiredsafetymeasures.
20. Describeprinciplesandapplicationsofsupercapacitors(electricdoublelayercapacitors).
21. Definetheinductanceandinductors,theiruseinelectricalcircuits.
22. Discusstheinductortypesandnonidealbehaviorofinductorswiththeireffectsinperformance
ofinductivecircuits.
23. Discussthetransformerasacircuitelementsandeffectsofitsthenonidealbehavior.
ENERGYSOURCES
TheAtomandSubatomicParticles
The earth is made of elements each of which has distinct characteristics. The smallest part of an
elementsthatcarriesitscharacteristicsiscalledtheatom. Theatomisalso madeupofsubatomic
particles.Amongthemwehaveprotonsthatarelocatedinthecenter(nucleus)oftheatomandthey
areloadedwithpositiveelectricalcharge.Wehavenegativelyloadedparticlesthatspinaroundtheir
own axes and also travel around selected orbits around the nucleus as depicted in Figure 2.1. The
magnitudeofthechargeofanelectronisthesameasthatoftheproton.Thenumberofelectrons
areequivalenttothenumberofprotonsforagivenatomandeventuallythereisachargeneutrality.
Each orbit for the electrons has a specific energy level. The electrons are loosely connected to the
atom and they can jump into a higher energy orbit if they receive a suitable external energy.
However,theydon'tstayintheneworbitandtheyreturnbacktotheiroriginalorbitbyejectingthe
additionalenergyasanelectromagneticwave.
Figure2.1Atomanditschargedparticles
ElectronsmovingaroundthenucleusestablishacloudofnegativechargesasillustratedinFigure2.2
for the helium atom depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The
nucleus (upper right) in helium4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the
electroncloud,althoughformorecomplicatednucleithisisnotalwaysthecase.Theblackbarisone
angstrom,equalto1010mor100,000fm.
Figure2.2Electroncloudaroundthenucleusoftheheliumatom
Electricity
Ingeneralusage,theword"electricity"adequatelyreferstoanumberofphysicaleffects.Inscientific
usage,however,thetermisvague,andtheserelated,butdistinct,conceptsarebetteridentifiedby
morepreciseterms.
ElectricCharge
The electric charge is a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their
electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces,
electromagneticfields.Thechargeonelectronsandprotonsisoppositeinsignasmentionedabove,
hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention,
the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive. The amount of
charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; each electron carries the same
chargeofapproximately1.60221019coulomb.Theprotonhasachargethatisequalandopposite,
andthus+1.60221019coulomb.
ElectricField
Theelectricfieldisaninfluenceproducedbyanelectricchargeonotherchargesinitsvicinity.An
electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force
exertedonanyotherchargesplacedwithinthefield.Figure2.3showstheelectricalfieldlinesfora
positiveelectricalcharge.
Figure2.3 Fieldlinesemanatingfromapositivecharge
aboveaplaneconductor
ElectricPotential
Theelectricpotentialisthecapacityofanelectricfieldtodoworkonanelectriccharge.Theconcept
of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an
electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force
requireswork.Theelectricpotentialatanypointisdefinedastheenergyrequiredtobringaunittest
chargefromaninfinitedistanceslowlytothatpoint.Itisusuallymeasuredinvolts,andonevoltis
thepotentialforwhichonejouleofworkmustbeexpendedtobringachargeofonecoulombfrom
infinity.
ElectricalConduction
The electrical conduction is the movement of electrically charged particles through a transmission
medium(electricalconductor).Itsnaturevarieswiththatofthechargedparticlesandthematerial
throughwhichtheyaretravelling.Thischargetransportmayreflectapotentialdifferenceduetoan
electricfield,oraconcentrationgradientincarrierdensity.Thelatterreflectsdiffusionofthecharge
carriers. The physical parameters governing this transport depend upon the material. Examples of
electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as
metal,andelectrolysis,whereions(chargedatoms)flowthroughliquids.
The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is
usuallymeasuredinamperes.Currentcanconsistofanymovingchargedparticles;mostcommonly
these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. By historical convention, a
positivecurrentisdefinedashavingthesamedirectionofflowasanypositivechargeitcontains,or
to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this

manner is called conventional current. The motion of negatively
charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most
familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite
direction to that of the electrons. However, depending on the
conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged
particlesineitherdirection,oreveninbothdirectionsatonce.The
positivetonegative convention is widely used to simplify this
Figure2.4Themagneticfield
situation.
aroundacurrentcarrying
conductor
MagneticField
Amagneticfieldisafieldofforceproducedbymovingelectriccharges,byelectricfieldsthatvaryin
time, and by the 'intrinsic' magnetic field of elementary particles associated with the spin of the
particle.ThemagneticfieldstrengthBisavectorquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.A
current flowing in a conductor produces a rotational magnetic field as depicted in Figure 2.4. The
directionisidentifiedwiththerighthandgriprule.TheunitofBisTeslaorGauss(1Tesla=10,000
Gauss)
The current in a solenoid coil generates a translational magnetic field through the coil as
showninFigure2.5.
Figure2.5Themagneticfieldlinesforasolenoidcoil
A current carrying conductor in an external magnetic field experiences a mechanical force due to
interactionofthefieldlinesasillustratedinFigure2.6.
Current into plane
Applied field
Resultant field
Force
Figure2.6Acurrentcarryingconductorinanexternalmagneticfield
A current bearing coil inserted in an external magnetic field experiences a torque as illustrated in
Figure 2.7. This is the fundamental principle of electric motors. Equivalently, a loop of conductor
movinginanexternalmagneticfieldwillhaveanelectricalcurrentinducedinit.Thisistheprinciple
ofgenerators.
Force
x
I
Magnetic
field
Force
Force
D
Magnetic
field
C
Force
Force
Figure2.7Torqueexperiencedbyacurrentcarryingcoilasitisexposedtoanexternalmagneticfield
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a fundamental interaction between the
magnetic field and the presence and motion of an electric
charge. The relationship between the magnetic and electric
fields, and the currents and charges that create them, is
describedbythesetofMaxwell'sequationsthatarecovered
inEE302ElectromagneticFields.Theelectricmotorshown
in
Figure
2.8
exploits
an
important
effect
of
electromagnetism: a current through a magnetic field

experiencesaforceatrightanglestoboththefieldandcurrent.
Figure2.8 Principleofanelectricmotor
Electrostatics
The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is
called electrostatics. The principles of electrostatics are
important when designing items of highvoltage equipment.
Thereisafinitelimittotheelectricfieldstrengththatmaybe
withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, electrical
breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover
between the charged parts as illustrated in Figure 2.9. Air, for
Figure2.9 Anelectricarc
example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field

strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimeter. Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker,
perhaps 1 kV per centimeter. The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when
chargebecomesseparatedinthecloudsbyrisingcolumnsofair,andraisestheelectricfieldintheair
togreaterthanitcanwithstand.Thevoltageofalargelightningcloudmaybeashighas100MVand
havedischargeenergiesasgreatas250kWh.
GenerationofElectricalEnergy
Electrical energy is not generally referred to as electrical energy for the layperson, and is most
commonlyknownaselectricity.Electricalenergyisthescientificformofelectricity,andreferstothe
flowofpowerortheflowofchargesalongaconductorto createenergy. Electricalenergydoesn't
existinnatureinlargequantitiestotheawork.Itisknowntobeasecondarysourceofenergy,which
meansthatweobtainelectricalenergythroughtheconversionofotherformsofenergy.Theseother
forms of energy are known as the primary sources of energy and can be used from coal, nuclear
energy,naturalgas,oroilasillustratedinFigure2.10.Thesearecalledthenonrenewablesourcesof
energy.
Figure2.10Generationofelectricalenergyfromfossilfuels
Electricalenergyisastandardpartofnature,andtodayitisourmostwidelyusedformofenergy.
The primary sources from which we obtain electrical energy can be renewable forms of energy as
well.Electricalenergyhoweverisneithernonrenewableorrenewable.Manytownsandcitieswere
developedbesidewaterfallswhichareknowntobeprimarysourcesofmechanicalenergy.Wheels
wouldbe builtin the waterfallsandthefallswouldturn thewheelsinordertocreateenergythat
fueledthecitiesandtowns.Figure2.11illustratesfourdifferentformsofobtainingelectricalenergy
fromrenewablesources.Theupperleftcornersshowsawindfarmandtheupperrightcornershows
thesolarcellsforgeneratingelectricity.Thereisahydroelectricpowerstationatthelowerleftand
nuclearpowerstationatthelowerright.
Figure2.11Generationofelectricalenergyfromrenewablesources
TransmissionandDistributionofElectricalEnergy
The beauty of electrical energy is its cleanliness and efficiency in use as well as the speed of
transmission.Whiletheparticlesthemselvescanmovequiteslowly,sometimeswithanaveragedrift
velocityonlyfractionsofamillimeterpersecond,theelectricfieldthatdrivesthemitselfpropagates
at close to the speed of light (c = 300,000 km/s), enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along
wires.WiththediscoveryofAlternatingCurrent(AC)energy,electricalenergycouldbetransmitted
overmuchlargerdistances.Withthisdiscovery,electricalenergycouldthenbeusedtolighthomes
andtopowermachinesthatwouldbemoreeffectiveatheatinghomesaswell.
Inorderforelectricalenergytotransferatall,itmusthaveaconductororacircuitthatwill
enable the transfer of the energy. Electrical energy will occur when electric charges are moving or
changing position from one element or object to another. Storing the electrical energy at large
quantities is also not possible. Hence, the energy must be used as it is produced. It is frequently
storedinsmallquantitiestodayasbatteriesorenergycells.
Figure 2.12 illustrates the generation, transmission and utilization of electrical energy. It is
importanttounderstandthatelectricalenergyisnotakindofenergyinandofitself,butitisrathera
form of transferring energy from one object or element to another. The energy that is being
transferredistheelectricalenergy.
Electricalenergyisproducedfromfossilfuelsorrenewablesourcesinthegeneratingplant.
The energy in joules is time integral of the electrical power in watts. The instantaneous electrical

power is the product of the voltage and current. The conductors that are used in transmitting the
electrical energy have certain resistances that dissipate a portion of the energy. Hence, it is
preferabletousehighervoltagestotransmittheenergyinordertoreducethetransmissionlosses.
Thegeneratorproduces14kVthatisincreasedto230kVforthetransmission.Thishighvoltageis
reducedto72kVor130kVattransformerswitchingstationsbeforetheindustrialinstallations.Itis
further reduced to 25 kV for commercial, business and residential districts. Finally, it is reduced to
127/220 Vfor domestic and business customers. The voltage levels used may vary but the voltage
suppliedtothecustomerisfixed.Thefrequencyofthevoltageis60HzinSaudiArabia.Thereisnew
voltagestandardof230/400VthatwillbeenforcedinallovertheKingdominthenext10years.
Figure2.12Asymbolicillustrationofgeneration,transmissionanddistributionofelectricalenergy
CONDUCTORSANDINSULATORS
Definitions
Conductors
Anelectricalconductorisanymaterialthroughwhichelectricalcurrentflowseasily.Mostmetalsare
goodelectricalconductors,withsilverthebestandcoppersecond.Theiratomicstructureallowsfree
movementoftheoutermostorbitalelectrons.Copperwireisgenerallyusedforpracticalconductors
because it costs much less than the silver. The purpose of using a conductor is to carry electric
currentwithminimalopposition.
Semiconductors
Carbon is considered a semiconductor, conducting less than metal conductors but more than
insulators.Inthesamegrouparegermaniumand silicon,whicharecommonlyusedfortransistors
and other semiconductor components. The degree of doping in semiconductors makes a large
difference in conductivity. To a point, more doping leads to higher conductivity. Practically all
transistorsaremadeofsilicon.
Superconductors
Superconductivity is a property of certain materials for which the electrical resistance of becomes
exactly zero below a characteristic temperature. The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor
decreasesgraduallyasthetemperatureislowered.However,inordinaryconductorssuchascopper
andsilver,thisdecreaseislimitedbyimpuritiesandotherdefects.Evennearabsolutezero(0K=
273 C), a real sample of copper shows some resistance. Despite these imperfections, in a
superconductortheresistancedropsabruptlytozerowhenthematerialiscooledbelowitscritical
temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely
withnopowersource.
In 1986, it was discovered that some ceramic materials have critical temperatures above 90K
(183C). These hightemperature superconductors renewed interest in the topic because of the
prospects for improvement and potential roomtemperature superconductivity. From a practical
perspective, even 90 kelvins is relatively easy to reach with readily available liquid nitrogen (which
hasaboilingpointof77kelvins),resultinginmoreexperimentsandapplications.
Insulators
Aninsulatorisanymaterialthatresistsorpreventstheflowofelectriccharge,suchaselectrons.The
resistance of an insulator is very high, typically hundreds of mega ohms or more. An insulator
providestheequivalentofanopencircuitwithpracticallyinfiniteresistanceandalmostzerocurrent.

It is from a material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their own orbits and hence
cannotconductelectricityeasily.Insulatorscanbeusefulwhenitisnecessarytopreventthecurrent
flow.Inaddition,forapplicationsrequiringthestorageofelectriccharge,asincapacitors,adielectric
material must be used because a good conductor cannot store any charge. An insulating material,
suchasglass,plastic,rubber,paper,air,ormica,isalsocalleddielectric,meaningitcanstoreelectric
charge.
Atomic structures that effect the properties of conductors and insulators are illustrated in
Figure2.13.
Figure2.13Atomicstructureofconductingandinsulatingmaterials
WireConductors
TypesofWireConductors
Most wire conductors are copper due to its low cost, although aluminum and silver are also used
sometimes.Thecoppermaybetinnedwithathincoatingofsolder,whichgivesasilveryappearance.
Tinnedwireiseasiertosolderforconnections.Thewirecanbesolidorstranded.Solidwireismade
upofonlyoneconductor.Ifitbentorflexedrepeatedly,solidwiremaybreak.Thereforesolidwireis
usedinplaceswherebendingandflexingisnotencountered.Housewiringisagoodexampleofthe
useofsolidwire.Strandedwireismadeupofseveralindividualstrandsputtogetherinabraid.Some
uses for stranded wire include telephone cords, extension cords and speaker wire, to name a few.
Figures14and15showwireconductorsforvarietyofapplications.
Figure2.14 Wiresandcablesusedforvariousapplications
Strandedwireisflexible,easiertohandle,andlesslikelytodevelopanopenbreak.Sizesforstranded
wire are equivalent to sum of areas for the individual strands. For instance, two strands of No. 30
wirecorrespondstosolidNo.27wire.Verythinwire,suchasNo.30,oftenhasaninsulatingcoating
ofenamelorshellac.Itmaylooklikecopper,butthecoatingmustbescrappedofftheendstomake
a good connection. This type of wire is used for small coils. Heavier wires generally are in an
insulatingsleeve,whichmayberubberoroneofmanyplastic materials.Generalpurpose wirefor
connecting electronic components is generally plastic coated hookup wire of No. 20 gage. Hookup
wirethatisbareshouldbeenclosedinaninsulatingsleevecalledspaghetti.
Figure2.15 Typesofwiresandcables

Twistedpairsareusedforsmallsignalapplicationsinelectronics.Theymayormaynotbeshielded
asillustratedinFigure2.16.Theyaregoodinpreventingmagneticfieldpickups.Theshieldedones
areusedespeciallyinlownoiseapplications.
Figure2.16Shieldedandunshieldedtwistedpairs
Thebraidedconductorshown
in Figure 2.17 is used for very low
resistance. It is wide for low R and
thin for flexibility, and braiding
provides many strands. A common
applicationisagroundingconnection,
whichmusthaveverylowR.
WireCable
Figure2.17 Braidedconductors
Twoormoreconductorsinacommoncoveringformacable.Eachwireisinsulatedfromtheothers.
Cablesoftenconsistoftwo,three,ten,ormanymorepairsofconductors,usuallycolorcodedtohelp
toidentifytheconductoratbothendsofacable.
TransmissionLines
Atransmissionlineisacablesetupusedtocarryelectricalsignalsinvariousapplications.Constant
spacing between two conductors through the entire length provides a transmission line. Common
examples are the coaxial cable, the twin lead and ribbon cable. The coaxial cable with outside
diameterof1/4inchisgenerallyusedforthesignalsincabletelevision.Inconstruction,thereisan
inner solid wire, insulated from metallic braid that serves as the other conductor. The entire
assemblyiscoveredbyanoutsideplasticjacket.In operation,theinner conductorhasthedesired
signalvoltagewithrespecttoground,andmetallicbraidisconnectedtogroundtoshieldtheinner
conductoragainstinterference.Coaxialcable,therefore,isashieldedtypeoftransmissionline.Single
coreanddualcorecoaxialcablesareshowninFigure2.18.
Figure2.18Singleanddualcorecaoxialcables
With twinlead wire, two conductors

are embedded in plastic to provide constant
spacing (Figure 2.19). This type of line is
commonlyusedintelevisionforconnectingthe
antennatothereceiver.Inthisapplication,the
spacing is 5/8 inch between wires of No. 20
gage size, approximately. This line is not
Figure2.19 TwinleadTVantennawire
shielded.
TheribboncableinFigure2.20,hasmultipleconductorsbutnotinpairs.Thiscableisused
formultipleconnectionstoacomputerandassociatedequipment.
Figure2.20Theribboncableforconnectingcomputerperipherals
StandardWireGageSizes
Table 2.1 lists the standard wire sizes in the system knows as the American Wire Gage (AWG)
expressed in metric system. The gage numbers specify the size of a round wire in terms of its
diameterandcrosssectionalarea.Notethefollowingthreepoints:

As the gage number increase from 1 to 40, the diameter and the circular area decrease.
Highergagenumbersindicatethinnerwiresizes.
Table2.1AmericanWireGage(AWG)tableinmetric
The circular area doubles for every three gage sizes. For example, No. 10 wire has
approximatelytwicetheareaofNo.13wire.Thehigherthegagenumberandthinnerthewire,the
greater the resistance of the wire for any given length. In typical applications, hookup wire for
electroniccircuitswithcurrentoftheorderofmilliamperesingenerallyaboutNo.22gage.Forthis

size,0.5to1Aisthemaximumcurrentthewirecancarrywithoutexcessiveheat.Housewiringfor
circuitswherethecurrentis5to15AisusuallyNo.14gage.Minimumsizesforhousewiringareset
bylocalelectricitycodeswhichareusuallyguided bytheNationalElectricalCodepublishedbythe
NationalFireProtectionAssociation.
PropertiesofWireConductors
ConductorAmpacity
The ampacity of a conductor, that is, the amount of current it can carry, is related to its electrical
resistance: a lowerresistance conductor can carry more current. The resistance, in turn, is
determined by the material the conductor is made from (as described above) and the conductor's
size. For a given material, conductors with a larger crosssectional area have less resistance than
conductors with a smaller crosssectional area. The economical factor plays an important role in
selecting conductors in industrial (large) scale applications. Aluminum is lighter and cheaper that
copperanditcarriesalmostthesamecurrentasofcopperforagivenweightofthematerial.Hence,
aluminumismostlypreferredinhighvoltagetransmissionlinesastheelectricalconductor.
Forbareconductors,theultimatelimitisthepointatwhichpowerlosttoresistancecauses
theconductortomelt.Asidefromfuses,mostconductorsintherealworldareoperatedfarbelow
this limit, however. For example, household wiring is usually insulated with PVC insulation that is
onlyratedtooperatetoabout60C,therefore,thecurrentflowinginsuchwiresmustbelimitedso
thatitneverheatsthecopperconductorabove60C,causingariskoffire.Other,moreexpensive
insulationssuchasTeflonorfiberglassmayallowoperationatmuchhighertemperatures.
WireResistance
Electricalresistivity(alsoknownasresistivity,specificelectricalresistance,orvolumeresistivity)isa
measureofhowstronglyamaterialopposestheflowofelectriccurrent.Alowresistivityindicatesa
materialthatreadilyallowsthemovementofelectriccharge.TheSIunitofelectricalresistivityisthe
ohmmeter[m].ItiscommonlyrepresentedbytheGreekletter(rho).
Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal quantity, and measures a
material's ability to conduct an electric current. It is commonly represented by the Greek letter
(sigma).ItsSIunitisSiemenspermeter(Sm1).Manyresistorsandconductorshaveauniformcross
sectionwithauniformflowofelectriccurrentandaremadeofonematerial.
Inahydraulicanalogy,increasingthediameterofapipereducesitsresistancetoflow,and
increasingthelengthincreasesresistancetoflow(andpressuredropforagivenflow).
Aconductorsuchasametalhashighconductivityandalowresistivity.
Aninsulatorlikeglasshaslowconductivityandahighresistivity.
Theconductivityofasemiconductorisgenerallyintermediate,butvarieswidelyunderdifferent
conditions, such as exposure of the material to electric fields or specific frequencies of light, and,
mostimportant,withtemperatureandcompositionofthesemiconductormaterial.
Theresistanceofawireconductorisdirectlyproportionaltoitslengthandinverselyproportional
to its cross sectional area. Hence, the longer a wire, the higher its resistance. More work must be
done to make electron drift from one end to the other. However, the greater the diameter of the
wire, the less the resistance, since there are more free electrons in the cross sectional area. As a
formula,
WhereR()isthetotalresistance,l(m)thelength,A(m2)thecrosssectionalarea,and (.m)the
specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor. The factor then enables the resistance of
differentmaterialstobecomparedaccordingtotheirnaturewithoutregardtodifferentlengthsor
areas.Highervaluesof meansmoreresistance.Resistivityofmetalsthataremostcommonlyused
inelectricalengineeringapplicationsisgiveninTable2.2fortwotemperatures.
Table2.2Resistivityandtemperaturecoefficientofmetalsofgeneralinterestinelectricalengineering
Element
Symbol
at 293 K (20 at500K(227 Temperature

C)
C)
coefficient(/C)
Graphite(carbon)
1375x108m
0.0003
Aluminum
Al
26.5nm
49.9nm
0.0043
Vanadium
197nm
348nm
Chromium
Cr
125nm
201nm
Iron
Fe
96.1nm
237nm
0.0060
Nickel
Ni
69.3nm
177nm
0.0059
Copper
Cu
16.78nm
30.9nm
0.0040
Zinc
Zn
59nm
108.2nm
0.0038
Silver
Ag
15.87nm
28.7nm
0.0038
Tungsten
52.8nm
103nm
0.0044
Platinum
Pt
105nm
183nm
0.0038
Gold
Au
22.14nm
39.7nm
0.0037
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)

ResistanceChangeswithTemperature
Resistancechangeswithtemperatureandhowitdoesisindicatedbyatemperaturecoefficientwith
symbol alpha (). Although is not exactly constant, the resistance Rm at a temperature Tm is
indicatedby
1
WhereR0istheresistanceatT0.
All metals in their pure form, such as copper and tungsten, have positive temperature
coefficients. In practical terms, a positive indicates that heat increases R in a wire thereby the
currentIthroughthewireisreducedforaspecifiedappliedvoltage.Carbonandallsemiconductors,
includinggermaniumandsilicon,havenegativetemperaturecoefficients.Somemetalalloys,suchas
constantanandmanganinhaveavaluezerofor .Thetemperaturecoefficientformetalsofgeneral
interestisgiveninthelastcolumnofTable2.2.
Example: Let's take a look at an example circuit given in Figure 2.21 to see how temperature can
affectwireresistance,andconsequentlycircuitperformance:
Figure2.21Illustrationoftheeffectoftemperatureonwireresistance
Thiscircuithasatotalwireresistance(wire1+wire2)of30atstandardtemperature.Settingupa
table(Table2.3)ofvoltage,current,andresistancevaluesweget:
Table2.3Voltage,currentandresistancesinFigure2.21at20C
Wire1
Wire2
Load
Total
Unit
0.75
0.75
12.5
14
Volts
50m
50m
50m
50m
Amps
15
15
250
250
Ohms
At20oCelsius,weget12.5voltsacrosstheloadandatotalof1.5volts(0.75+0.75)droppedacross
the wire resistance. If the temperature were to rise to 35o Celsius, we could easily determine the
changeofresistanceforeachpieceofwire.Assumingtheuseofcopperwire(=0.004041)weget:

1
Substitutingthevalues;
15 1
0.004041 35
20
yieldsR=15.909
Recalculating our circuit values, we see what changes this increase in temperature will bring the
valuesdisplayedinTable2.4:
Table2.4Voltage,currentandresistancesinFigure2.21at35C
Wire1
Wire2
Load
Total
Unit
0.79
0.79
12.42
14
Volts
49.677m
49.677m
49.677m
49.677m
Amps
15.909
15.909
250
281.82
Ohms
Asyoucansee,voltageacrosstheloadwentdown(from12.5voltsto12.42volts)andvoltagedrop
across the wires went up (from 0.75 volts to 0.79 volts) as a result of the temperature increasing.
Though the changes may seem small, they can be significant for power lines stretching miles
betweenpowerplantsandsubstations,substationsandloads.Infact,powerutilitycompaniesoften
have to take line resistance changes resulting from
seasonal temperature variations into account when
calculatingallowablesystemloading.
SkinEffect
Skineffectisthetendencyofanalternatingelectriccurrent
(AC)todistributeitselfwithinaconductorwiththecurrent
density being largest near the surface of the conductor,
Table2.5Skindepthversus
decreasing at greater Figure2.22 Anillustartionoftheskineffect
frequency
depths. In other words, the electric current flows mainly at the

Frequency Skindepth(m)
"skin" of the conductor, at an average depth called the skin
60Hz
8470
depth. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the
10kHz
660
conductor to increase at higher frequencies where the skin
100kHz
210
depthissmaller,thusreducingtheeffectivecrosssectionofthe
1MHz
66
10MHz
21
100MHz 6.6
conductor. Figure 2.22 illustrates the distribution of electrical

currentthroughthecrosssectionofacurrentcarryingconductor
inDC,ACandhighfrequencyapplications.

The skin effect is due to opposing eddy currents
induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the
alternating current. At 60 Hz in copper, the skin depth is
about 8.5mm. At high frequencies the skin depth may be
muchsmaller.IncreasedACresistanceduetotheskineffect
can be mitigated by using specially woven Litz wire (Figure
Figure2.23TheLitzwire
2.23). Because the interior of a large conductor carries so

little of the current, tubular conductors such as pipe can be
usedtosaveweightandcost.Incopper,theskindepthcanbeseentofallaccordingtothesquare
rootoffrequencyasgiveninTable2.5.
RESISTORS
DefinitionandUse
Theresistorisatwoterminalelectricalcomponent thatopposestheflowofeitherdirect or
alternatingcurrent,employedtoprotect,operate,orcontrolthecircuit.Itisusedinelectrical
circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and voltage. When a voltage V is
applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct
proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the
resistanceR,since,withagivenvoltageV,alargervalueofRfurther"resists"theflowofcurrentIas
givenbyOhm'slaw:
.Voltagescanbedividedwiththeuseofresistors,andincombinationwith
other components resistors can be used to make electrical waves into shapes most suited for the
electricaldesigner'srequirements.Practicalresistorscanbemadeofvariouscompoundsandfilms,
aswellasresistancewire(wiremadeofahighresistivityalloy,suchasnickelchrome).Resistorsare
alsoimplementedwithinintegratedcircuits,particularlyanalogdevices,andcanalsobeintegrated
intohybridandprintedcircuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistorsaremanufacturedoverarangeofmorethan9ordersofmagnitude.Whenspecifyingthat
resistanceinanelectronicdesign,therequiredprecisionoftheresistancemayrequireattentionto
the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The
temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipatedpowerdissipationofthatresistorinaparticularcircuit:thisismainlyofconcerninpower

electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require
heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum
workingvoltageoftheresistor.
Resistorslimitcurrent.Inatypicalapplication,aresistorisconnectedinserieswithanLEDas
illustratedinFigure2.24.EnoughcurrentflowstomaketheLEDlightup,butnotsomuchthatthe
LEDisdamaged.YouarenowreadytocalculateavaluefortheresistorusedinserieswithanLED.A
typical LED requires a current of 10mA and has a voltage of 2V across it when it is working. The
powersupplyforthecircuitis9V.Whatisthevoltageacrosstheresistor?Theansweris92=7V.You
nowhavetwobitsofinformationaboutR1:thecurrentflowingis10mA,andthevoltageacrossR1is
7V.YoucancalculatethevalueoftheresistorusingOhm'slaw;
Figure2.24Aresistorthatlimitsthecurrentthroughalightemittingdiode(led)
700
The calculated value for the resistor is 700. As you will see
below,resistorsaremanufacturesatstandardvaluesand680,750
and820areavailableinE12/E24series.680istheobviouschoice.
Thiswouldallowacurrentslightlygreaterthan10mAtoflow.MostLEDs
areundamagedbycurrentsofupto20mA,sothisisfine.
Figure2.25Symbolofa
resistor
Symbols of resistors are shown in Figure 2.25. The 'box' symbol

forafixedresistorispopularintheUKandEurope.A'zigzag'symbolisusedinAmericaandJapan.
TypesofFixedResistors
The electrical behavior of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance; however, some
resistorsaresensitivetoheat,light,orothervariables.Resistorscanhaveafixedvalueofresistance,
Figure2.26 Examplesoffixedandvariableresistors
ortheycanbemadevariableoradjustablewithinacertainrange,inwhichcasetheymaybecalled
rheostats,orpotentiometers(Figure2.26).Thefixedresistorisanelectricalcomponentdesignedto
introduceaknownvalueofresistanceintoacircuit.Resistorsareoftenmadeoutofchunksofcarbon
orthinfilmsofcarbonorotherresistivematerials.Theycanalsobemadeofwireswoundarounda
cylinder.
The common resistor is a twowire package with a fixed resistance measured in ohms;
however, different types of resistors are adjustable by the circuit designer or the user. Variable
resistors,orrheostats,havearesistancethatmaybevariedacrossacertainrange,usuallybymeans
ofamechanicaldevicethataltersthepositionofoneterminaloftheresistoralongastripofresistant
material. The length of the intervening material determines the resistance. Mechanical variable
resistorsarealsocalledpotentiometers,andareusedinthevolumeknobsofaudioequipmentand
inmanyotherdevices.
Discrete resistors are individual packages as illustrated in Figure 2.27. On a circuit board,
discrete axial resistors are commonly used with their two
wires soldered into the holes of the board. Throughhole
components typically have leads leaving the body axially.
Others have leads coming off their body radially instead of
paralleltotheresistoraxis.OthercomponentsmaybeSMT
(surface mounttechnology)whilehighpowerresistorsmay
have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.
Generally smaller than axial resistors, discrete surface
Figure2.27Samplesofaxialresistors

mounted resistors are soldered on top of the board. In addition, resistors are built into
microprocessorsandotherintegratedcircuits(ICs),buttheyusesemiconductorstructuresfortheir
fabrication in a manner similar to transistors and PN
junctions.
A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8
individual, 47 resistors is shown in Figure 2.28. One end
ofeachresistorisconnectedtoaseparatepinandtheother
Figure2.28 ResistorsinanSILpackage
endsareallconnectedtogethertotheremaining(common)
pinpin1,attheendidentifiedbythewhitedot.
CarbonCompositionResistors
Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire
leadsormetalendcapstowhichtheleadwiresareattached.Thebodyoftheresistorisprotected
withpaintorplastic.Theseresistorswerethemainstayoftheradioandtelevisionindustriespriorto
WorldWarII.Theresistiveelementismadefromamixtureoffinelyground(powdered)carbonand
aninsulatingmaterial(usuallyceramic).Aresinholdsthemixturetogether.Theconductivepathis
from particle to particle, each of which touches another along the path. Early 20thcentury carbon
compositionresistorshaduninsulatedbodies;theleadwireswerewrappedaroundtheendsofthe
resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for color coding of its
value.
These resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not so popular for
general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence,
and stress (carbon composition resistors will change value when stressed with overvoltages).
Moreover, if internal moisture content (from exposure for some length of time to a humid
environment) is significant, soldering heat will create a nonreversible change in resistance value.
Carboncompositionresistorshavepoorstabilitywithtimeandwereconsequentlyfactorysortedto,
at best, only 5% tolerance. These resistors, however, if never subjected to overvoltage nor
overheatingwereremarkablyreliableconsideringthecomponent'ssize.
Carboncompositionresistorswereeclipsedintheearly60'sbydiscretemetalfilmresistors.
Itwasnotnoiselevelsbuttherisingcostofcarboncompositionresistorscomparedtofallingprices
for metal film devices that was the leading factor in their decline. They are still available, but
comparativelyquitecostly.Valuesrangedfromfractionsofanohmto22megohms.Becauseofthe
high price, these resistors are no longer used in most applications. However, carbon resistors are
usedinpowersuppliesandweldingcontrols.

CarbonFilmResistors
Acarbonfilmisdepositedonaninsulatingsubstrate,andahelixcutin it tocreatealong,narrow
resistivepath.Varyingshapes,coupledwiththeresistivityofcarbon,(rangingfrom90to400nm)
canprovide avarietyofresistances.Carbonfilmresistorsfeatureapowerratingrangeof0.125W
to5 W at 70C. Resistances available range from 1 to 10 M. The carbon film resistor has an
operatingtemperaturerangeof55Cto155C.Ithas200to600voltsmaximumworkingvoltage
range.Specialcarbonfilmresistorsareusedinapplicationsrequiringhighpulsestability.
ThediagraminFigure2.29showstheconstructionofacarbonfilmresistor:
Figure2.29Illustrationofconstructionofathinfilmresistor
Duringmanufacture,athinfilmofcarbonisdepositedontoasmallceramicrod.Theresistivecoating
isspiraledawayinanautomaticmachineuntiltheresistancebetweenthetwoendsoftherodisas
close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the resistor is covered
withaninsulatingcoatingandfinallypaintedwithcoloredbandstoindicatetheresistorvalue.
MetalFilmResistors
The introduction of metal film technologies brought significant reductions in both resistor size and
noise. Metal film resistors are manufactured through the evaporation or sputtering of a layer of
nickelchromiumontoaceramicsubstrate.Thethicknessofthelayerisvaluedependentandranges
from 10 Angstroms to 500 Angstroms thick. The thicker this layer is (the lower the value), the less
noiseisinserted.Highervaluesarenoisierbecausetheocclusions,surfaceimperfections,andnon
uniformdepositionsaremoresignificanttotheproductionofnoisewhenthenickelchromiumlayer
isthin.
Grindingorlaseradjustingtechniquesareusedtogeneratetheresistancegrid.Thefirstof
thesemethodsleavesaraggededgeandthesecondleavesacurlededgewitheddycurrentpaths.
Bothareasourceofnoise,whichiswhymetalfilmresistorshaveanoiserangeof32dBto16dB.

Thereareresistorsthatresemblemetalfilmtypes,butaremadeofmetaloxidessuchastin
oxide.Thisresultsinahigheroperatingtemperatureandgreaterstability/reliabilitythanMetalfilm.
Theyareusedinapplicationswithhighendurancedemands.
Wirewoundresistors
Wirewoundresistorsaremadeofalloyssimilartothatusedinfoilresistors,describedbelow.Asa
result,theonlynoiseinsertioncausedbythesedevicescomesfromthetabsusedtoconnectthefine
wiretothecoarseexternalleads.Becauseoftheveryhighsurfacetemperaturetheseresistorscan
withstandtemperaturesofupto+450C.Thealuminumcasedtypesaredesignedtobeattachedto
aheatsinktodissipatetheheat;theratedpowerisdependentonbeingusedwithasuitableheat
sink,e.g.,a50Wpowerratedresistorwilloverheatatafractionofthepowerdissipationifnotused
withaheatsink.Largewirewoundresistorsmayberatedfor1,000wattsormore.
Types of windings in wire resistors:
1
2
3
common
common
on
bifilar
a
thin
former
4AyrtonPerry
Figure2.30Illustrationofwirewoundresistors
Figure 2.30 shows four construction types of wirewound resistors. Because wirewound
resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of resistor, although
winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance. Other
techniquesemploybifilarwinding,oraflatthinformer(toreducecrosssectionareaofthecoil).For
mostdemandingcircuitsresistorswithAyrtonPerrywindingareused.
Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the
exceptionofthehighfrequency.Atypicalnoiseratingis38dB.Thehighfrequencyofwirewound
resistorsissubstantiallyworsethanthatofacompositionresistorwhichisthemajorobjection.Of
serious concern instead is the inductance that chops the peaks and fails to replicate the higher
frequenciesofthesecondandthirdharmonics.
FoilResistors
Theprimaryresistanceelementofafoilresistorisaspecialalloyfoilseveralmicrometersthick.Since
theirintroductioninthe1960s,foilresistorshavehadthebestprecisionandstabilityofanyresistor
available. One of the important parameters influencing stability is the temperature coefficient of
resistance(TCR).TheTCRoffoilresistorsisextremelylow,andhasbeenfurtherimprovedoverthe
years. One range of ultraprecision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14ppm/C, tolerance 0.005%,

longterm stability (1 year) 25ppm, (3 year) 50ppm (further improved 5fold by hermetic sealing),
stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1V/C, noise 42dB, voltage coefficient
0.1ppm/V,inductance0.08H,capacitance0.5pF.
Carbonfilmresistorsarecheapandeasilyavailable,withvalueswithin10%or5%oftheir
marked,or'nominal'value.Metalfilmandmetaloxideresistorsaremadeinasimilarway,butcan
bemademoreaccuratelytowithin2%or1%oftheirnominalvalue.Therearesomedifferencesin
performancebetweentheseresistortypes,butnonewhichaffecttheiruseinsimplecircuits.
Wirewoundresistorsaremadebywindingthinwireontoaceramicrod.Theycanbemade
extremely accurately for use in multimeters, oscilloscopes and other measuring equipment. Some
types of wirewound resistors can pass large currents without overheating and are used in power
suppliesandotherhighcurrentcircuits.
AdjustableResistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by
moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a
tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the
resistance to be used. Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of
equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an
operator.Suchadeviceiscalledarheostatandhastwoterminals.
Potentiometers
Acommonelementinelectronicdevicesisathreeterminalresistorwithacontinuouslyadjustable
tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob. These variable resistors are known as
potentiometers when all three terminals are present, since they act as a continuously adjustable
voltagedivider.Acommonexampleisavolumecontrolforaradioreceiver.
Accurate, highresolution panelmounted potentiometers (or "pots") have resistance
elements typically wirewound on a helical mandrel, although some include a conductiveplastic
resistancecoatingoverthewiretoimproveresolution.Thesetypicallyoffertenturnsoftheirshafts
to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a simple turns counter and a
graduated dial. Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting coefficients, and
delayedsweeposcilloscopesofrecentdecadesincludedoneontheirpanels.
ResistanceDecadeBoxes
Aresistancedecadeboxorresistorsubstitutionboxisaunitcontainingresistorsofmanyvalues,with
oneormoremechanicalswitcheswhichallowanyoneofvariousdiscreteresistancesofferedbythe

box to be dialed in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high precision, ranging from
laboratory/calibrationgradeaccuracyof20partspermillion,tofieldgradeat1%.Inexpensiveboxes
with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer a convenient way of selecting and quickly
changingaresistanceinlaboratory,experimentalanddevelopmentworkwithoutneedingtoattach
resistors one by one, or even stock each value. The range of resistance provided, the maximum
resolution,andtheaccuracycharacterizethebox.Forexample,oneboxoffersresistancesfrom0to
24M,maximumresolution0.1,accuracy0.1%.
SpecialDevices
There are various devices whose resistance changes with various quantities. The resistance of
thermistors exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, making them useful for measuring
temperatures. Since their resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat up due to the
passage of current, they are also commonly used to prevent excessive current surges when
equipmentispoweredon.Metaloxidevaristorsdroptoaverylowresistancewhenahighvoltageis
applied, making them useful for protecting electronic equipment by absorbing dangerous voltage
surges.Onesortofphotodetector,thephotoresistor,hasaresistancewhichvarieswithillumination.
Thestraingaugeisatypeofresistorthatchangesvaluewithappliedstrain.Asingleresistormaybe
used,orapair(halfbridge),orfourresistorsconnectedinaWheatstonebridgeconfiguration.The
strainresistorisbondedwithadhesivetoanobjectthatwillbesubjectedtomechanicalstrain.With
thestraingaugeandafilter,amplifier,andanalog/digitalconverter,thestrainonanobjectcanbe
measured.Someofthesedeviceswillbediscussedlaterindetailwithapplicationexamples.
ResistorMarking
Most axial resistors use apattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surfacemount resistors
are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; morerecent small sizes are
impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other colors are
occasionallyfoundsuchasdarkredordarkgray.Early20thcenturyresistors,essentiallyuninsulated,
weredippedinpainttocovertheirentirebodyforcolorcoding.Asecondcolorofpaintwasapplied
tooneendoftheelement,andacolordot(orband)inthemiddleprovidedthethirddigit.Therule
was "body, tip, dot", providing two significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that
sequence.Defaulttolerancewas20%.Closertoleranceresistorshadsilver(10%)orgoldcolored
(5%)paintontheotherend.
FourBandResistors
Fourbandidentificationisthemostcommonlyusedcolorcodingschemeonresistors.Itconsistsof
fourcoloredbandsthatarepaintedaroundthebodyoftheresistor.Thefirsttwobandsencodethe
firsttwosignificantdigitsoftheresistancevalue,thethirdisapoweroftenmultiplierornumberof

zeroes, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy, or acceptable error, of the value. The first three
bands are equally spaced along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth band is wider. Sometimes a
fifth band identifies the thermal coefficient, but this must be distinguished from the true 5color
system,with3significantdigits.Eachcolorcorrespondstoacertaindigit,progressingfromdarkerto
lightercolors,asshowninthechartinTable2.6.
Table2.6Colorcodesfordiscreteresistors
Color 1stband2ndband3rdband(multiplier) 4thband(tolerance) Temp.Coefficient

Black 0
100
Brown 1
101
1%(F)
100ppm
Red
102
2%(G)
50ppm
Orange3
103
15ppm
Yellow 4
104
25ppm
Green 5
105
0.5%(D)
Blue
106
0.25%(C)
Violet 7
107
0.1%(B)
Gray
108
0.05%(A)
White 9
109
Gold
101
5%(J)
Silver
102
10%(K)
None
20%(M)
Thetoleranceofaresistorisshownbythefourthbandofthecolorcode.Toleranceistheprecision
oftheresistoranditisgivenasapercentage.Forexamplea390resistorwithatoleranceof10%
willhaveavaluewithin10%of390,between39039=351and390+39=429(39is10%of
390).
Anexampleofafourbandresistorisshown
inFigure2.31.Whenyouwanttoreadoffaresistor
value,lookforthetoleranceband,usuallygold,and
holdtheresistorwiththetolerancebandatitsright
hand end. Reading resistor values quickly and
Figure2.31 Colorcodesforafourbandresistor
accurately isn't difficult, but it does take practice!

The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value. For the resistor

shownbelow,thefirstbandisyellow,sothefirstdigitis4.ThesecondbandgivestheSECONDDIGIT.
Thisisavioletband,makingtheseconddigit7.ThethirdbandiscalledtheMULTIPLIERandisnot
interpretedinquitethesameway.Themultipliertellsyouhowmanynaughtyoushouldwriteafter
the digits you already have. A red band tells you to add 2 naught. The value of this resistor is
therefore4700ohms,thatis,4700,or4.7k.Workthroughthisexampleagaintoconfirmthat
youunderstandhowtoapplythecolorcodegivenbythefirstthreebands.Theremainingbandisthe
TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film
resistorshaveagoldcoloredtoleranceband,indicatingthattheactualresistancevalueiswith+or
5%ofthenominalvalue.Othertolerancecolorsaregoldfor10%,redfor2%andforbrown1%.Ifno
fourthbandisshownthetoleranceis20%.Tolerancemaybeignoredforalmostallcircuitsbecause
preciseresistorvaluesarerarelyrequired.
Forexample,greenblueyellowredis56104=560k2%.Aneasierdescriptioncanbe
asfollowed:thefirstband,green,hasavalueof5andthesecondband,blue,hasavalueof6,andis
countedas56.Thethirdband,yellow,hasavalueof104,whichaddsfour0'stotheend,creating
560,000at2%toleranceaccuracy.560,000changesto560k2%(asakilois103).
MarkingLowValuedResistors
The color code as explained above allows you to interpret the values of any resistor from 100
upwards.Howdoesthecodeworkforvalueslessthan100?Hereisthecodefor12:brown,red,
black
The multipliercolorblack represents thenumber0 andtellsyouthatnonaughtshould be
addedtothefirsttwodigits,representing1and2.
Whatwouldbethecolorcodefor47?Theansweris:yellow,violet,black
Using this method for indicating values between 10 and 100 means that all resistor
valuesrequirethesamenumberofbands.
Thestandardcolorcodecannotshowvaluesoflessthan10.Toshowthesesmallvaluestwo
special colors are used for the third band: gold which means 0.1 and silver which means 0.01.
Thefirstandsecondbandsrepresentthedigitsasnormal.
Forexample:
brown,black,goldbandsrepresent100.1=1
red,red,goldbandsrepresent220.1=2.2
red,violet,goldbandsrepresent270.1=2.7
green,blue,silverbandsrepresent560.01=0.56

FiveBandAxialResistors
5bandidentificationisusedforhigherprecision(lowertolerance)resistors(1%,0.5%,0.25%,0.1%),
tospecifyathirdsignificantdigit.Thefirstthreebandsrepresentthesignificantdigits,thefourthis
the multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. Fiveband resistors with a gold or silver 4th band are
sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors. The 4th band is the tolerance
andthe5ththetemperaturecoefficient.
Metalfilmresistors,manufacturedto1or2%tolerance,oftenuseacodeconsistingoffour
colored bands instead of three. The code works in the same way, with the first three bands
interpretedasdigitsandthefourthbandasthemultiplier.Forexample,a1kmetalfilmresistor
hasthebands:brown,black,black,brown(+brownorredfortolerance),whilea56kmetalfilm
resistorhasthebands:green,blue,black,red.Itisworthpointingoutthatthemultiplierformetal
filmresistorswithvaluesfrom1kupwardsisbrown(ratherthanred,asinthethreecolorsystem),
whilethemultiplierfor10kupwardsisred(insteadoforange).
ResistorShorthand
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which avoids using a
decimalpointbecauseitiseasytomissthesmalldot.InsteadthelettersR,KandMareusedinplace
of the decimal point. To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal point, then multiply the
valueby1000iftheletterwasK,or1000000iftheletterwasM.TheletterRmeansmultiplyby1.
Forexample:
560Rmeans560
2K7means2.7k=2700
39Kmeans39k
1M0means1.0M=1000k
SMDResistors
TheimageinFigure2.32showsfoursurfacemountresistors
(thecomponentattheupperleftisacapacitor)includingtwo
zeroohmresistors.Zeroohmlinksareoftenusedinsteadof
wirelinks,sothattheycanbeinsertedbyaresistorinserting
machine. Of course, their resistance is nonzero, although
quitelow.Zeroissimplyabriefdescriptionoftheirfunction.
Surfacemountedresistorsareprintedwithnumericalvalues
Figure2.32SMDresistorsincircuit

inacoderelatedtothatusedonaxialresistors.Standardtolerancesurfacemounttechnology(SMT)
resistorsaremarkedwithathreedigitcode,inwhichthefirsttwodigitsarethefirsttwosignificant
digitsofthevalueandthethirddigitisthepoweroften(thenumberofzeroes).Forexample:
334=3310^4ohms=330k
222=2210^2ohms=2.2k
473=4710^3ohms=47k
105=1010^5ohms=1.0M
Resistanceslessthan100ohmsarewritten:100,220,470.Thefinalzerorepresentstentothepower
zero,whichis1.Forexample:
100=1010^0ohm=10
220=2210^0ohms=22
Sometimesthesevaluesaremarkedas10or22topreventamistake.
Resistances less than 10 ohms have 'R' to indicate the position of the decimal point (radix
point).Forexample:
4R7=4.7ohms
R300=0.30ohms
0R22=0.22ohms
0R01=0.01ohms
Precisionresistorsaremarkedwithafourdigitcode,inwhichthefirstthreedigitsarethesignificant
figuresandthefourthisthepoweroften.Forexample:
1001
=10010^1ohms=1.00k
4992
=49910^2ohms=49.9k
1000
=10010^0ohm=100
000 and 0000 sometimes appear as values on surfacemount zeroohm links, since these
have(approximately)zeroresistance.
Morerecentsurfacemountresistorsaretoosmall,physically,topermitpracticalmarkingsto
beapplied.
PreferredValues
Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round numbers; a series might have 100, 125,
150, 200, 300, etc. Resistors as manufactured are subject to a certain percentage tolerance, and it
makessensetomanufacturevaluesthatcorrelatewiththetolerance,sothattheactualvalueofa
resistor overlaps slightly with its neighbors. Wider spacing leaves gaps; narrower spacing increases
manufacturingandinventorycoststoprovideresistorsthataremoreorlessinterchangeable.
Alogicalschemeistoproduceresistorsinarangeofvalueswhichincreaseinageometrical
progression, so that each value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multiplier or percentage,

chosentomatchthetoleranceoftherange.Forexample,foratoleranceof20%itmakessenseto
have each resistor about 1.5 times its predecessor, covering a decade in 6 values. In practice the
factorusedis1.4678,givingvaluesof1.47,2.15,3.16,4.64,6.81,10forthe110decade(adecadeis
a range increasing by a factor of 10; 0.11 and 10100 are other examples); these are rounded in
practiceto1.5,2.2,3.3,4.7,6.8,10;followed,ofcourseby15,22,33,andprecededby0.47,
0.68, 1. This scheme has been adopted as the E6 range of the International Electrotechnical
Commission(IEC)60063preferrednumberseries.TherearealsoE12,E24,E48,E96andE192ranges
forcomponentsofevertightertolerance,with12,24,48,96,and192differentvalueswithineach
decade.TheactualvaluesusedareintheIEC60063listsofpreferrednumbers.
Aresistorof100ohms20%wouldbeexpectedtohaveavaluebetween80and120ohms;
its E6 neighbors are 68 (5482) and 150 (120180) ohms. A sensible spacing, E6 is used for 20%
components.E12for10%and12valuesinonedecadeisused.AmongotherIEC60063series,E24
for5%;E48for2%,E96for1%;E192for0.5%orbetter.
Consider100and120,adjacentvaluesintheE12range.10%of100is10,while
10%of120is12.Aresistormarkedas100couldhaveanyvaluefrom90to110,whilea
resistor marked as 120 might have an actual resistance from 108 to 132 . The ranges of
possiblevaluesoverlap,butonlyslightly.FurtheruptheE12range,aresistormarkedas680might
haveandactualresistanceofupto680+68=748,whilearesistormarkedas820mighthavea
resistanceaslowas82082=738.Again,therangesofpossiblevaluesjustoverlap.
ResistorsaremanufacturedinvaluesfromafewmilliohmstoaboutagigaohminIEC60063
ranges appropriate for their tolerance. Preferred values in one decade in E 12 and E24 series of
resistorsaregiveninTable2.7.
91
82
82
75
68
68
62
56
56
51
47
47
43
39
39
36
33
33
30
27
27
24
22
22
20
18
18
16
15
15
13
12
12
11
10
10
E24 E12
Table2.7PreferredvaluesofresistorsinonedecadeinE12andE24series
Earlier power wirewound resistors, such as brown vitreousenameled types, however, were made
withadifferentsystemofpreferredvalues,suchassomeofthosementionedinthefirstsentenceof
thissection.

PowerRatingsofResistors
Whencurrentflowsthrougharesistance,electricalenergyisconvertedintoheat.Thetotalamount
ofheatenergyreleasedoveraperiodoftimecanbedeterminedfromtheintegralofthepowerover
thatperiodoftime:
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculatedas:
Example:
What is the power output of a resistor when the voltage across it is 6V, and the current flowing
throughitis100mA?
6x100mA=600mW=0.6W
0.6W of heat are generated in
this resistor. To prevent overheating, it

must be possible for heat to be lost, or
dissipated, to the surroundings at the
samerate.Thefirstformisarestatement
of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the
twootherformscanbederived.
Practical resistors are rated
according to their maximum power
dissipation.Thevastmajorityofresistors
used in electronic circuits absorb much
less than a watt of electrical power and
Figure2.33 Resistorsforvariouspowerratings
requirenoattentiontotheirpowerrating.
Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically
rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power,
particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally
referredtoaspowerresistors;thisdesignationislooselyappliedtoresistorswithpowerratingsof1
wattorgreater.Powerresistorsarephysicallylargerandtendnottousethepreferredvalues,color
codes, and external packages described previously. Figure 2.33 shows power ratings of various
resistors.

Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the
standardpowerratingsof0.25Wor0.5Waresuitable.Fortherarecaseswhereahigher poweris
requireditshouldbeclearlyspecifiedinthepartslist,thesewillbecircuitsusinglowvalueresistors
(lessthanabout300 )orhighvoltages(morethan15V).
Examples:
A470resistorwith10Vacrossit,needsapowerratingP=V/R=10/470=0.21W.Inthis
caseastandard0.25Wresistorwouldbesuitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/27 = 3.7W.
Ahighpowerresistorwitharatingof5Wwouldbesuitable.
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the
resistormayoccur,permanentlyalteringitsresistance;thisisdistinctfromthereversiblechangein
resistanceduetoitstemperaturecoefficientwhenitwarms.Excessivepowerdissipationmayraise
the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent
components,orevencauseafire.Thereareflameproofresistorsthatfail(opencircuit)beforethey
overheatdangerously.
Notethatthenominalpowerratingofaresistorisnotthesameasthepowerthatitcansafely
dissipateinpracticaluse.Aircirculationandproximitytoacircuitboard,ambienttemperature,and
otherfactorscanreduceacceptabledissipationsignificantly.Ratedpowerdissipationmaybegiven
foranambienttemperatureof25Cinfreeair.Insideanequipmentcaseat60C,rateddissipation
will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the
manufacturermaystillbeoutsidethesafeoperatingareaand
mayprematurelyfail.
ResistorsatHighFrequencies
The major problem with resistors at high frequencies is for
wirewound(power)resistors,thatwillactasinductorsathigh Figure2.34Modelofalowvalueresistor
frequenciesasillustratedinFigure2.34.Inaddition,verysmall
resistors, like chip resistors, can also exhibit capacitive effects. Special high frequency resistors are
designed to offset these effect. The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to
depart from ohms law; this specification can be important in some highfrequency applications for
smallervaluesofresistance.

NoiseinResistors
Inamplifyingfaintsignals,itisoftennecessarytominimizeelectronicnoise,particularlyinthefirst
stage of amplification. As dissipative elements, even an ideal resistor will naturally produce a
randomlyfluctuatingvoltageor"noise"acrossitsterminalsandeventuallyitisafundamentalnoise
source which depends only upon the temperature and resistance of the resistor. Using a larger
resistor produces a larger voltage noise, whereas with a smaller value of resistance there will be
morecurrentnoise,assumingagiventemperature.Thethermalnoiseofapracticalresistormayalso
be somewhat larger than the theoretical prediction and that increase is typically frequency
dependent.
However,the"excessnoise"ofapracticalresistorisanadditionalsourceofnoiseobserved
onlywhenacurrentflowsthroughit.ThisisspecifiedinunitofV/V/decadeVofnoisepervolt
appliedacrosstheresistorperdecadeoffrequency.Anoiseindexisexpressedindecibels(dB),and
theequationconvertingV/VtodBis:
dB=20xlog(noisevoltage[inV]/DCvoltage[inV]).
Forexample,0dBequatesto1.0V/V,and15dBequatesto5.6V/V.
Hence,theV/V/decadevalueofaresistorwithanoiseindexof0dBwillexhibit1V(rms)
of excess noise for each volt across the resistor in each frequency decade. Excess noise is thus an
exampleof1/fnoise.Thickfilmandcarboncompositionresistorsgeneratemoreexcessnoisethan
other types at low frequencies; wirewound and thinfilm resistors, though much more expensive,
are often utilized for their better noise characteristics. Carbon composition resistors can exhibit a
noiseindexof0dBwhilebulkmetalfoilresistorsmayhaveanoiseindexof40dB,usuallymaking
theexcessnoiseofmetalfoilresistorsinsignificant.Thinfilmsurfacemountresistorstypicallyhave
lowernoiseandbetterthermalstabilitythanthickfilmsurfacemountresistors.However,thedesign
engineermustreadthedatasheetsforthefamilyofdevicestoweighthevariousdevicetradeoffs.
FailureModes
The failure rate of resistors in a properly designed circuit is low compared to other electronic
components such as semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. Damage to resistors most often
occurs due to overheating when the average power delivered to it (as computed above) greatly
exceedsitsabilitytodissipateheat(specifiedbytheresistor'spowerrating).Thismaybeduetoa
faultexternaltothecircuit,butisfrequentlycausedbythefailureofanothercomponent(suchasa
transistorthatshortsout)inthecircuitconnectedtotheresistor.Operatingaresistortooclosetoits
powerratingcanlimittheresistor'slifespanorcauseachangeinitsresistanceovertimewhichmay

ormaynotbenoticeable.Asafedesigngenerallyusesoverratedresistorsinpowerapplicationsto
avoidthisdanger.
Whenoverheated,carbonfilmresistorsmaydecreaseorincreaseinresistance.Carbonfilm
andcompositionresistorscanfail(opencircuit)ifrunningclosetotheirmaximumdissipation.Thisis
also possible but less likely with metal film and wirewound resistors. There can also be failure of
resistors due to mechanical stress and adverse environmental factors including humidity. If not
enclosed,wirewoundresistorscancorrode.
Variable resistors degrade in a different manner, typically involving poor contact between
the wiper and the body of the resistance. This may be due to dirt or corrosion and is typically
perceivedas"crackling"asthecontactresistancefluctuates;thisisespeciallynoticedasthedeviceis
adjusted. This is similar to crackling caused by poor contact in switches, and like switches,
potentiometers are to some extent selfcleaning: running the wiper across the resistance may
improve the contact. Potentiometers which are seldom adjusted, especially in dirty or harsh
environments, are most likely to develop this problem. When selfcleaning of the contact is
insufficient,improvementcanusuallybeobtainedthroughtheuseofcontactcleaner(alsoknownas
"tunercleaner")spray.Thecracklingnoiseassociatedwithturningtheshaftofadirtypotentiometer
inanaudiocircuit(suchasthevolumecontrol)isgreatlyaccentuatedwhenanundesiredDCvoltage
ispresent,oftenimplicatingthefailureofaDCblockingcapacitorinthecircuit.
In a lownoise amplifier or preamp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue.
Theunwantedinductance,excessnoise,andtemperaturecoefficientaremainlydependenton the
technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a
particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete
resistorsisalsocharacterizedaccordingtoitsformfactor,thatis,thesizeofthedeviceandposition
ofitsleads(orterminals)whichisrelevantinthepracticalmanufacturingofcircuitsusingthem.
References(visitedFebruary23,2011)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor;http://www.doctronics.co.uk/resistor.htm
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/resist.htm;www.vishay.com;
CAPACITORS
DefinitionandUse
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive
electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separatedbyadielectric(insulator)asshowninFigure2.35.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric
that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
betweentheconductors.Anidealcapacitorischaracterized
byasingleconstantvalue,capacitance,measuredinfarads.
Figure2.35Thebasiccapacitor
Thisistheratiooftheelectricchargeoneachconductorto
thepotentialdifferencebetweenthem.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonantcircuitsthattuneradiostoparticularfrequenciesandformanyotherpurposes.Theeffectis
greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor
conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the
dielectricbetweentheplatespassesasmallamountofleakagecurrentandalsohasanelectricfield
strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesiredinductanceandresistance.
ParallelPlateModel
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a nonconductive
region called the dielectric medium though it may be a vacuum or a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitorisassumedtobeselfcontainedandisolated,withnonetelectric
chargeandnoinfluencefromanyexternalelectricfield.Chargeseparation Figure2.36Construction
inaparallelplatecapacitorcausesaninternalelectricfieldasillustratedin
ofasimplecapacitor
Figure 2.36. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the
capacitance.Theconductorsthusholdequalandoppositechargesontheirfacingsurfaces,andthe
dielectricdevelopsanelectricfield.InSIunits,acapacitanceofonefaradmeansthatonecoulombof
chargeoneachconductorcausesavoltageofonevoltacrossthedevice.

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitoriswhollycharacterizedbyaconstantcapacitanceC,definedastheratioofchargeQon
eachconductortothevoltageVbetweenthem:
Sometimes charge buildup affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary.Inthiscase,capacitanceisdefinedintermsofincrementalchanges:
EnergyStorage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor.Whentheexternalinfluenceisremovedthechargeseparationpersistsintheelectricfield
andenergyisstoredtobereleasedwhenthechargeisallowedtoreturntoitsequilibriumposition.
Theworkdoneinestablishingtheelectricfield,andhencetheamountofenergystored,isgivenby:
CurrentVoltageRelation
Thecurrenti(t)throughanycomponentinanelectriccircuitisdefinedastherateofflowofacharge
q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a
capacitor,ratheranelectronaccumulatesonthenegativeplateforeachonethatleavesthepositive
plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is
equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the
electrodesisequaltotheintegralofthecurrentaswellasproportionaltothevoltageasdiscussed
above.Aswithanyantiderivative,aconstantofintegrationisaddedtorepresenttheinitialvoltagev
(t0).Thisistheintegralformofthecapacitorequation,
Takingthederivativeofthis,andmultiplyingbyC,yieldsthederivativeform,
.

DCCircuits
AseriescircuitinFigure2.37containingonlyaresistor,a
capacitor,aswitchandaconstantDCsourceofvoltageV0
is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially
uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is
closedatt=0,itfollowsfromKirchhoff'svoltagelawthat
Figure2.37 Asimplecircuitdemonstrating
chargingofacapacitor
TakingthederivativeandmultiplyingbyC,givesafirstorderdifferentialequation,
0.
Att=0,thevoltageacrossthecapacitoriszeroandthevoltageacrosstheresistorisV0.Theinitial
currentistheni(0)=V0/R.Withthisassumption,thedifferentialequationyields
/
where0=RCisthetimeconstantofthesystem.
Asthecapacitorreachesequilibriumwiththesourcevoltage,thevoltageacrosstheresistor
and the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitorlikewisedemonstratesexponentialdecay,butwiththeinitialcapacitorvoltagereplacingV0
andthefinalvoltagebeingzero.
ACCircuits
Impedance,thevectorsumofreactanceandresistance,describesthephasedifferenceandtheratio
of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given
frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies,
whencethecircuit'sreactiontothevariousfrequenciesmaybefound.Thereactanceandimpedance
ofacapacitorarerespectively
;
where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular velocity of the sinusoidal signal. The j phase
indicates that the AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90: the positive current phase
corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to
instantaneousconstantvoltage,etc.

Note that impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This
impliesthatahigherfrequencysignaloralargercapacitorresultsinalowervoltageamplitudeper
current amplitudean AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the
reactancewillbehigh,sothatacapacitorisnearlyanopencircuitinACanalysisthosefrequencies
havebeen"filteredout".Capacitorsaredifferentfromresistorsandinductorsinthattheimpedance
isinverselyproportionaltothedefiningcharacteristic,i.e.capacitance.
NonIdealBehavior
Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in a number of ways. Some of these, such as
leakagecurrentandparasiticeffectsarelinear,orcanbeassumedtobelinear,andcanbedealtwith
by adding virtual components to the equivalent circuit of the capacitor. The usual methods of
networkanalysiscanthenbeapplied.Inothercases,suchaswithbreakdownvoltage,theeffectis
nonlinear and normal (i.e., linear) network analysis cannot be used, the effect must be dealt with
separately. There is yet another group, which may be linear but invalidate the assumption in the
analysisthatcapacitanceisaconstant.Suchanexampleistemperaturedependence.
BreakdownVoltage
Above a particular electric field, known as the dielectric strength Eds, the dielectric in a capacitor
becomesconductive.Thevoltageatwhichthisoccursiscalledthebreakdownvoltageofthedevice,
andisgivenbytheproductofthedielectricstrengthandtheseparationbetweentheconductors,Vbd
=Edsd
The maximum energy that can be stored safely in a capacitor is limited by the breakdown
voltage. Due to the scaling of capacitance and breakdown voltage with dielectric thickness, all
capacitorsmadewithaparticulardielectrichaveapproximatelyequalmaximumenergydensity,to
theextentthatthedielectricdominatestheirvolume.
For air dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 2 to 5 MV/m; for
micathebreakdownis100to300MV/m,foroil15to25MV/m,andcanbemuchlesswhenother
materials are used for the dielectric. The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so absolute
breakdownvoltageofcapacitorsislimited.Typicalratingsforcapacitorsusedforgeneralelectronics
applications range from a few volts to 100V or so. As the voltage increases, the dielectric must be
thicker, making highvoltage capacitors larger than those rated for lower voltages. The breakdown
voltageiscriticallyaffectedbyfactorssuchasthegeometryofthecapacitorconductiveparts;sharp
edgesorpointsincreasetheelectricfieldstrengthatthatpointandcanleadtoalocalbreakdown.
Oncethisstartstohappen,thebreakdownwillquickly"track"throughthedielectrictillitreachesthe
oppositeplateandcauseashortcircuit.

Theusualbreakdownrouteisthatthefieldstrengthbecomeslargeenoughtopullelectrons
in the dielectric from their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenarios are possible, such as
impuritiesinthedielectric,and,ifthedielectricisofacrystallinenature,imperfectionsinthecrystal
structure can result in an avalanche breakdown as seen in semiconductor devices. Breakdown
voltageisalsoaffectedbypressure,humidityandtemperature.
EquivalentCircuit
Twodifferentequivalentcircuitmodelsofacapacitorisshown
in Figure 2.38. An ideal capacitor only stores and releases
electrical energy, without dissipating any. In reality, all
capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's material
that create resistance. This is specified as the equivalent series
resistanceorESRofacomponent.Thisaddsarealcomponentto Figure2.38Twodifferentcircuitmodels
theimpedance:
ofarealcapacitor
Asfrequencyapproachesinfinity,thecapacitiveimpedance(orreactance)approacheszero
andtheESRbecomessignificant.Asthereactancebecomesnegligible,powerdissipationapproaches
PRMS=VRMS/RESR.
Similarly to ESR, the capacitor's leads add equivalent series inductance or ESL to the
component. This is usually significant only at relatively high frequencies. As inductive reactance is
positive and increases with frequency, above a certain frequency capacitance will be canceled by
inductance. Highfrequency engineering involves accounting for the inductance of all connections
andcomponents.
Iftheconductorsareseparatedbyamaterialwithasmallconductivityratherthanaperfect
dielectric,thenasmallleakagecurrentflowsdirectlybetweenthem.Thecapacitorthereforehasa
finiteparallelresistance,andslowlydischargesovertime (time mayvarygreatlydependingonthe
capacitormaterialandquality).
RippleCurrent
Ripple current is the AC component of an applied source (often a switchedmode power supply)
whose frequency may be constant or varying. Certain types of capacitors, such as electrolytic
tantalum capacitors, usually have a rating for maximum ripple current (both in frequency and
magnitude).Thisripplecurrentcancausedamagingheattobegeneratedwithinthecapacitordueto
the current flow across resistive imperfections in the materials used within the capacitor, more
commonly referred to as equivalent series resistance (ESR). For example electrolytic tantalum
capacitorsarelimitedby ripple currentandgenerallyhave thehighest ESRratingsinthe capacitor

family, while ceramic capacitors generally have no ripple current limitation and have some of the
lowestESRratings.
CapacitanceInstability
Thecapacitanceofcertaincapacitorsdecreasesasthecomponentages.Inceramiccapacitors,thisis
causedbydegradationofthedielectric.Thetypeofdielectricandtheambientoperatingandstorage
temperaturesarethemostsignificantagingfactors,whiletheoperatingvoltagehasasmallereffect.
TheagingprocessmaybereversedbyheatingthecomponentabovetheCuriepoint.Agingisfastest
near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time. Electrolytic
capacitorsageastheelectrolyteevaporates.Incontrastwithceramiccapacitors,thisoccurstowards
theendoflifeofthecomponent.
Temperaturedependenceofcapacitanceisusuallyexpressedinpartspermillion(ppm)per
C. It can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably nonlinear at the
temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be either positive or negative, sometimes
even amongst different samples of the same type. In other words, the spread in the range of
temperature coefficients can encompass zero. The leakage current section in the data sheet of
respectivecapacitorscontainsexamplesofthem.
Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can
absorb sound waves resulting in a microphonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the
capacitancetovary,inturninducingACcurrent.Somedielectricsalsogeneratepiezoelectricity.The
resultinginterferenceisespeciallyproblematicinaudioapplications,potentiallycausingfeedbackor
unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field between the
capacitorplatesexertsaphysicalforce,movingthemasaspeaker.Thiscangenerateaudiblesound,
butdrainsenergyandstressesthedielectricandtheelectrolyte,ifany.
CapacitorTypes
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal
dielectric,thestructureoftheplatesandthedevicepackagingallstronglyaffectthecharacteristics
of the capacitor, and its applications. Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while
arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the
limitingfactor)toabout5kFsupercapacitors.Aboveapproximately1Felectrolyticcapacitorsare
usuallyusedbecauseoftheirsmallsizeandlowcostcomparedwithothertechnologies,unlesstheir
relatively poor stability, life and polarized nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity super
capacitorsuseaporouscarbonbasedelectrodematerial.

Dielectricmaterials
Figure2.39showsvariouscapacitorsthatarecommonlyused
in practice. The capacitor materials from left: multilayer
ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester film, tubular
ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminum
Figure2.39Variouscapacitorsusedin
practice
electrolytic. Major scale divisions are in centimeters. Most

typesofcapacitorincludeadielectricspacer,whichincreasestheircapacitance.Thesedielectricsare
mostofteninsulators.However,lowcapacitancedevicesareavailablewithavacuumbetweentheir
plates,whichallowsextremelyhighvoltageoperationandlowlosses.Variablecapacitorswiththeir
plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use
polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space
between them. In order to maximize the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material
needs to have as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as
possible.
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic
materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage
performance.However,itissusceptibletowaterabsorption,andhasbeenlargelyreplacedbyplastic
film capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them useful in
timercircuits,althoughtheymaybelimitedtolowoperatingtemperaturesandfrequencies.Ceramic
capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their
capacitancevariesstronglywithvoltageandtheyagepoorly.Theyarebroadlycategorizedasclass1
dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics,
which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and
toleranttohightemperaturesandvoltages,butaretooexpensiveformostmainstreamapplications.
Electrolytic capacitors and super capacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy,
respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in
circuits wherever the simple conductorinsulatorconductor structure is formed unintentionally by
theconfigurationofthecircuitlayout.
Electrolyticcapacitorsuseanaluminumortantalumplatewithanoxidedielectriclayer.The
second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic
capacitorsofferveryhighcapacitancebutsufferfrompoortolerances,highinstability,graduallossof
capacitanceespeciallywhensubjectedtoheat,andhighleakagecurrent.Poorqualitycapacitorsmay
leakelectrolyte,whichisharmfultoprintedcircuitboards.Theconductivityoftheelectrolytedrops
at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power

supply conditioning, poor highfrequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many
applications.Electrolyticcapacitorswillselfdegradeifunusedforaperiod(aroundayear),andwhen
full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing a
fuse or causing arcing. They can be restored before use (and damage) by gradually applying the
operating voltage. Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid
stateequipment,whichmaybedamagedbyoperationbelowitsnormalpowerrange,requiringthat
thepowersupplyfirstbeisolatedfromtheconsumingcircuits.Suchremediesmaynotbeapplicable
to modern highfrequency power supplies as these produce full output voltage even with reduced
input.
Tantalumcapacitorsofferbetterfrequencyandtemperaturecharacteristicsthanaluminum,
but higher dielectric absorption and leakage. OSCON (or OCCON) capacitors are a polymerized
organic semiconductor solidelectrolyte type that offer longer life at higher cost than standard
electrolytic capacitors. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications.
Supercapacitorsstorelargeamountsofenergy.Supercapacitorsmadefromcarbonaerogel,carbon
nanotubes,orhighly porouselectrode materialsofferextremely high capacitance (upto5 kFasof
2010) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries. Alternating current
capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are
commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large currents, so they
tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be
easilygrounded/earthed.Theyalsoaredesignedwithdirectcurrentbreakdownvoltagesofatleast
fivetimesthemaximumACvoltage.
Structure
VariousaxialandradialcapacitorsthatareusedinpracticewereshowninFigure2.39.Figure2.40
illustrates examples of capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left;
throughhole tantalum at top right; throughhole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions
are cm. The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired
ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use
metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple
stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer
depositedonthesurfaceofadielectricfilmtomaketheplates,andadielectricfilmofimpregnated
paperorplasticthesearerolleduptosavespace.Toreducetheseriesresistanceandinductance
for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common
edge of the rolledup plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the
plates.

Theassemblyisencasedtopreventmoistureentering
the dielectric early radio equipment used a cardboard tube
sealedwithwax.Modernpaperorfilmdielectriccapacitorsare
dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high
voltage use may have the roll form compressed to fit into a
rectangularmetalcase,withboltedterminalsandbushingsfor
connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often Figure2.40Examplesofcapacitorpackages
impregnatedwithaliquidtoimproveitsproperties.
Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example
axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the
capacitor's cylindrical body the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more
accuratelybereferredtoastandem;theyarerarelyactuallyalignedalongradiiofthebody'scircle,
sothetermisinexact,althoughuniversal.Theleads(untilbent)areusuallyinplanesparalleltothat
of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as
manufactured.
Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in
widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely used.
Thesepackagesareextremelysmallandlackconnectingleads,allowingthemtobesoldereddirectly
onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high
frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is
madedifficultduetotheirsmallsize.
Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for
examplebyrotatingorslidingasetofmovableplatesintoalignmentwithasetofstationaryplates.
Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a
screw.Electricalcontrolofcapacitanceisachievablewithvaractors(orvaricaps),whicharereverse
biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are
usedinphaselockedloops,amongstotherapplications.
CapacitorMarkings
Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics.
Largercapacitorslikeelectrolyticsusuallydisplaytheactualcapacitancetogetherwiththeunit(for
example, 220 F). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three
numbersandaletter,wherethenumbersshowthecapacitanceinpF(calculatedasXYx10Zforthe
numbersXYZ)andtheletterindicatesthetolerance(J,KorMfor5%,10%and20%respectively).

Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage, temperature and other relevant
characteristics.
Example
Acapacitorwiththetext473K330Vonitsbodyhasacapacitanceof47x103pF=47nF(10%)with
aworkingvoltageof330V.
ApplicationsofCapacitors
Capacitorshavemanyusesinelectronicandelectricalsystems.Theyaresocommonthatitisarare
electricalproductthatdoesnotincludeatleastoneforsomepurpose.
EnergyStorage
Acapacitorcanstoreelectricenergywhendisconnectedfromitschargingcircuit,soitcanbeused
like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power
supplywhilebatteriesarebeingchanged.(Thispreventslossofinformationinvolatilememory.)
PulsedPowerandWeapons
Groupsoflarge,speciallyconstructed,lowinductancehighvoltagecapacitors(capacitorbanks)are
used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These include
electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming
networks,radar,fusionresearch,andparticleaccelerators.Largecapacitorbanks(reservoir)areused
asenergysourcesfortheexplodingbridgewiredetonatorsorslapperdetonatorsinnuclearweapons
and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power
sourcesforelectromagneticarmourandelectromagneticrailgunsandcoilguns.
PowerConditioning
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where
they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier.
They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the
energy storage element in the generation of higher
voltages than the input voltage. Figure 2.41 shows A
10,000 F capacitor in the power supply section of an
amplifier.
Figure2.41 Areservoircapacitorinanamplifier
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the

power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and
conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for
signalorcontrolcircuits.Audioequipment,forexample,usesseveralcapacitorsinthisway,toshunt

awaypowerlinehumbeforeitgetsintothesignalcircuitry.Thecapacitorsactasalocalreservefor
the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio
applications,whenastiffeningcapacitorcompensatesfortheinductanceandresistanceoftheleads
totheleadacidcarbattery.
PowerFactorCorrection
Inelectricpowerdistribution,capacitorsareusedforpowerfactorcorrection.Suchcapacitorsoften
comeasthreecapacitorsconnectedasathreephaseload.Usually,thevaluesofthesecapacitorsare
givennotinfaradsbutratherasareactivepowerinvoltamperesreactive(VAr).Thepurposeisto
counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the
load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power
factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be
installedataloadcenterwithinabuildingorinalargeutilitysubstation.
SuppressionandCoupling
Signalcoupling
BecausecapacitorspassACbutblockDCsignals(whenchargeduptotheapplieddcvoltage),they
are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC
coupling or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be
accuratelycontrolled,butwhosereactanceissmallatthesignalfrequency,isemployed.
Decoupling
Adecouplingcapacitorisacapacitorusedtoprotectonepartofacircuitfromtheeffectofanother,
for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted
throughthecapacitor,reducingtheeffecttheyhaveontherestofthecircuit.Itismostcommonly
usedbetweenthepowersupplyandground.Analternativenameisbypasscapacitorasitisusedto
bypassthepowersupplyorotherhighimpedancecomponentofacircuit.
NoisefiltersandSnubbers
Whenaninductivecircuitisopened,thecurrentthroughtheinductancecollapsesquickly,creatinga
large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the
energywillgenerateaspark,causingthecontactpointstooxidize,deteriorate,orsometimesweld
together, or destroying a solidstate switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit
createsapathforthisimpulsetobypassthecontactpoints,therebypreservingtheirlife;thesewere
commonlyfoundincontactbreakerignitionsystems,forinstance.Similarly,insmallerscalecircuits,
thesparkmaynotbeenoughtodamagetheswitchbutwillstillradiateundesirableradiofrequency

interference(RFI),whichafiltercapacitorabsorbs.Snubbercapacitorsareusuallyemployedwitha
lowvalue resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistorcapacitor
combinationsareavailableinasinglepackage.
Capacitorsarealsousedinparalleltointerruptunitsofahighvoltagecircuitbreakerinorder
toequallydistributethevoltagebetweentheseunits.Inthiscasetheyarecalledgradingcapacitors.
In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn
verticallyincircuitdiagramswiththelower,morenegative,platedrawnasanarc.Thestraightplate
indicatesthepositiveterminalofthedevice,ifitispolarized.
MotorStarters
Insinglephasesquirrelcagemotors,theprimarywindingwithinthemotorhousingisnotcapableof
starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a
secondarywindingisusedinserieswithanonpolarizedstartingcapacitortointroducealaginthe
sinusoidalcurrentthroughthestartingwinding.Whenthesecondarywindingisplacedatanangle
with respect to the primary winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational
field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to
operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or currentsensitive relay in series with the main winding)
disconnectsthecapacitor.Thestartcapacitoristypicallymountedtothesideofthemotorhousing.
Thesearecalledcapacitorstartmotors,thathaverelativelyhighstartingtorque.
Therearealsocapacitorruninductionmotorswhichhaveapermanentlyconnectedphase
shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a twophase induction
motor.
Motorstarting capacitors are typically nonpolarized electrolytic types, while running
capacitorsareconventionalpaperorplasticfilmdielectrictypes.
SignalProcessing
Theenergystoredinacapacitorcanbeusedtorepresentinformation,eitherinbinaryform,asin
DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs).
Capacitorscanbeusedinanalogcircuitsascomponentsofintegratorsormorecomplexfiltersandin
negative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a
currentsignal.
TunedCircuits
Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in particular
frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station

frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select
differentaudiobands.Theresonantfrequencyfofatunedcircuitisafunctionoftheinductance(L)
andcapacitance(C)inseries,andisgivenby:
whereLisinhenriesandCisinfarads.
CapacitiveSensing
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric of
thickness d with permittivity (such as air) as illustrated in Figure
2.42. The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions
for other device geometries. The plates are considered to extend
uniformlyoveranareaA.Thecapacitanceisexpressedas:
Mostcapacitorsaredesignedtomaintainafixedphysicalstructure.
However,variousfactorscanchangethestructureofthecapacitor,
Figure2.42Asimplecapacitor
andtheresultingchangeincapacitancecanbeusedtosensethose
factors.
ChangingtheDielectric
Theeffectsofvaryingthephysicaland/orelectricalcharacteristicsofthedielectriccanbeusedfor
sensingpurposes.Capacitorswithanexposedandporousdielectriccanbeusedtomeasurehumidity
inair.Capacitorsareusedtoaccuratelymeasurethefuellevelinairplanes;asthefuelcoversmore
ofapairofplates,thecircuitcapacitanceincreases.
ChangingtheDistanceBetweenthePlates
Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial pressure
transmittersusedforprocesscontrolusepressuresensingdiaphragms,whichformacapacitorplate
ofanoscillatorcircuit.Capacitorsareusedasthesensorincondensermicrophones,whereoneplate
ismovedbyairpressure,relativetothefixedpositionoftheotherplate.Someaccelerometersuse
MEMS capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration
vector.Theyareusedtodetectchangesinacceleration,e.g.astiltsensorsortodetectfreefall,as
sensorstriggeringairbagdeployment,andinmanyotherapplications.Somefingerprintsensorsuse
capacitors.Additionally,ausercanadjustthepitchofathereminmusicalinstrumentbymovinghis
handsincethischangestheeffectivecapacitancebetweentheuser'shandandtheantenna.
ChangingtheEffectiveAreaofthePlates
Capacitivetouchswitchesarenowusedonmanyconsumerelectronicproducts.

HazardsandSafety
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause
dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a
seeminglyinnocuousdevicesuchasadisposablecameraflashunitpoweredbya1.5voltAAbattery
contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a
shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or
highvoltage capacitors. Capacitors may also have builtin discharge resistors to dissipate stored
energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. Highvoltage capacitors are
stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to
dielectricabsorption.
Someold,largeoilfilledcapacitorscontainpolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs).Itisknownthat
waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors containing PCB were labeled as
containing"Askarel"andseveralothertradenames.PCBfilledcapacitorsarefoundinveryold(pre
1975)fluorescentlampballasts,andotherapplications.
Highvoltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents
beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection
failuresmaycreatearcingthatvaporizesdielectricfluid,resultingincasebulging,rupture,orevenan
explosion.CapacitorsusedinRForsustainedhighcurrentapplicationscanoverheat,especiallyinthe
center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within highenergy capacitor banks can violently
explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the
bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft Xrays even during
normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize
thesehazards.
Highvoltagecapacitorscanbenefitfromaprechargetolimitinrushcurrentsatpowerup
of high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuits. This will extend the life of the component and may
mitigatehighvoltagehazards.
Fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor(visitedFebruary23,2011)

SupercapacitorsElectricDoubleLayerCapacitors
An electric doublelayer capacitor (EDLC), also known as supercapacitor, supercondenser,
pseudocapacitor, electrochemical double layer capacitor, or ultracapacitor, is an electrochemical
capacitor with relatively high energy density. Compared to conventional electrolytic capacitors the
energy density is typically on the order of thousands of times greater. In comparison with
conventionalbatteriesorfuelcells,EDLCsalsohaveamuchhigherpowerdensity.
A typical Dcell sized electrolytic capacitor displays capacitance in the range of tens of
millifarads. The same size EDLC might reach several farads, an improvement of two orders of
magnitude. EDLCs usually yield a lower working voltage; as of 2010 larger doublelayer capacitors
havecapacitiesupto5,000farads.
EDLCs have a variety of commercial applications, notably in "energy smoothing" and
momentaryloaddevices.Theyhaveapplicationsasenergystoragedevicesusedinvehicles,andfor
smaller applications like home solar energy systems where extremely fast charging is a valuable
feature.
Figure2.43Comparisonofcapacitors
Figure 2.43 shows a diagram comparing construction of three types of capacitors:

electrostatic (normal), electrolytic (high capacity) and electrochemical (supercapacitors). In a
conventionalcapacitor,energyisstoredbytheremovalofchargecarriers,typicallyelectrons,from
onemetalplateanddepositingthemonanother.Thischargeseparationcreatesapotentialbetween
thetwoplates,whichcanbeharnessedinanexternalcircuit.Thetotalenergystoredinthisfashion
is proportional to both the amount of charge stored and the potential between the plates. The
amountofchargestoredperunitvoltageisessentiallyafunctionofthesize,thedistance,andthe

material properties of the plates and the material in between the plates (the dielectric), while the
potential between the plates is limited by breakdown of the dielectric. The dielectric controls the
capacitor's voltage. Optimizing the material leads to higher energy density for a given size of
capacitor.
EDLCsdonothaveaconventionaldielectric.Ratherthantwoseparateplatesseparatedby
an intervening substance, these capacitors use "plates" that are in fact two layers of the same
substrate,andtheirelectricalproperties,thesocalled"electricaldoublelayer",resultintheeffective
separationofchargedespitethevanishinglythin(ontheorderofnanometers)physicalseparationof
the layers. The lack of need for a bulky layer of dielectric permits the packing of plates with much
largersurfaceareaintoagivensize,resultinginhighcapacitancesinpracticalsizedpackages.
In an electrical double layer, each layer by itself isquite conductive, but the physics at the
interface where the layers are effectively in contact means that no significant current can flow
betweenthelayers.However,thedoublelayercanwithstandonlyalowvoltage,whichmeansthat
electricdoublelayercapacitorsratedforhighervoltagesmustbemadeofmatchedseriesconnected
individualEDLCs,muchlikeseriesconnectedcellsinhighervoltagebatteries.
EDLCshavemuchhigherpowerdensitythanbatteries.Powerdensitycombinestheenergy
densitywiththespeedthattheenergycanbedeliveredtotheload.Batteries,whicharebasedon
the movement of charge carriers in a liquid electrolyte, have relatively slow charge and discharge
times.Capacitors,ontheotherhand,canbechargedordischargedataratethatistypicallylimited
bycurrentheatingoftheelectrodes.SowhileexistingEDLCshaveenergydensitiesthatareperhaps
1/10ththatofaconventionalbattery,theirpowerdensityisgenerally10to100timesasgreat.
Fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_doublelayer_capacitor
INDUCTORS
DefinitionandUse
Thedualofthecapacitoristheinductor,whichstoresenergyinthemagneticfieldratherthanthe
electric field. Its currentvoltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitorequationsandreplacingCwiththeinductanceL.
An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a
magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store
magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a
conductingwireshapedasacoil;theloopshelptocreateastrongmagneticfieldinsidethecoildue
to Ampere's Law. Due to the timevarying magnetic field inside the coil, a voltage is induced,
accordingtoFaraday'slawofelectromagneticinduction,whichbyLenz'sLawopposesthechangein
currentthatcreatedit.Inductorsareoneofthebasiccomponentsusedinelectronicswherecurrent
and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating
currents.InductorscalledchokesareusedaspartsoffiltersinpowersuppliesortoblockACsignals
frompassingthroughacircuit.
Overview
Inductance (L) results from the magnetic field forming around a currentcarrying conductor which
tendstoresistchangesinthecurrent.Electriccurrentthroughtheconductorcreatesamagneticflux
proportionaltothecurrent,andachangeinthiscurrentcreatesacorrespondingchangeinmagnetic
flux which, in turn, by Faraday's Law generates an electromotive force (EMF) that opposes this
change in current. Inductance is a measure of the amount of EMF generated per unit change in
current.Forexample,aninductorwithaninductanceof1HenryproducesanEMFof1voltwhenthe
currentthroughtheinductorchangesattherateof1amperepersecond.Thenumberofloops,the
sizeofeachloop,andthematerialitiswrappedaroundallaffecttheinductance.Forexample,the
magneticfluxlinkingtheseturnscanbeincreasedbycoilingtheconductoraroundamaterialwitha
highpermeabilitysuchasiron.Thiscanincreasetheinductanceby2000times.
IdealandRealInductors
An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate or
radiateenergy.Arealinductormaybepartiallymodeledbyacombinationofinductance,resistance
(duetotheresistanceofthewireandlossesincorematerial),andcapacitance.Atsomefrequency,
some real inductors behave as resonant circuits (due to their self capacitance). At some frequency
thecapacitivecomponentofimpedancebecomesdominant.Energyisdissipatedbytheresistanceof
the wire, and by any losses in the magnetic core due to hysteresis. Practical ironcore inductors at

high currents show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic
saturation.Athigherfrequencies,resistanceandresistivelossesininductorsgrowduetoskineffect
intheinductor'swindingwires.Corelossesalsocontributetoinductorlossesathigherfrequencies.
Practical inductors work as antennas, radiating a part of energy processed into surrounding space
and circuits, and accepting electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, taking part in
electromagnetic interference. Circuits and materials close to the inductor will have nearfield
coupling to the inductor's magnetic field, which may cause additional energy loss. Realworld
inductorapplicationsmayconsidertheparasiticparametersasimportantastheinductance.
ApplicationsofInductors
Figure 2.44 shows an inductor with two 47mH windings, as
may be found in a power supply. Inductors are used
extensivelyinanalogcircuitsandsignalprocessing.Inductors
in conjunction with capacitors and other components form
tunedcircuitswhichcanemphasizeorfilteroutspecificsignal
frequencies. Applications range from the use of large
inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter
capacitorsremoveresidualhumsknownasthemainshumor
otherfluctuationsfromthedirectcurrentoutput,tothesmall
inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a
Figure2.44Asimpleinductor
cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being

transmitteddownthewire.Smallerinductor/capacitorcombinationsprovidetunedcircuitsusedin
radioreceptionandbroadcasting,forinstance.
Two (or more) inductors that have coupled magnetic flux form a transformer, which is a
fundamental component of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer may
decreaseasthefrequencyincreasesduetoeddycurrentsinthecorematerialandskineffectonthe
windings.Sizeofthe corecanbedecreasedathigherfrequenciesand,forthisreason,aircraftuse
400hertzalternatingcurrentratherthantheusual50or60hertz,allowingagreatsavinginweight
fromtheuseofsmallertransformers.
Aninductorisusedastheenergystoragedeviceinsomeswitchedmodepowersupplies.The
inductorisenergizedforaspecificfractionoftheregulator'sswitchingfrequency,anddeenergized
for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the inputvoltage to output
voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very
accuratevoltagecontrol.

Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to depress
voltagesfromlightningstrikesandtolimitswitchingcurrentsandfaultcurrent.Inthisfield,theyare
morecommonlyreferredtoasreactors.Largervalueinductorsmaybesimulatedbyuseofgyrator
circuits.
InductorConstruction
An inductor is usually constructed as a coil of conducting material,
typically copper wire, wrapped around a core either of air or of
ferromagnetic or ferromagnetic material. Core materials with a higher
permeabilitythanairincreasethemagneticfieldandconfineitcloselyto
the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Low frequency
inductorsareconstructedliketransformers,withcoresofelectricalsteel
Figure2.45Typesof
laminated to prevent eddy currents. 'Soft' ferrites are widely used for
inductors
coresaboveaudiofrequencies,sincetheydonotcausethelargeenergy
lossesathighfrequenciesthatordinaryironalloysdo.Inductorscomeinmanyshapesasillustrated
inFigure2.45.Mostareconstructedasenamelcoatedwire(magnetwire)wrappedaroundaferrite
bobbinwithwireexposedontheoutside,whilesomeenclosethewirecompletelyinferriteandare
referred to as "shielded". Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the
inductance.Inductorsusedtoblockveryhighfrequenciesaresometimesmadebystringingaferrite
cylinderorbeadonawire.
Smallinductorscanbeetcheddirectlyontoaprintedcircuitboardbylayingoutthetraceina
spiralpattern.Somesuchplanarinductorsuseaplanarcore.Smallvalueinductorscanalsobebuilt
on integrated circuits using the same processes that are used to make transistors. Aluminum
interconnectistypicallyused,laidoutinaspiralcoilpattern.However,thesmalldimensionslimitthe
inductance,anditisfarmorecommontouseacircuitcalleda"gyrator"thatusesacapacitorand
activecomponentstobehavesimilarlytoaninductor.
TypesofInductors
AirCoreCoil
The term air core coil describes an inductor that does not use a magnetic core made of a
ferromagnetic material. The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other nonmagnetic
forms,aswellasthosethatactuallyhaveairinsidethewindings.Aircorecoilshavelowerinductance
than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often used at high frequencies because they are free from
energylossescalledcorelossesthatoccurinferromagneticcores,whichincreasewithfrequency.A

sideeffectthatcanoccurinaircorecoilsinwhichthewindingisnotrigidlysupportedonaformis
'microphony':mechanicalvibrationofthewindingscancausevariationsintheinductance.
RadioFrequencyInductors
At high frequencies, particularly radio frequencies (RF), inductors have higher resistance and other
losses. In addition to causing power loss, in resonant circuits this can reduce the Q factor of the
circuit, broadening the bandwidth. In RF inductors, which are mostly air core types, specialized
constructiontechniquesareusedtominimizetheselosses.Thelossesareduetotheseeffects:
Skineffect:Theresistanceofawiretohighfrequencycurrentishigherthanitsresistancetodirect
currentbecauseofskineffect. Radiofrequencyalternating currentdoesnotpenetratefarintothe
body of a conductor but travels along its surface. Therefore, in a solid wire, most of the cross
sectional area of the wire is not used to conduct the current, which is in a narrow annulus on the
surface. This effect increases the resistance of the wire in the coil, which may already have a
relativelyhighresistanceduetoitslengthandsmalldiameter.
Proximity effect: Another similar effect that also increases the resistance of the wire at high
frequencies is proximity effect, which occurs in parallel wires that lie close to each other. The
individualmagneticfieldofadjacentturnsinduceseddycurrentsinthewireofthecoil,whichcauses
thecurrentinthe conductortobeconcentratedin athinstripontheside neartheadjacentwire.
Like skin effect, this reduces the effective crosssectional area of the wire conducting current,
increasingitsresistance.
Parasitic capacitance: The capacitance between individual wire turns of the coil, called parasitic
capacitance,doesnotcauseenergylossesbutcanchangethebehaviorofthecoil.Eachturnofthe
coilisataslightlydifferentpotential,sotheelectricfieldbetweenneighboringturnsstorescharge
onthewire.Sothecoilactsasifithasacapacitorinparallelwithit.Atahighenoughfrequencythis
capacitancecanresonatewiththeinductanceofthecoilformingatunedcircuit,causingthecoilto
becomeselfresonant.
Toreduceparasiticcapacitanceandproximityeffect,RFcoilsareconstructedtoavoidhavingmany
turns lying close together, parallel to one another. The windings of RF coils are often limited to a
singlelayer,andtheturnsarespacedapart.Toreduceresistanceduetoskineffect,inhighpower
inductors such as those used in transmitters the windings are sometimes made of a metal strip or
tubingwhichhasalargersurfacearea,andthesurfaceissilverplated.

Honeycombcoils:Toreduceproximityeffectandparasiticcapacitance,multilayerRFcoilsarewound
in patterns in which successive turns are not parallel but crisscrossed at an angle; these are often
calledhoneycomborbasketweavecoils.
Spiderwebcoils:Anotherconstructiontechniquewithsimilaradvantagesisflatspiralcoils.Theseare
oftenwoundonaflatinsulatingsupportwithradialspokesorslots,withthewireweavinginandout
through the slots; these are called spiderweb coils. The form has an odd number of slots, so
successiveturnsofthespirallieonoppositesidesoftheform,increasingseparation.
Litzwire:Toreduceskineffectlosses,somecoilsarewoundwithaspecialtypeofradiofrequency
wire called litz wire. Instead of a single solid conductor, litz wire consists of several smaller wire
strands that carry the current. Unlike ordinary stranded wire, the strands are insulated from each
other,topreventskineffectfromforcingthecurrenttothesurface,andarebraidedtogether.The
braidpatternensuresthateachwirestrandspendsthesameamountofitslengthontheoutsideof
the braid, so skin effect distributes the current equally between the strands, resulting in a larger
crosssectionalconductionareathananequivalentsinglewire.
FerromagneticCoreCoil
Ferromagneticcore or ironcore inductors use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic or
ferrimagnetic material such as iron or ferrite to increase the inductance. A magnetic core can
increasetheinductanceofacoilbyafactorofseveralthousand,byincreasingthemagneticfielddue
to its higher magnetic permeability. However the magnetic properties of the core material cause
severalsideeffectswhichalterthebehavioroftheinductorandrequirespecialconstruction:
Core losses: A timevarying current in a ferromagnetic inductor, which causes a timevarying
magneticfieldinitscore,causesenergylossesinthecorematerialthataredissipatedasheat,dueto
twoprocesses:
Eddy currents: From Faraday's law of induction, the changing magnetic field can induce circulating
loopsofelectriccurrentintheconductivemetalcore.Theenergyinthesecurrentsisdissipatedas
heatintheresistanceofthecorematerial.Theamountofenergylostincreaseswiththeareainside
theloopofcurrent.
Hysteresis:Changingorreversingthemagneticfieldinthecorealsocauseslossesduetothemotion
of the tiny magnetic domains it is composed of. The energy loss is proportional to the area of the
hysteresis loop in the BH graph of the core material. Materials with low coercivity have narrow
hysteresisloopsandsolowhysteresislosses.

For both of these processes, the energy loss per cycle of alternating current is constant, so core
lossesincreaselinearlywithfrequency.
Nonlinearity:Ifthecurrentthroughaferromagneticcorecoilishighenoughthatthemagneticcore
saturates, the inductance will not remain constant but will change with the current through the
device. This is called nonlinearity and results in distortion of the signal. For example, audio signals
can suffer intermodulation distortion in saturated inductors. To prevent this, in linear circuits the
current through iron core inductors must be limited below the saturation level. Using a powdered
ironcorewithadistributedairgapallowshigherlevelsofmagneticfluxwhichinturnallowsahigher
levelofdirectcurrentthroughtheinductorbeforeitsaturates.
LaminatedCoreInductor
Lowfrequency inductors are often made with laminated cores to prevent eddy currents, using
construction similartotransformers.Thecoreismadeofstacksofthinsteelsheetsorlaminations
orientedparalleltothefield,withaninsulatingcoatingonthesurface.Theinsulationpreventseddy
currentsbetweenthesheets,soanyremainingcurrentsmustbewithinthecrosssectionalareaof
the individual laminations, reducing the area of the loop and thus the energy loss greatly. The
laminationsaremadeoflowcoercivitysiliconsteel,toreducehysteresislosses.
FerriteCoreInductor
For higher frequencies, inductors are made with cores of ferrite. Ferrite is a ceramic ferrimagnetic
materialthatisnonconductive,soeddycurrentscannotflowwithinit.Theformulationofferriteis
xxFe2O4wherexxrepresentsvariousmetals.Forinductorcoressoftferritesareused,whichhavelow
coercivityandthuslowhysteresislosses.Anothersimilarmaterialispowderedironcementedwitha
binder.
ToroidalCoreCoils
Inaninductorwoundonastraightrodshapedcore,themagneticfieldlinesemergingfromoneend
of the core must pass through the air to reenter the core at the other end. This reduces the field,
becausemuchofthemagneticfieldpathisinairratherthanthehigherpermeabilitycorematerial.A
higher magnetic field and inductance can be achieved by forming the core in a closed magnetic
circuit.Themagneticfieldlinesformclosedloopswithinthecorewithoutleavingthecorematerial.
The shape often used is a toroidal or doughnutshaped ferrite core. Because of their symmetry,
toroidalcoresallowaminimumofthemagneticfluxtoescapeoutsidethecore(calledleakageflux),
so they radiate less electromagnetic interference than other shapes. Toroidal core coils are
manufactured of various materials, primarily ferrite, Kool Mu MPP, powdered iron and laminated
cores.

VariableInductor
Avariableinductorcanbeconstructedbymakingoneoftheterminalsofthedeviceaslidingspring
contactthatcanmovealongthesurfaceofthecoil,increasingordecreasingthenumberofturnsof
thecoilincludedinthecircuit.Analternateconstructionmethodistouseamoveablemagneticcore,
which can be slid in or out of the coil. Moving the core farther into the coil increases the
permeability,increasingtheinductance.Manyinductorsusedinradioapplications(usuallylessthan
100MHz) use adjustable cores in order to tune such inductors to their desired value, since
manufacturingprocesseshavecertaintolerances(inaccuracy).
InductorsinElectricCircuits
CurrentandVoltageRelations
The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes in current through it by developing a
voltageacrossitproportionaltotherateofchangeofthecurrent.Anidealinductorwouldofferno
resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly zero
electricalresistance.
Therelationshipbetweenthetimevaryingvoltagev(t)acrossaninductorwithinductanceL
and the timevarying current i(t) passing through it is described by the differential equation:
Whenthereisasinusoidalalternatingcurrent(AC)throughaninductor,asinusoidalvoltage
isinduced.Theamplitudeofthevoltageisproportionaltotheproductoftheamplitude(IP)ofthe
currentandthefrequency(f)ofthecurrent.
sin 2
cos 2
cos 2
Inthissituation,thephaseofthecurrentlagsthatofthevoltageby/2.
IfaninductorisconnectedtoadirectcurrentsourcewithvalueIviaaresistanceR,andthen
the current source is shortcircuited, the differential relationship above shows that the current
throughtheinductorwilldischargewithanexponentialdecay:
StoredEnergy
Theenergy(measuredinjoules,inSI)storedbyaninductorisequaltotheamountofworkrequired
to establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by:
whereLisinductanceandIisthecurrentthroughtheinductor.

Thisrelationshipisonlyvalidforlinear(nonsaturated)regionsofthemagneticfluxlinkage
andcurrentrelationship.
QFactor
An ideal inductor will be lossless irrespective of the amount of current through the winding.
However,typicallyinductorshavewindingresistancefromthemetalwireformingthecoils.Sincethe
winding resistance appears as a resistance in series with the inductor, it is often called the series
resistance.Theinductor'sseriesresistanceconvertselectriccurrentthroughthecoilsintoheat,thus
causingalossofinductivequality.Thequalityfactor(orQ)ofaninductoristheratioofitsinductive
reactancetoitsresistanceatagivenfrequency,andisameasureofitsefficiency.ThehighertheQ
factoroftheinductor,thecloseritapproachesthebehaviorofanideal,lossless,inductor.
The Q factor of an inductor can be found through the following formula, where R is its
internalelectricalresistanceandLiscapacitiveorinductivereactanceatresonance:
By using a ferromagnetic core, the inductance is greatly increased for the same amount of
copper, multiplying up the Q. Cores however also introduce losses that increase with frequency. A
gradeofcorematerialischosenforbestresultsforthefrequencyband.AtVHForhigherfrequencies
anaircoreislikelytobeused.
Inductors wound around a ferromagnetic core may saturate at high currents, causing a
dramatic decrease in inductance (and Q). This phenomenon can be avoided by using a (physically
larger)aircoreinductor.AwelldesignedaircoreinductormayhaveaQofseveralhundred.
Analmostidealinductor (Qapproachinginfinity)canbecreatedbyimmersingacoilmade
fromasuperconductingalloyinliquidheliumorliquidnitrogen.Thissupercoolsthewire,causingits
windingresistancetodisappear.Becauseasuperconductinginductorisvirtuallylossless,itcanstore
a large amount of electrical energy within the surrounding magnetic field. Bear in mind that for
inductorswithcores,corelossesstillexist.
From:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor(visitedFebruary23,2011)
TRANSFORMER
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer
DefinitionandUse
A transformer is a device that transfers
electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled
conductorsthe transformer's coils as
illustrated in Figure 2.46. A varying
current in the first or primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying
Figure2.46
magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core,aircoretransformersbeinganotableexception.Transformersrangeinsizefromathumbnail
sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of
tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles,
although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for
transformersinsomeelectroniccircuits,transformersarestillfoundinnearlyallelectronicdevices
designed for household ("mains") voltage. They are also used extensively in electronic products to
step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The
transformeralsoelectricallyisolatestheenduserfromcontactwiththesupplyvoltage.Transformers
are essential for highvoltage electric power transmission, which makes longdistance transmission
economicallypractical.
TheIdealTransformerasaCircuitElement
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and
electricalenergywillbetransferredfromtheprimarycircuitthroughthetransformertotheload.In
an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the
primaryvoltage(Vp),andisgivenbytheratioofthenumberofturnsinthesecondary(Ns)tothe
number of turns in the primary (Np). By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer
thusallowsanalternatingcurrent(AC)voltagetobe"steppedup"bymakingNsgreaterthanNp,or

"steppeddown"bymakingNslessthanNp.Ideally,the
transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming
energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the
magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this
condition is met, the incoming electric power must
equaltheoutgoingpower:
Figure2.47
givingtheidealtransformerequation

Transformersnormallyhavehighefficiency,sothisformulaisareasonableapproximation.
Ifthevoltageisincreased,thenthecurrentisdecreasedbythesamefactor.Theimpedance
in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is
attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an
impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary
circuitappearstothesecondarytobe(Ns/Np)2Zp.
OperationandPracticalConsiderations
Thesimplifieddescriptionaboveneglectsseveralpracticalfactors,inparticulartheprimarycurrent
requiredtoestablishamagneticfieldinthecore,andthecontributiontothefieldduetocurrentin
thesecondarycircuit.
LeakageFluxofaTransformer
Theidealtransformermodelassumesthatallflux
generated by the primary winding links all the
turns of every winding, including itself. In
practice, some flux traverses paths that take it
outside the windings as shown in Figure 2.48.
Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in
leakage inductance in series with the mutually
coupledtransformerwindings.Leakageresultsin
energy being alternately stored in and
discharged from the magnetic fields with each
cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a
Figure2.48Leakagefluxofatransformer

powerloss(see"Straylosses"below),butresultsininferiorvoltageregulation,causingthesecondary
voltagetofailtobedirectlyproportionaltotheprimary,particularlyunderheavyload.Transformers
arethereforenormallydesignedtohaveverylowleakageinductance.
However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic
paths,airgaps,ormagneticbypassshuntsmaybedeliberatelyintroducedtoatransformer'sdesign
tolimittheshortcircuitcurrentitwillsupply.Leakytransformersmaybeusedtosupplyloadsthat
exhibitnegativeresistance,suchaselectricarcs,mercuryvaporlamps,andneonsigns;orforsafely
handlingloadsthatbecomeperiodicallyshortcircuitedsuchaselectricarcwelders.
EffectofFrequency
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency. By operating at higher
frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer
more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same
impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with
frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400Hz power supplies which reduce core and
winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much
lower (e.g. 16.7Hz and 25Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50 60Hz) for historical reasons
concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. As such, the transformers
usedtostepdownthehighoverheadlinevoltages(e.g.15kV)aremuchheavierforthesamepower
ratingthanthosedesignedonlyforthehigherfrequencies.
Operationofatransformeratitsdesignedvoltagebutatahigherfrequencythanintended
willleadtoreducedmagnetizingcurrent;atlowerfrequency,themagnetizingcurrentwillincrease.
Operationofatransformeratotherthanitsdesignfrequencymayrequireassessmentofvoltages,
losses,andcoolingtoestablishifsafeoperationispractical.Forexample,transformersmayneedto
be equipped with "volts per hertz" overexcitation relays to protect the transformer from
overvoltage at higher than rated frequency. Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer
windingsisofimportanceforthedeterminationofthetransientresponseofthewindingstoimpulse
andswitchingsurgevoltages.
EnergyLosses
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical
transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger
transformersaregenerallymoreefficient,andthoseratedforelectricitydistributionusuallyperform
betterthan98%.Experimentaltransformersusingsuperconductingwindingsachieveefficienciesof
99.85%.Theincreaseinefficiencycansaveconsiderableenergy,andhencemoney,inalargeheavily

loadedtransformer;thetradeoffisintheadditionalinitialandrunningcostofthesuperconducting
design.
Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the
magneticcircuit,termedironloss.Lossesinthetransformerarisefrom:
Winding resistance: Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the
conductors.Athigherfrequencies,skineffectandproximityeffectcreateadditionalwinding
resistanceandlosses.
Hysteresislosses:Eachtimethemagneticfieldisreversed,asmallamountofenergyislost
due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency,andisafunctionofthepeakfluxdensitytowhichitissubjected.
Eddy currents: Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from
such a material also constitutes a single shortcircuited turn throughout its entire length.
Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are
responsibleforresistiveheatingofthecorematerial.
The eddy current loss is a complex function of the
squareofsupplyfrequencyandinversesquareofthe
material thickness. Eddy current losses can be
reduced by making the core of a stack of plates
electrically insulated from each other, rather than a
solid block; all transformers operating at low Figure2.49Atransformerwithlaminated
frequencies use laminated or similar cores as shown
steelcore
inFigure2.49.
Magnetostriction: Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to

physicallyexpandandcontractslightlywitheachcycleofthemagneticfield,aneffectknown
as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
transformers,andcancauselossesduetofrictionalheating.
Mechanical losses: In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes

fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations
within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of
power.
Stray losses: Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its
magneticfieldsisreturnedtothesupplywiththenexthalfcycle.However,anyleakageflux
thatinterceptsnearbyconductivematerialssuchasthetransformer'ssupportstructurewill
giverisetoeddycurrentsandbeconvertedtoheat.Therearealsoradiativelossesduetothe
oscillatingmagneticfield,buttheseareusuallysmall.
PROBLEMS
ReviewQuestions
1. Whatarethesubatomicparticlesthatcontributetotheelectricalactivitieswithinanatom?
2. Whatdoyouunderstandfromenergyofanorbitforanelectron?
3. Whatgeneratestheelectricalfield?
4. Whatistherelationshipbetweentheelectricalfiledandelectricalpotential?
5. Defineelectricalconductionandelectricalcurrent.
6. Whatgeneratesthemagneticfield?
7. Describetheeffectofanexternalmagneticfieldonacurrentcarryingconductor.
8. Whatistheelectromagnetism?
9. Howanelectricarcisgeneratedandwhatisthesparkgap?
10. Howelectricalenergyisgeneratedfromfossilfuelsandrenewablesources?
11. Whytheelectricalenergyispreferredoverotherformsofenergiesoverwhelmingly?
12. Defineinprecisetermsconductors,semiconductorsandinsulators.
13. Whatisasuperconductorandhowitisgenerated?
14. Whytheelementsnamedas"conductors"conductelectricityeasily?
15. Whatarethethreebestconductors?
16. Whycopperisthemostlyusedconductor?
17. Whythebarecopperwireisnotused(whyitisusedwithsomesortofcovering/coating)?
18. Whyastrandedwireispreferredtosolidcorewire?
19. Whyweusetwistedpairsofwires?
20. Whatisatransmissionlineandhowitdiffersfromanordinarywire?
21. Whyweuseshieldedwires?
22. Whyweuseconstantspacingbetweenpairsofsignalwires?
23. Whywedon'tusethicksolidconductorsathighfrequencyACapplications?
24. Whatisthewiregageandhowitisusedtoselectthewiresizeforagivenapplication?
25. Whatdeterminesthecurrentcarryingcapacity(ampacity)ofawireconductor?
26. Expresstheresistanceofawireintermsofitslengthanddiameter.

27. Whatisthemeaningof"positivetemperaturecoefficient"foraresistivewire?
28. Howistheflow(current)througharesistanceisrelatedtotheeffort(voltage)applied?
29. Whatisthedifferencebetweenapotentiometerandarheostat?
30. Whatisthedifferencebetweenacarboncompositionresistorandacarbonfilmresistor?What
aretheadvantagesandlimitationsofbothtypes?
31. Statetheadvantagesofmetalfilmresistorsovercarboncompositionandfilmresistors.
32. Whatistheawirewoundresistorandhowtheinductiveeffectisminimized?
33. Stateafewresistivesensorswiththeirareasofapplications.
34. Illustratethemarkingsforafourbandresistorwithanexample.
35. Howthemarkingsforlowvalueresistorsdifferfromtheregularones?
36. Illustratethemarkingsforafivebandresistorwithanexample.
37. Whatarethedifferencesinidentificationofthevalueofaresistorbetweenafourbandanda
fivebandmarking?
38. WhatisanSMDresistorandhowitisidentified?
39. ListthepreferredvaluesofresistorsinonedecadeforE12andE24series.
40. Whatisaheatsinkandhowitimprovesthepowerratingofaresistor?
41. Howanaxialresistorbehaveathighfrequencies?
42. Whytheresistorsgeneratenoiseandwhichtypesarepreferredinpreamplifiers?
43. Whatarethefailuremodesforresistors?
44. Whatisthefunctionacapacitor?
45. Howistheflow(current)throughacapacitorisrelatedtotheeffort(voltage)applied?
46. ExplainthebehaviorofacapacitorinACandDCcircuits.
47. Howtheelectrolyticandnonelectrolyticcapacitorsdifferfromeachother?
48. Statethenonidealbehaviorsofcapacitors.
49. Explaintheeffectofthedielectricontheperformanceofthecapacitor.
50. What is the breakdown voltage and how effective it is in choosing a capacitor for a specific
application?
51. Whatistheripplecurrent?
52. Describethecapacitormarkingcommonlyusedinidentifyingthecapacitorswithexamples.
53. Listapplicationsofcapacitors.
54. Explain the terms "signal coupling" and "decoupling" and the function of the capacitors in
achievingthem.
55. Stateafewcapacitivesensorswiththeirareasofapplications.
56. Howyoucanselectthepropercapacitorforagivenapplication?
57. Whatarethehazardsrelatedtocapacitorsandrequiredsafetymeasures?

58. Whatisasupercapacitorsandhowitdiffersfromaregularelectrolyticcapacitor?
59. Whatisthefunctionaninductor?
60. Howistheflow(current)throughaninductorisrelatedtotheeffort(voltage)applied?
61. ExplainthebehaviorofaninductorinACandDCcircuits.
62. Whatarethesalientfeaturesofradiofrequencyinductors?
63. Statethenonidealbehaviorsofinductors.
64. Explaintheeffectofthecoreontheperformanceofaninductor.
65. WhatistheQfactorofaninductor?
66. Whatbasicfunctionatransformerperformsinelectricalcircuits?
67. Explainthebehaviorofatransformerinlowfrequencyandhighfrequencyapplications.
68. Howapracticaltransformerdiffersfromtheidealone?
69. Whatistheefficiencyofatransformer?
GeneralQuestions
1. No.14gagecopperwireisusedforhousewiring.It'sweightis18.5gram/meter.It'sresistanceis
0.00827/mat20C.Thetemperaturecoefficientofcopperis0.004/C.
a. Whatwillbetheresistanceof10mwireat 20Candat60C
b. Howmuchisthevoltagedropacrossthewireintheabovequestionisthecurrentis4A
at20Candat60C
c. Assume that the wire was warming up by 2 C as the current through it was1 A. How
muchisthemaximumcurrentallowediftheplasticcoveringmeltsat60C?
Measurement and Error / 108
MEASUREMENTANDERROR
CHARACTERISTICSOFMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
DefinitionofTerms
StaticCalibration
AccuracyandPrecision
AccuracyversusPrecision
SignificantFigures
TypesofErrors(Uncertainties)
ANALYSISOFMEASUREMENTDATA
ArithmeticMean
DeviationfromtheMean
ProbabilityofErrors
SomeMSExcelFunctions
DeterminingRandomErrors
UNCERTAINTYANALYSIS
MathematicalAnalysisoftheUncertainty
SampleandPopulationStatistics
PROBLEMS
SolvedExamples
Questions
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1. Expresstheneedformeasurementandanalysisofmeasureddata
2. Definetechnicaltermsrelatedtoameasurementsuchasaccuracy,precision,resolution,error,
tolerance,etc.
3. Describetheinput/outputrelationshipforameasuringequipment(staticcalibration)
4. Analyzetheaccuracyandprecisionofameasurement.
5. Compareandcontrasttheaccuracyandprecisionforameasurement.
6. Usesignificantfigurestoexpresstheprecisionofameasurement.
7. Classifythemeasurementerrorsandlistwaysofreducingthem
8. Analyze the measured data using statistical measures such as the mean values and deviations
fromthemean.
9. Determinetheprobabilityoferrorsusingstatisticaldistributionfunctions.
10. Analyzetheuncertaintiesinmeterreadingsforanaloganddigitaldisplays.
11. Calculatethelimitingandprobableerrorsinasetofmeasurement.
12. Inferpropagationoferrorsastheresultofameasurementisusedincalculations.
13. Identifythenumberofsamplesneededtoinferthepopulationstatistics.
INTRODUCTION
Aninstrumentisadevicedesignedtocollectdatafromanenvironment,orfromaunitundertest,
andtodisplayinformationtoauserbasedonthecollecteddata.Suchaninstrumentmayemploya
transducer to sense changes in a physical parameter, such as temperature or pressure, and to
convert the sensed information into electrical signals, such as voltage or frequency variations. The
term instrument may also cover, and for purposes of this description it will be taken to cover, a
physicalorsoftwaredevicethatperformsananalysisondataacquiredfromanotherinstrumentand
thenoutputstheprocesseddatatodisplayorrecordingmeans.Thissecondcategoryofinstruments
would,forexample,includeoscilloscopes,spectrumanalyzersanddigitalmultimeters.Thetypesof
source data collected and analyzed by instruments may thus vary widely, including both physical
parameters such as temperature, pressure, distance, and light and sound frequencies and
amplitudes,andalsoelectricalparametersincludingvoltage,current,andfrequency.
An engineer has to make a lot of measurements, collect and analyze data, and make
decisionsaboutthevalidityofhisapproachesandprocedures.Hemusthaveaclearideaaboutthe
resultsheisgoingtoobtain.Inthisrespect,hemaydevelopmodelsofhisexpectationsandcompare
the outcomes from the experiments to those from the model. He uses various measuring
instrumentswhosereliabilitieshaveoutmostimportanceinsuccessesofhisdecisions.Characteristics
ofmeasuringinstrumentsthatareusedinselectingtheproperonesarereviewedinthefirstsection.
Section2dealswithanalysesofmeasurementdata.Section3handlestheanalysesofuncertainties
andestablishmentofengineeringtolerances.
CHARACTERISTICSOFMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
DefinitionofTerms
The characteristics of measuring instruments are specified using terms shortly defined below. The
fulldescriptionofsomeofthesetermswillbeprovidedlaterwithexamples.
Truevalue: standardorreferenceofknownvalueoratheoreticalvalue
Accuracy: closeness to the true value; closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
trueoracceptedvalueofthevariable(quantity)beingmeasured.Itisconsideredtobeanindicator
ofthetotalerrorinthemeasurementwithoutlookingintothesourcesoferrors.
Precision:a measureofthereproducibilityof the measurements;givenafixedvalueof avariable,
precisionisameasureofthedegreetowhichsuccessivemeasurementsdifferfromoneanotheri.e.,
ameasureofreproducibilityoragreementwitheachotherformultipletrials.

Sensitivity:theabilityofthemeasuringinstrumenttorespondtochangesinthemeasuredquantity.
Itisexpressedastheratioofthechangeofoutputsignalorresponseoftheinstrumenttoachange
ofinputormeasuredvariable.
Resolution: the smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will respond, i.e. the
smallestincrementalquantitythatcanbereliablymeasured.
Error:deviationfromthetruevalueofthemeasuredvariable.
Linearity:thepercentageofdeparturefromthelinearvalue,i.e.,maximumdeviationoftheoutput
curvefromthebestfitstraightlineduringacalibrationcycle.
Tolerance:maximumdeviationallowedfromtheconventionaltruevalue.Itisnotpossibletobuilda
perfect system or make an exact measurement. All devices deviate from their ideal (design)
characteristics and all measurements include uncertainties (doubts). Hence, all devices include
tolerancesintheirspecifications.Iftheinstrumentisusedforhighprecisionapplications,thedesign
tolerancesmustbesmall.However,ifalowdegreeofaccuracyisacceptable,itisnoteconomicalto
useexpensivesensorsandprecisesensingcomponents.
StaticCalibration
Thestaticcalibrationforamultiinputinstrumentiscarriedoutbykeepingallinputsexceptoneat
some constant values. The single input under study is varied over some range of constant values,
causing the output(s) to vary over some range of constant values. The inputoutput relation
developedinthiswayiscalledstaticcalibration.Acalibrationcurveforadualinputsingleoutput
system is shown in Figure 3.1. The static sensitivity (S) is the slope of the calibration curve and is
Output
B = B2
B = B1
Input A
Non-linear i/p-o/p relation
Output
A = A2
A = A1
Input B
Linear i/p-o/p relation
Input A
Input B
Measuring
Device
O/p
Output (o/p) =
Sensitivity (S) x input (i/p)
Figure3.1Staticcalibrationcurvesforamultiinputsingleoutputsystem
definedas,
S=(output)/(input)
Output

Sisaconstantforlinearrelation.Otherwise,Sisafunctionoftheinput.
AccuracyandPrecision
A measurement isnt very meaningful without an error estimate! No measurement made is ever
exact.Theaccuracy(correctness)andprecision(numberofsignificantfigures)ofameasurementare
alwayslimitedbyapparatusused,skilloftheobserverandthebasicphysicsintheexperimentand
the experimental technique used to access it. The goal of the experimenter is to obtain the best
possible value of some quantity or to validate/falsify a theory. What comprises a deviation from a
theory?Everymeasurementmustgivetherangeofpossiblevalue.Inthissectionwewilldiscussthe
accuracyandprecisionwithexamples.
Accuracy
Accuracyisdefinedasthedegreeofconformityofameasuredvaluetothetrue(conventionaltrue
valueCTV)oracceptedvalueofthevariablebeingmeasured.Itisameasureofthetotalerrorin
the measurementwithoutlooking intothesources oftheerrors.Mathematicallyitisexpressedas
themaximumabsolutedeviationofthereadingsfromtheCTV.Thisiscalledtheabsoluteaccuracy.
Absolute accuracy = max imum devation from CTV

Re lative accuracy =
absolute accuracy
CTV
;
Percentage(%) accuracy = relative accuracy 100

Example3.1
Avoltmeterisusedforreadingonastandardvalueof50volts,thefollowingreadingsareobtained:
47,52,51,48
Conventionaltruevalue(CTV)=50volts,
Maximum(VMAX)=52voltsandminimum(VMIN)=47volts.
CTVVMIN=5047=3volts;VMAXCTV=5250=2volts.
Absoluteaccuracy=maxof{3,2}=3volts.
Relativeaccuracy=3/50=0.06and%accuracy=0.06x100=6%
Precision
Precisioniscomposedoftwocharacteristicsasconformityandthenumberofsignificantfigures.

Conformity
The conformity is the ability of an instrument to produce the same reading, or it is the degree of
agreement between individual measurements. So, it is also called repeatability or reproducibility.
Mathematically it is expressed as the absolute maximum deviation from the average of the
readings,i.e.Precision(Pr)=max{(VAVVMIN),(VMAXVAV)}
Bias
The difference between CTV and average value (VAV) is called the bias. Ideally, the bias should be
zero. For a high quality digital voltmeter, the loading error is negligible yielding bias very close to
zero.
Bias=CTVVAV(3.6)
Inthepreviousexampletheaverage(VAV)=(47+48+51+52)/4=49.5V
Pr=max{(49.547),(5249.5)}=2.5volts.Thus,Bias=5049.5=0.5volt.
Aconsistentbiascanbeduetothepresenceofasystematicerrororinstrumentloading.Hence,
eliminating the causes removes the bias. However, if the bias is consistent and causes cannot be
identifiedand/oreliminated,thebiascanberemovedbyrecalibratingtheinstrument.
Example3.2
Aknownvoltageof100volts(CTV=100V)isreadfivetimesbyavoltmeterandfollowingreadings
areobtained:104,103,105,103,105
Averagereading=(1/5)x(104+103+105+103+105)=104volts
Pr=max{(VAVVMIN),(VMAXVAV)}=max{(104103),(105104)}=1volt
Accuracy=max{(CTVVMIN),(VMAXCTV)}=max{(100103),(105100)}=5V
Bias=averageCTV=104100=4volts.
Ifwerecalibratedtheinstrumenttoremovethebias,thentheaveragereading=CTV.Thenew
readingswouldbe100,99,101,99,101.Hence, after re-calibration, average = CTV = 100 volts,
and accuracy = precision = 1 volt.

AccuracyversusPrecision
Thedistinctionbetweenaccuracyandprecisioncanbeillustratedbyanexample:twovoltmetersof
the same make and model may be compared. Both meters have knifeedge pointers and mirror
backedscalestoavoidparallax,andtheyhavecarefullycalibratedscales.Theymaythereforeberead
to the same precision. If the value of the series resistance in one meter changes considerably, its
readingsmaybeinerrorbyafairlylargeamount.Thereforetheaccuracyofthetwometersmaybe

quite different. To determine which meter is in error, a comparison measurement with a standard
metershouldbemade.
Accuracyreferstothedegreeofclosenessorconformitytothetruevalueatthequantityunder
measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurements or
instruments. The targetshooting example shown in Figure 3.2 illustrates the difference. The high
accuracy,poorprecisionsituationoccurswhenthepersonhitsallthebulletsonatargetplateonthe
outer circle and misses the bulls eye. In the second case, all bullets hit the bulls eye and spaced
Poor accuracy
High precision
High accuracy
High precision
Average accuracy
Poor precision
Poor accuracy
Poor precision
Figure3.2 Anillustrationofaccuracyandprecision
closelyenoughleadingtohighaccuracyandhighprecision.Thebullethitsareplacedsymmetrically
withrespecttothebullseyeinthethirdcasebutspacedapartyieldingaverageaccuracybutpoor
precision. In the last example, the bullets hit in a random manner, hence poor accuracy and poor
precision.
The scatter graph in Figure 3.3 shows an alternative way of presenting the accuracy and
Most
accurate
6
5
4
true value
Systematic
error?
Worst
precision
2
1
0
0
2
3
4
analyst or dif f erent met hods or measuring devices
Figure3.3Anillustrationofaccuracyandprecisionbyascattergraph
precision.Samequantitywasmeasuredthreetimesby5differentanalystormethodsormeasuring
instruments.Distributionofreadingsaroundthetruevalueindicatesthemostaccurate,mostprecise
andleastaccurateandleastprecisereadings.Thelastreadingistoofarawayfromthetruevalueand
fromotherreadingsthatmayindicateasystematicerror.

Precision is composed of two characteristics as stated: conformity and the number of
significantfigurestowhichameasurementmaybemade.Consider,forexample,thattheinsulation
resistanceofatransformerhasthetruevalue2,475,653.Itismeasuredbyanohmmeter,which
consistentlyandrepeatedlyindicates2.5M.Butcantheobserver"read"thetruevaluefromthe
scale?Hisestimatesfromthescalereadingconsistentlyyieldavalueof2.5M.Thisisascloseto
the true value as he can read the scale by estimation. Although there are no deviations from the
observed value, the error produced by the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The
exampleillustratesthatconformityisanecessary,butnotsufficient,conditionforprecisionbecause
of the lack of significant figures obtained. Similarly, precision is a necessary, but not sufficient
conditionforaccuracy.
Toooftenthebeginningstudentisinclinedtoacceptinstrumentreadingsatfacevalue.Heis
notawarethattheaccuracyofareadingisnotnecessarilyguaranteedbyitsprecision.Infact,good
measurementtechniquedemandscontinuousskepticismastotheaccuracyoftheresults.
In critical work, good practice dictates that the observer make an independent set of
measurements,usingdifferentinstrumentsordifferentmeasurementtechniques,notsubjecttothe
same systematic errors. He must also make sure that the instruments function properly and are
calibrated against a known standard, and that no outside influence affects the accuracy of his
measurements.
SignificantFigures
Anindicationoftheprecisionofthemeasurementisobtainedfromthenumberofsignificantfigures
in which the result is expressed. Significant figures convey actual information regarding the
magnitudeandthemeasurementprecisionofaquantity.Themoresignificantfiguresthegreaterthe
precisionofmeasurement.
Figure3.4illustratestheimportanceofsignificantfigureswithan
66
68
70
example.Ifaresistorisspecifiedashavingaresistanceof68,
itsresistanceshouldbecloserto68thanto67or69.Ifthe
67.8
68.0
68.2
Figure3.4Anillustrationof
significantfigures
value of the resistor is described as 68.0 , it means that its

resistanceiscloserto68.0thanitisto67.9or68.1.In68
therearetwosignificantfigures;in68.0therearethree.The
latter,withmoresignificantfigures,expressesameasurementof
greaterprecisionthantheformer.
Itiscustomarytorecordameasurementwithallthedigitsofwhichwearesurenearestto
thetruevalue.Forexampleinreadingavoltmeter,thevoltagemaybereadas117.1V.Thissimply

indicatesthatthevoltage,readbytheobservertobestestimation,iscloserto117.1Vthanto117.0
Vor117.2V.Anotherwayofexpressingthisresultisthatitindicatestherangeofpossibleerror.The
voltage may be expressed as 117.1 0.05 V, indicating that the value of the voltage lies between
117.05Vand117.15V.
Whentwoormoremeasurementswithdifferentdegreesofaccuracyareadded,theresultis
onlyasaccurateastheleastaccuratemeasurement.Considerthefollowingexample:
Example3.3
Tworesistors,R1andR2,areconnectedinseries.Individualresistancemeasurementsusingadigital
multimeter, yield R1 = 18.7 and R2 = 3.624 . Calculate the total resistance to the appropriate
numberofsignificantfigures.
SOLUTION
R1=18.7(threesignificantfigures)
R2=3.624(foursignificantfigures)
RT=R1+R2=22.324(fivesignificantfigures)=22.3
Thedoubtfulfiguresarewritteninitalic.Anydigitintheresultisdoubtfulifitscomputationinvolves
doubtfuldigits.IntheadditionofR1andR2thelastthreedigitsofthesumaredoubtfulfigures.There
isnovaluewhatsoeverinretainingthelasttwodigits(the2andthe4)becauseoneoftheresistorsis
accurate only to three significant figures or tenths of an ohm. The result should therefore also be
reduced to three significant figures or the nearest tenth. i.e., 22.3 . Note that if extra digits
accumulateintheanswer,theyshouldbediscardedorroundedoff.Intheusualpractice,ifthedigit
inthefirstplacetobediscarded(mostsignificantofdigitstobediscarded)islessthanfive,itandthe
followingdigitsaredroppedfromtheanswerasitwasdoneintheexample.Ifthedigitinthefirst
place to be discarded is five or greater, the previous digit is increased by one. For threedigit
precision,therefore,22.324shouldberoundedoffto22.3;and22.354to22.4.
TypesofErrors(Uncertainties)
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out what the
accuracyactuallyisandhowdifferenterrorshaveenteredintothemeasurement.Astudyoferrorsis
afirststepinfindingwaystoreducethem.Suchastudyalsoallowsustodeterminetheaccuracyof
the final test result. Errors may comefrom different sources and are usually classified under three
mainheadingsas:

Gross errors: largely human errors, among them misreading of instruments, incorrect adjustment
andimproperapplicationofinstruments,andcomputationalmistakes.
Systematic(determinate)errors:shortcomingsoftheinstruments,suchasdefectiveorwornparts,
andeffectsoftheenvironmentontheequipmentortheuser.Theyaresometimescalledbiasdueto
errorinonedirectionhighorlow.Theyaregenerallyoriginatedfromaknowncausesuchasresult
from miscalibrated device, experimental technique that always gives a measurement higher (or
lower)thanthetruevalue,operatorslimitationsandcalibrationofglassware,sensor,orinstrument.
Their effects can be minimized by trying a
different method for the same measurement.
Theycanbecorrectedwhendetermined.
Systematicerrorsmaybeofaconstant
or proportional nature as illustrated in figure

3.5. The constant error influences the
intercept while the proportional error
influencestheslope.
Random(indeterminate)errors:thosedueto
Figure3.5Constantandproportionaltypeerrors
causes that cannot be directly established

becauseofrandomvariationsintheparameterorthesystemofmeasurement.Hence,wehaveno
control over them. Their random nature causes both high and low values to average out. Multiple
trials help to minimize their effects. We deal with them using statistics. Figure 3.6 provides a
schematicsummaryoferrorsandtheirpossiblemeansofelimination.Forexample,errorscausedby
theloadingeffectofthevoltmetercanbeavoidedbyusingitintelligently.Alowresistancevoltmeter
should not be used to measure voltages at the input of a voltage amplifier. In this particular
measurement, a high input impedance voltmeter (such as a digital voltmeter DVM) is required.
Grossandsystematicerrorscannotbetreatedmathematically.Theycanbeavoidedonlybytaking
careinreadingandrecordingthemeasurementdata.Goodpracticerequiresmakingmorethanone
readingofthesamequantity,preferablybyadifferentobserver.Neverplacecompletedependence
on one reading but take at least three separate readings, preferably under conditions in which
instrumentsareswitchedoff/on.
Theerrormaybeoriginatedfromthesamplingofthesource,preparationofthesamplesand
measurement and analysis of the measurand. Care must be taken so that the sample is
representativeofthewholepopulation(homogeneousvs.heterogeneous).Nounwantedadditions
or deletions are allowed during the preparatory phase. Finally, calibration of the measuring

instrumentusingstandardmeasurandsorstandardsolutionsisdoneasfrequentasdefinedbythe
equipmentmanufacturer.Onewaytoassesstotalerroristotreatareferencestandardasasample.
Thereferencestandardwouldbecarriedthroughtheentireprocesstoseehowclosetheresultsare
tothereferencevalue.
Measurement errors
Human errors
(Gross errors)
Examples:
Misreading instruments
Erroneous calculations
Improper choice of instrument
Incorrect adjustment, or
forgetting to zero
Neglect of loading effects
Not possible to estimate their

value mathematically
Methods of elimination or
reduction:
1. Careful attention to detail
when making measurements
and calculations.
2. Awareness of instrument
limitations.
3. Use two or more observers
to take critical data.
4. Taking at least three
readings or reduce possible
occurrences of gross errors.
5. Be properly motivated to
the importance of correct
results.
Random errors
Systematic errors
Equipment errors
Examples:
Bearing friction
Component nonlinearities
Calibration errors
Damaged equipment
Loss during transmission
How to estimate:
1. Compare with more
accurate standards
2. Determine if error is
constant or a proportional
error
Methods of reduction or
elimination:
1. Careful calibration of
instruments.
2. Inspection of
equipment to ensure
proper operation.
3. Applying correction
factors after finding
instrument errors.
4. Use more than one
method of measuring a
parameter.
Environmental errors
Examples:
Changes in
temperature,
humidity, stray
electric and magnetic
fields.
How to estimate:
Careful monitoring of
changes in the variables.
Calculating expected
changes.
Methods of reduction or
elimination:
1. Hermetically seal
equipment and components
under test.
2. Maintain constant
temperature and humidity by
air conditioning.
3. Shield components and
equipment against stray
magnetic fields.
4. Use of equipment that is
not greatly effected by the
environmental changes.
Figure3.6Aschematicsummaryofmeasurementerrors
Examples:
Unknown events that
cause small variations
in measurements.
Quite random and
unexplainable.
How to estimate:
Take many readings and
apply statistical analysis to
unexplained variations
Methods of reduction:
1. Careful design of
measurement
apparatus to reduce
unwanted
interference.
2. Use of statistical
evaluation to
determine best true
estimate of
measurement
readings.
ANALYSISOFMEASUREMENTDATA
Table3.1.Deviationsaroundmean
d1 =12.812.65=0.15mA
Astatisticalanalysisofmeasurementdataiscommonpractice
because it allows an analytical determination of the
uncertainty of the final test result. The outcome of a certain
d2 =12.212.65=0.45mA
d3 =12.512.65=0.15mA
d4 =13.112.65=0.45mA
measurement method may be predicted on the basis of
d5 =12.912.65=0.25mA
sample data without having detailed information on all the
d6 =12.412.65=0.25mA
disturbing factors. To make statistical methods and

interpretationsmeaningful,alargenumberofmeasurementsareusuallyrequired.Also,systematic
errors should be small compared with residual or random errors, because statistical treatment of
datacannotremoveafixedbiascontainedinallthemeasurements.
ArithmeticMean
Themostprobablevalueofameasuredvariableisthearithmeticmeanofthenumberofreadings
taken. The best approximation will be made when the number of readings ofthe same quantity is
very large. Theoretically, an infinite number of readings would give the best result although in
practiceonlyafinitenumberofmeasurementscanbemade.Thearithmeticmeanisgivenby:
x=
x1 + x2 + x3 + L + xn
=
n
x
n
where x =arithmeticmean,x1...xn=readingstaken,andn=numberofreadings.
Example3.4
A set of independent current measurements was taken by six observers and recorded as 12.8 mA,
12.2mA,12.5mA,13.1mA,12.9mA,and12.4mA.Calculatethearithmeticmean.
x=
12 .8 + 12 .2 + 12 .5 + 13 .1 + 12 .9 + 12 .4
= 12 .65 mA
6
DeviationfromtheMean
Inadditiontoknowingthemeanvalueofaseriesofmeasurements,itisofteninformativetohave
some idea of their range about the mean. Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the
arithmeticmeanofthegroupofreadings.Ifthedeviationofthefirstreadingx1iscalledd1,andthat
ofthesecondreading,x2iscalledd2andsoon,thenthedeviationsfromthemeancanbeexpressed
as
d1 = x1 x ; d 2 = x2 x ;; d = x x
n
n

Thedeviationfromthemeanmayhaveapositiveoranegativevalueandthatthealgebraicsumof
allthedeviationsmustbezero.Thecomputationofdeviationsforthepreviousexampleisgivenin
Table3.1.
AverageDeviation
The average deviation is an indication of the precision at the instruments used in making the
measurements. Highly precise instruments will yield a low average deviation between readings. By
definition average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the deviations divided by the
numberofreadings.Theabsolutevalueofthedeviationisthevaluewithoutrespecttosign.Average
deviationmaybeexpressedas
D=
d1 + d 2 + d 3 + L + d n
n
d
n
Example3.5
Theaveragedeviationforthedatagivenintheaboveexample:
D=
0.15 + 0.45 + 0.15 + 0.45 + 0.25 + 0.25

= 0.283 mA
6
StandardDeviation
The range is an important measurement. It indicates figures at the top and bottom around the
average value. The findings farthest away from the average may be removed from the data set
withoutaffectinggenerality.However,itdoesnotgivemuchindicationofthespreadofobservations
aboutthemean.Thisiswherethestandarddeviationcomesin.
Instatisticalanalysisofrandomerrors,therootmeansquaredeviationorstandarddeviation
isaveryvaluableaid.Bydefinition,thestandarddeviationofafinitenumberofdataisthesquare
root of the sum of all the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings minus
one.Expressedmathematically:
d12 + d 22 + d32 + L + d n2
=
n 1
2
i
n 1
Anotherexpressionforessentiallythesamequantityisthevarianceormeansquaredeviation,which
isthesameasthestandarddeviationexceptthatthesquarerootisnotextracted.Therefore
variance(V)=meansquaredeviation=2

Thevarianceisaconvenientquantitytouseinmanycomputationsbecausevariancesareadditive.
Thestandarddeviationhowever,hastheadvantageofbeingofthesameunitsasthevariablemaking
iteasytocomparemagnitudes.Mostscientificresultsarenowstatedintermsofstandarddeviation.
ProbabilityofErrors
NormalDistributionofErrors
Apracticalpointtonoteisthat,whetherthecalculationisdoneonthewholepopulationofdataor
on a sample drawn from it, the population itself should at least approximately fall into a so called
normal(orGaussian)distribution.
For example, 50 readings of voltage were taken at small time intervals and recorded to the
nearest 0.1 V. The nominal value of the measured graphically in the form of a block diagram or
histograminwhichthenumberofobservationsisplottedagainsteachobservedvoltagereading.The
histogram and the table data are given in Figure 3.7. The figure shows that the largest number of
readings(19)occursatthecentralvalueof100.0Vwhiletheotherreadingsareplacedmoreorless
symmetricallyoneithersideofthecentralvalue.Ifmorereadingsweretakenatsmallerincrements,
say 200 readings at 0.05V intervals, the distribution of observations would remain approximately
symmetrical about the central value and the shape of the histogram would be about the same as
before. With more and more data taken at smaller and smaller increments, the contour of the
histogram would finally become a smooth curve as indicated by the dashed line in the figure. This
bell shaped curve is known as a Gaussian curve. The sharper and narrower the curve, the more
definitelyanobservermaystatethatthemostprobablevalueofthetruereadingisthecentralvalue
20
16
Voltage reading
(volts)
# of reading
99.7
99.8
99.9
100.0
100.1
100.2
100.3
1
4
12
19
10
3
1
Number of Observed Readings
Tabulation of Voltage Readings
12
0
99.6
99.8
Figure3.7Distributionof50voltagereadings
100.0
Volts
100.2
100.4

ormeanreading.
Forunbiasedexperimentsallobservationsincludesmalldisturbingeffects,calledrandomerrors.
Random errors undergo a Normal (Gaussian) law of distribution shown in Figure 3.8. They can be
positiveornegativeandthereisequalprobabilityofpositiveandnegativerandomerrors.Theerror
distributioncurveindicatesthat:
Smallerrorsaremoreprobablethanlargeerrors.
Largeerrorsareveryimprobable.
Thereisanequalprobabilityofplusandminuserrorssothattheprobabilityofagivenerror
willbesymmetricalaboutthezerovalue.
1
2
exp(
x2
)
2
Probability of Error
Pr obability of error =
Area Under the Probability Curve

Deviation Fraction of total area
2 SD
0.6745
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.5000
0.6828
0.9546
0.9972
-4
-3
-2
-1
Error (standard deviation - sigma)
Figure3.8Theerrordistributioncurveforanormal(Gaussian)distribution
Table3.2Deviationsinreadings
Deviation
d
d2
101.
0.1
0.01
101.7
0.4
0.16
101.3
0.0
0.00
101.0
0.3
0.09
101.5
0.2
0.04
101.3
0.0
0.00
101.2
0.1
0.01
101.4
0.1
0.01
101.3
0.0
0.00
101.1
0.2
0.04
x=1013.0 |d|=1.4 d2=0.36
Reading,x
The error distribution curve in Figure 3.8 is based on the

Normal (Gaussian) law and shows a symmetrical distribution of
errors.Thisnormalcurvemayberegardedasthelimitingformof
the histogram in which the most probable value of the true
voltageisthemeanvalueof100.0V.Table3.2liststhereadings,
deviations and deviation squares of readings from the mean
value. The reason why the standard deviation is such a useful
measure of the scatter of the observations is illustrated in the
figure.Iftheobservationsfollowanormaldistribution,arange
covered by one standard deviation above the mean and one

standard deviation below it (i.e. x 1 SD) includes about 68% of the observations. A range of 2
standarddeviationsaboveandbelow( x 2SD)coversabout95%oftheobservations.Arangeof3
standarddeviationsaboveandbelow( x 3SD)coversabout99.72%oftheobservations.
RangeofaVariable
If we know the mean and standard deviation of a set of observations, we can obtain some useful
information by simple arithmetic. By putting 1, 2, or 3 standard deviations above and below the
meanwecanestimatetherangesthatwouldbeexpectedtoincludeabout68%,95%and99.7%of
observations.RangesforSDand2SDareindicatedbyverticallines.Thetableintheinset(nextto
thefigure)indicatesthefractionofthetotalareaincludedwithinagivenstandarddeviationrange.
Acceptablerangeofpossiblevaluesiscalledtheconfidenceinterval.Supposewemeasurethe
resistanceofaresistoras(2.650.04)k.Thevalueindicatedbythecolorcodeis2.7k.Dothe
twovaluesagree?Ruleofthumb:ifthemeasurementsarewithin2SD,theyagreewitheachother.
Hence,2SDaroundthemeanvalueiscalledtherangeofthevariable.
ProbableError
The table also shows that half of the cases are included in the deviation limits of 0.6745. The
quantityriscalledtheprobableerrorandisdefinedas
probable error r = 0.6745

Thisvalueisprobableinthesensethatthereisanevenchancethatanyoneobservationwillhavea
randomerrornogreaterthanr.Probableerrorhasbeenusedinexperimentalworktosomeextent
inthepast,butstandarddeviationismoreconvenientinstatisticalworkandisgivenpreference.
Example3.6
Tenmeasurementsoftheresistanceofaresistorgave101.2,101.7,101.3,101.0,101.5,
101.3 , 101.2 , 101.4 , 101.3 , and 101.1 . Assume that only random errors are present.
Calculatethearithmeticmean,thestandarddeviationofthereadings,andtheprobableerror.
SOLUTION:Withalargenumberofreadingsasimpletabulationofdataisveryconvenientandavoids
confusionandmistakes.
Arithmeticmean, x =
x = 1013 .0 =101.3
n
Standarddeviation, =
10
d2
=
n 1
0.36
=0.2
9

Probableerror=0.6745=0.6745x0.2=0.1349
SomeMSExcelFunctions
TheelectronicspreadsheetprogramMicrosoftExceloffersmanybuiltinstatisticalfunctionsthatcan
be used in data analysis. They can be easily accessed from the insert function menu. The salient
onesare:
=SUM(A2:A5)FindthesumofvaluesintherangeofcellsA2toA5.
.=AVERAGE(A2:A5)FindtheaverageofthenumbersintherangeofcellsA2toA5.
=AVEDEV(A2:A5)
FindtheaveragedeviationofthenumbersintherangeofcellsA2toA5.
=STDEV(A2:A5) Findthesamplestandarddeviation(unbiased)ofthenumbersintherangeofcells
A2toA5.
=STDEVP(A2:A5)
Findthesamplestandarddeviation(biased)ofthenumbersintherangeof
cellsA2toA5.
DeterminingRandomErrors
Random errors are due to random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement as
mentionedbefore.Wedealwiththemusingstatisticsandmultipletrialsgenerallyhelptominimize
their effects. One of their primary causes can be pinpointed to instrument limit of error and least
count.Theleastcountisthesmallestdivisionthatismarkedontheinstrument.Theinstrumentlimit
oferroristheprecisiontowhichameasuringdevicecanberead,andisalwaysequaltoorsmaller
than the least count. The estimation of the uncertainty is important. For example, assume a volt
meter may give us 3 significant digits, but we observe that the last two digits oscillate during the
measurement. What is the error? Average deviation or standard deviation based on repeated
measurementsofthesamequantityareusedindeterminingtheuncertainty.
UncertaintiesinReadingDigitalDisplays
A digital meter involves counting
(a)
(b)
Gate
from a clock signal during the gate

intervalasdepictedinFigure3.9.As
Clock
the gate and clock signals are not

Figure3.9Unsynchronizedgateandclocksignals
synchronized and combined in an

AND gate, case (b) results 4 pulses
whilecase(a)suppliesonly3pulses.Hence,adigitalreadouthasanuncertaintyof1digit.

UncertaintiesinReadingAnalogDisplays
Theuncertaintyinanalogdisplaysdependsupontheorganizationofdisplayscreenandcapabilities
of the reader. In analog multi meters it is accepted as scale divisions (the least count). In
oscilloscopedisplays,itdependsuponthethicknessofthetraceanditisaroundmm.Forboth
analog and digital displays, it is recommended to take the measurement as close to full scale as
possible to minimize the effect of the reading error. The following example illustrates the
uncertaintiesinanalogmeterreadings.
Example3.7
An analog voltmeter is used to measure a voltage. It has 100
5.8
6.0
6.2
divisionsonthescale.Thevoltagereadis6voltsandthemeterhas
tworangesas010voltsand0100volts.Findtheuncertaintyin
Figureforexample2.7.
themeasuredvalueinbothranges.
Uncertainty = VFSD / # of divisions, where VFSD is the voltage
measuredatfullscaledeflectionofthemeter.
On10Vrange,uncertainty= 10/100=0.05VyieldingV=60.05volt.
On100Vrange,uncertainty= 100/100=0.5VyieldingV=60.5volt.
Relativeuncertainty:on10Vrange,0.05/6=1/120=0.0083;
on100Vrange,0.5/6=1/12=0.083
Percentage uncertainty: on 10 V range, (0.05/6)x100 = 0.83%, and

on100Vrange,(0.5/6)x100=8.3%
Exercise(adaptedfromhttp://www.hep.vanderbilt.edu/~julia/VUteach/PHY225a)
ForeachofthethreerulersinFigure3.10,determineandrecord
Theleastcountofthescale(smallestdivision)scalesareallincm
Lengthofthegrayrods
Uncertaintiesinyourreadings
Compareyourresultwiththoseofthestudentnexttoyou
Figure3.10Threerulerswithdifferentdivisions
UNCERTAINTYANALYSIS
Anysystemthatreliesonameasurementsystemwillinvolvesomeamountofuncertainty(doubt).
Theuncertaintymaybecausedbyindividualinaccuracyofsensors,limitationsofthedisplaydevices,
random variations in measurands, or environmental conditions. The accuracy of the total system
dependsontheinteractionofcomponentsandtheirindividualaccuracies.Thisistrueformeasuring
instrumentsaswellasproductionsystemsthatdependonmanysubsystemsandcomponents.Each
component will contribute to the overall error, and errors and inaccuracies in each of these
componentscanhavealargecumulativeeffect.
MathematicalAnalysisoftheUncertainty
If an experiment has number of component sources, each being measured individually using
independentinstruments,aproceduretocomputethetotalaccuracyisnecessary.Let
R=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
wherex1,x2,x3,,xnareindependentvariables.Eachvariableisdefinedas
xi = x i xi
i=1,2,,n; xi isknownasthenominalvalue; xi isknownastheuncertaintyinthevariablex1;

then R = R R where R = f ( x1 , x 2 ,...., x n )
The uncertainty R = wR can be computed using Taylors series expansion and statistical
analysis.AllpartialderivativesofRaretaken.Thepartialderivative
f
showsthesensitivityofRto
xi
variablexi.Sincethemeasurementshavebeentaken,thexivaluesareknownandcanbesubstituted
intotheexpressionsforthepartialderivativesandpartialderivativesareevaluatedatknownvalues
ofx1,x2,.,xn.

LimitingError
Twomethodsarecommonlyusedfordeterminingtheuncertainty.Thefirstoneiscalledthemethod
ofequaleffectsandityieldsthelimiting(guarantied)error(maximumuncertaintypossible).
n
R = R = [
i =1
where (
f
]o xi
xi
f
) o is the partial derivative of the function with respect to xI calculated at the nominal
xi
value.Theabsolutevalueisusedbecausesomeofthepartialderivativesmaybenegativeandwould
haveacancelingeffect.Ifoneofthepartialderivativeishighcomparedtotheothers,thenasmall
uncertaintyinthecorrespondingvariablehaslargeeffectonthetotalerror.Hence,theequationalso
illustrateswhichofthevariableexertsstrongestinfluenceontheaccuracyoftheoverallresults.
Example3.8
Thevoltagegeneratedbyacircuitisequallydependentonthevalueofthreeresistorsandisgivenby
thefollowingequation:V0=I(R1R2/R3)
Ifthetoleranceofeachresistoris1percent,whatisthemaximumerrorofthegeneratedvoltage?
SOLUTION:Letusfindthesensitivitiesfirst.
V0
V V0
V V0
V
R
R
RR
=I 2 = 0
=I 1 = 0
= I 1 2 2 = 0
R3 R1 ; R2
R3 R2 ; R3
R3
R3
R1
Alltolerancesaregivenas1%,therefore:R1=0.01R1;R2=0.01R2;R3=0.01R3
V0 =
V0
V
V
R1 + 0 R2 + 0 R3 ThatyieldsV0=0.03V0
R1
R2
R3
Thetotalvariationoftheresultantvoltageis0.3percent,whichisthealgebraicsumofthethree
tolerances.Thisistrueinthefirstapproximation.Themaximumerrorisslightlydifferentfromthe
sumoftheindividualtolerances.Ontheotherhand,itishighlyunlikelythatallthreecomponentsof
this example would have the maximum error and in such a fashion to produce the maximum or
minimumvoltage.Therefore,thestatisticalmethodoutlinedbelowispreferred.
ExpectedValueofUncertainty
Thesecondmethodiscalledthesquarerootofsumofsquares.Itisbasedontheobservationsstated
beforefortherandomerrors.Ityieldstheexpectedvalueoftheuncertaintyandcomputedas

n
(R ) 2 = ( R ) = [(
2
i =1
f 2
) ]o (xi ) 2
xi

This will be used throughout the course unless the question asks the limiting error, or
maximumpossibleuncertainty.
Example3.9
P = VI, if V = 100 2 volt (measured) and I = 10 0.2 Amp (measured), determine the maximum
allowableuncertainty,andtheexpecteduncertaintyinpower.
SOLUTION: Pm = wPm =
P
P
V +
I = 10 x 2 + 100 x 0.2 = 40 watts is the limiting value of
V
I
theuncertainty.
However,theexpecteduncertainty P = wP =
P
P
V ) 2 + ( I ) 2
V
I
wP = ( Ix 2) 2 + (Vx0.2) 2 = (10 x 2) 2 + (100 x0.2) 2 = 100 x8 = 10 8 = 28.3 watts.

Thenominalvalueofpower=100x10=1000watts
Percentageuncertainty=(28.3/1000)x100=2.83%,andP=100028.3watt.
Example3.10
Theresistanceofacertainsizeofcopperwireisgivenby R = Ro[1 + (T 20)] .Theresistanceat
20C is Ro = 6 0.3%, temperature coefficient = 0.004/C 1%, temperature T = 30C 1C.
ComputetheuncertaintyintheresistanceR.
SOLUTION:thenominalvalueofR, R = 6[1 + (0.004)(30 20)] = 6.24
R/R0=1+(T20)=1+0.004(3020)=1.04
R/=R0[T20]=6(3020)=60;R/T=R0=6x0.004=0.024
UncertaintyinthenominalvalueofR0=percentageuncertaintyofR0xnominalR0
Ro=(0.3/100)x6=0.018;=(1/100)(0.004)=4x105/C;T=1C
TheuncertaintyintheresistanceRisgivenby: R =
=0.0305(0.0305/6.24)x100=0.49%
(1.04 x0.018) 2 + (60 x 4 x105 ) 2 + (0.024 x1) 2

Ifthemaximumerrorintheresistanceisasked,itcanbefoundas:
Rm = 1.04 x0.018 + 60 x 4 x105 + 0.024 x1 = 0.045

SpecialCase
R =Y Y Y
l n k
1 2 3
(
,then
R
Ro
)2 = l 2 (
Y1o
)2 + n2 (
Y2 o
)2 + k 2 (
Y3o
)2
SeriesandParallelAnalysis
Example3.11
TworesistorsR1andR2areconnectedfirstinseries,theninparallel.LetR1=100.5andR2=
100.5.Findthemaximumandexpectedvaluesfortheuncertaintyinthecombination.
Series analysis
Rs=R1+R2;Rs/R1=Rs/R2=1; Rs = R1 + R2 =10+10=20
Thelimitingerror(maximumuncertainty)= Rsm =
R1
R2
Two resistors in series.
Rs
R
1 1
R1 + s R2 = + = 1
R1
R2
2 2
R1
R2
Two resistors in parallel

Figureforexample3.11Seriesandparallelconnectedresistors
( Rs ) 2 = (
Theuncertainty:
Rs 2
R
) ( R1 ) 2 + ( s ) 2 ( R2 ) 2 = (1) 2 ( 12 ) 2 + (1) 2 ( 12 ) 2 =
R1
R2
1
4
1
4
1
2
yielding Rs 0.7 . The relative uncertainty = 0.7/20 = 0.035, and the percentage uncertainty =
3.5%.Therefore,Rs=200.7=203.5%
Parallel analysis
RR
R p = 1 2 = R p R p
10 x10
R1 + R2
; R p =
= 5
10 + 10

R p
R1
R p
R1
( R1 + R 2) ) R 2 R1 R 2
( R1 + R 2) ) R 2 R1 R 2
( R1 + R 2 ) 2
R p
Hence,
( R1 + R 2 ) 2
R1
(R p ) 2 = (
R2
( R1 + R 2 ) 2
R2
2
R1
( R1 + R 2 ) 2 Rp = ( R1 + R2) ) R1 R1R2 =
R2
( R1 + R2 )2
( R1 + R2 ) 2
102
100 1 R p
=
= =
2
(10 + 10)
400 4 R2
R p
R1
) 2 (R1 ) 2 + (
R p
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
) 2 (R2 ) 2 = ( ) 2 ( ) 2 + ( ) 2 ( ) 2 = ( )( )(1 + 1) =
R2
4 2
4 2
16 4
32
ThereforetheuncertaintyinRpis: R p =
1
= 0.175
32
ThenominalvalueofRp=5,thepercentageuncertainty=(0.175/5)x100=3.5%
ThenRp=50.175=53.5%
1 1
4 2
1
2
LimitingerrorinRp= ( + ) = 0.25
Summaryofhowtopropagatetheerrors
Additionandsubtraction(x+y;xy):addabsoluteerrors;
Multiplicationbyanexactnumber(a*x):multiplyabsoluteerrorbythenumber;
Multiplicationanddivision:addrelativeerrors;
FurtherexplanationscanbeobtainedfromMathWorld
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ErrorPropagation.html.
SampleandPopulationStatistics
Population
Sample
Inmanyinstances,wetakesamplesfromapopulationand
infer the population statistics as illustrated in Figure 3.10.
Supposewewanttoknowtheaverageweightofadults.Itis
not feasible to weigh every single adult and then take the
average of all the weights. All adults are called the
population. Instead, we decide to take a small fraction of
Figure3.10Populationandsample

the adults, say 1 out of every 1000, and average these weights. This small fraction is called our
samplepopulation.Nowwehaveanaverageweightforoursamplepopulation.Wewanttoknowif
our sample population average weight is a good estimation of the population average weight. In
addition,measurementisacostlyprocess.Hence,wealsowanttoknowtheminimumsamplesize
thatyieldsuncertaintieswithinthetolerancerange.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the distribution for the population and the sample. For the normal
Estimated mean x-s
standard deviation s-x
Population standard
deviation
Frequency
Mean
Figure3.11Normaldistributioncurvesforpopulationandsample
distribution,68%ofthedatalieswithin1standarddeviation.Bymeasuringsamplesandaveraging,
weobtaintheestimatedmean xs ,whichhasasmallerstandarddeviationsx. isthetailprobability
thatxsdoesnotdifferfrombymorethan.
Thepopulationstandarddeviationis
population =
(deviations)2
n
( x x)
Andthesamplestandarddeviationis
sample = s = s =
(deviations)2
n 1
( x x)
n 1
Thesamplestandarddeviationallowsformorevariationinthesamplecomparedtothepopulation,
sincesampleisonlypart ofpopulation.Dividingby(n1)increasestheestimateofthe population
variation.Thisattemptstoeliminatethepossibilityofbias.
Theestimatedsamplestandarddeviationisameasureofthespreadofdataaboutthemean.
Thestandarddeviationofthemean x is
x =
s
n 1 .
Theaboveequationillustratesanimportantfact.Thestandarddeviationdoesntchangemuch,but
the error on the mean improves dramatically! It goes as
s
n
, where n is the number of
measurements.Asaruleofthumb,therangeRoftherandomvariablexcanberoughlytakenasR
4.Ifistheerrorthatcanbetoleratedinthemeasurement,thenthenumberofsamplesrequired
toachievethedesired: n
.Then = x
PROBLEMS
ReviewQuestions
1. Whyweneedtomakemeasurements?
2. Whatarethebasicfunctionsofameasuringinstrument?
3. Whatdoyouunderstandfromanalysisofmeasureddata?
4. Whatisthetruevalueofameasurementandhowitisestablished?
5. Whatistheaccuracyofameasurementandwhatarethefactorsaffectingit?
6. Whatistheprecisionofameasurementandhowitdiffersfromtheaccuracy?
7. Whatisthebiasandhowiteffectsthemeasurement?
8. Whatisthetolerance?Isittheresultorpreconditionofameasurement?
9. Whatisthestaticcalibrationandhowitisdone?
10. Whatisthesignificantfigureandhowitisdetermined?
11. Whatisthegrosserrorandhowitcanbeeliminated?
12. Whatisthesystematicerrorandhowitcanbeminimized?
13. Whatistherandomerrorandhowiteffectsthemeasurement?
14. Whataretheerrorsthatcanbetreatedmathematically?
15. Whatisthearithmeticmean?
16. Whatisthesignificanceofthestandarddeviation?
17. Whatspecifiesanormal(Gaussian)distribution?
18. Whatistherangeofavariableandtheprobableerror?
19. Whatdeterminestheuncertaintyinadigitalreadout?

20. Howtheuncertaintyinananalogreadingisspecified?
21. Howdoyoudeterminethetotalerrorbasedontheerrorsofcomponentsources?
22. Whatisthelimitingerror?
23. Howthepopulationandsamplestatisticsdifferfromeachother?
24. Whatistheerrorofthemeanandhowitiseffectedbythesamplesize?
SolvedExamples
1. Adigitalthermometerisusedtomeasuretheboilingpointofwater(100.0C).Themeasurement
is repeated 5 times and following readings are obtained: 99.9, 101.2, 100.5, 100.8, 100.1.
Determinetheaccuracy,theprecisionandthebiasofthethermometer.
TCTV=100.0C;TAV=(99.9+101.2+100.5+100.8+100.1)/5=100.5C.
Accuracy=maxof[(101.2100.0),(100.099.9)]=1.2C;%acc.=1.2%
Pr=maxof[(101.2100.5),(100.599.9)]=0.7C
Bias=|TAVTCTV|=0.5C.
2. A digital voltmeter uses 4 digit display (it can display up to 19999). It is used to measure a
voltage across a standard cell whose value is 1.2341 volt 4 times and following readings are
obtained:1.2202,1.2115,1.2456,1.2218.Determinetheaccuracy,theprecisionandthebiasof
thevoltmeter.
CTV=1.2341volt;VAV=0.25x(1.2202+1.2115+1.2456+1.2218)=1.2248V.
Theaccuracy=|1.23411.2115|=0.0226V;%accuracy=1.83%,
pr=max[(1.24561.22248),(1.22481.2115)]=0.0208V;
Bias=|1.23411.2248|=0.0093V
3. Arecentlycalibrateddigitalvoltmeterisusedtoreadavoltageanditconsistentlyyields75volts.
Another meter in the lab is also used five times to measure the same voltage and following
readingsareobtained:77,75,74,76,77.Forthesecondmeter,
a. Findtheabsoluteaccuracy,relativeaccuracyandpercentageaccuracy.
Therecentlycalibratedmeterpresumablyreadstheconventionaltruevalue.ThereforeCTV=75V,
yieldingabsoluteaccuracy=max{(7775),(7574)}=2volts,
Therelativeaccuracy=2/75=0.027,

The%accuracy=2.7%
b. Findtheprecision.
VAV=(1/5)(77+75+74+76+77)=75.8volts.Pr=max{(7775.8),(75.874)}=1.8V
c. Calculatethebias.Bias=VAVVCTV=75.875=0.8volt.
4. ThegainoftheamplifierisdefinedindBby: G = 20 log 10 (
thegainisgivenby: ( G ) 2 = ( 20 log10 e) 2 [(
V1
)2 + (
V2
V2
V1
) .Showthattheuncertaintyin
)2 ]
Hint:log10a=(logea)/(loge10)=(log10e)(logea),logea=ln(a)andd(lnx)/dx=1/x.log10e=0.434
G = 20 log10 (
V2
G
1
G
1
) = ( 20 log10 e)[ln(V2 ) ln(V1 )
= 20 log10 e
= 20 log 10 e
V1
V2
V1 and V2
; V1
yieldingtheuncertaintyasdefinedabove.
5. Five resistors are available, one of 20 and four of 10 each. The uncertainty of the 20
resistoris5%andthatofeach10resistoris10%.3possibleconnectionsusingtheseresistors
are shown below. Which one would you use to obtain a 30 resistance with the least
uncertainty?Whatistheuncertaintyofthisbestconnection?
10
10 10
10
20
10
10
10=1;20=1;(A)2=3x(1)2
A = 1.73 ; (B)2 = (1)2 + (1)2 =2
20
B =1.414 ; in (C), RP = 10
10 10
Figuresolvedexample5.
RP = (20 1.414)// (20 1.414);

(RP)2 = 2x(1/4)2x(1.414)2 RP =
0.25 . Yielding (C)2 = (1)2 + (0.25)2
C=1.031,hence(C)hastheleastuncertainty.
6. The DC current in a resistance R = 10 k 0.5% is measured to be I = 10 mA 1%. Find the
powerdissipatedinthisresistancewithitsuncertaintyandlimitingerror.
P=I2R;P/I=2IR;P/R=I2, P = 10 x103 x(10 x103 ) 2 = 1 W
(P)2 = (2IR)2 (I )2 + ( I 2 )2 (R)2 ,withI=104A,R=50,(P)2=4.25x104andP=20.6

mWyielding%P=2.06%andP=1W2.06%
Limitingerror=
Pm = 2 IRI + I 2 R = 2 x 20 x103 x10 x103 x104 + 108 x50 40mW
7. A metallic resistance thermometer has a linear variation of resistance with temperature as
R = R0[1 + 0 (T T0 )] . The resistance at T0 =280K 0.01K is R0 = 20 k 0.1%, while at a

temperatureTtheresistanceRisR=30k0.1%.Thecoefficient0=0.00392/K.
a. WritedownanexplicitexpressionforT.
R = R0 + 0 R0T 0 R0T0
R R0
1 R
+ T0 =
( 1) + T0
0 R0
0 R0
T =
b. ShowthattheuncertaintyTinTisgivenby:
( T ) 2 = ( T0 ) 2 +
2
0
R
R 2 R0 2
) [(
) + ( )2 ]
R0
R0
R
First,wecalculatethesensitivityofTtoR,R0,0,andT0
T
T
1
1
T
R
T
R
=
=
=1
= 2 (1 )
2
R 0 R0 , R0
0 R0 , 0 0
R0 ,and T0
( T ) 2 = ( T0 ) 2 + (
1 2
R 2
) ( R ) 2 + (
) ( R0 ) 2 Reorganizingyieldstheanswer.
2
0 R0
0 R0
c. CalculatethenominalvalueofTanditsuncertainty.
T =
30
1
( 1) + 280 = 407 .6 K
0.00392 20
;
( T ) 2 = 10 4 + (
1 .5
) 2 (10 6 + 10 6 ) = 0.29295
0.00392
yieldingT=0.54K
d. Findthestaticsensitivity
R
ofthethermometer.
T
R
= 0 R0 = 0.00392 x 20 x10 3 = 78 .4
K
T
e. CalculatethemaximumerrorinT.
Tm = T0 +
1
R
1.5
R +
R0 = 0.01 +
(0.001 + 0.001) = 0.7753 K
2
0.00392
0 R0
0 R0

GeneralQuestions
TrueFalse
PleaseanswerthefollowingTrueorFalsequestions.
Question
True
False
Systematicerrorscanbeeliminatedbyrecalibratingtheequipment
Systematicerrorscanbeeliminatedbymakingmultiplemeasurements
Accuracyofameasurementisanindicationofhowclosethereadingistothe
averagevalue
Accuracyofameasurementisanindicationoftotalerrorsinthemeasurement
Thesmallestincrementalquantitythatcanbemeasuredistheresolution
Theprecisionisanindicatorofconsistencyinasetofmeasurements
Theresultof10.5+1.267(withsignificantfiguresonly)is11.8
Gross(human)errorscanbetreatedmathematically
Thecurrentina10resistorismeasuredas0.25A1%.Thepowerdissipated
bytheresistoris62512.5mW.
MultipleChoiceQuestions
PleasechooseandCICRLEthemostappropriatestatementinthefollowingquestions
1. Gross(human)errors
a. Areduetoequipmentfailures
b. Canbeminimizedbymakingmultiplemeasurements
c. Cannotbetreatedmathematically
d. Donotaffecttheaccuracyofthemeasurement
2. Resolutionis
a. Anindicatorofhowclosethereadingtothetruevalue
b. Thesmallestincrementalquantitythatwecanidentify
c. Thedifferencebetweentheminimumandmaximumvaluesofthemeasurement
d. Thetotalerrorinthemeasurement
3. Systematicerrors
a. Cannotbetreatedmathematically
b. Canbeeliminatedbymakingmultiplemeasurements
c. Indicatetheaccuracyofthemeasurement
d. Areduetoenvironmentalfactorsupsettingtheuserandtheequipment

4. Accuracyofameasurementisanindicationof
a. Howfarthereadingisawayfromtheaveragevalue
b. Howmanydigitsweusetodisplaythedata
c. Howclosethereadingistotheconventionaltruevalue
d. Thesmallestincrementalquantitythatwecanidentify
5. Precisionis
a. Anindicatorofhowclosethereadingistothetruevalue
b. Thetotalerrorinthemeasurement
c. Anindicatorofhowclosethereadingistotheaveragevalue
d. Thesmallestincrementalquantitythatwecanidentify
6. Whatistheresultof1.264+10.5(usesignificantfiguresonly)
a. 12
b. 11.8
c. 11.7
d. 11.764
7. Mathematicaltreatmentoferrorsispossiblefor
a. Systematicandrandomerrors
b. Humanandsystematicerrors
c. Humanandrandomerrors
d. Errorsthataresmall
GeneralQuestions
1. Definethefollowingtermsshortly:
a. Randomerror
b. Instrumentalerror
c. Calibrationerror
d. Environmentalerror
e. Limitingerror
2. Adigitalvoltmeterhasthreerangesas0to1.999V,0to19.99V,and0to199.9V.Determine:
a. Theresolutioninvoltineachrange
b. Theuncertaintyinreadinginvoltsineachrange
c. Percentileerrorinmeasuring1.5Vineachrange
3. Aresistorismeasuredbythevoltmeterammetermethod.Thevoltagereadingis123.4Vonthe
250V scale and the ammeter reading is 283.5 mA on the 500mA scale. Both meters are
guaranteedtobeaccuratewithin1%offullscalereading.Calculate
a. Theindicatedvalueoftheresistance

b. Theexpectederrorintheresistance
c. Thelimitswithinwhichyouguaranteetheresult
4. Fourcapacitorsareplacedinparallel.Thevaluesare(inF)47.23,2.35,18.026and0.428,with
anuncertaintyofonedigitinthelastplace.Findthetotalcapacitorandexpresstheresultusing
significantfiguresonly.Alsoproveyourresultusinguncertaintyanalysis.
5. TworesistorshavevaluesR1=472%andR2=825%Calculate
a. Themagnitudeoferrorineachresistor
b. Thelimitingerrorinohmsandinpercentwhentheresistorsareconnectedinseries
c. Thevalueoftheequivalentresistorandexpectederrorinpercentwhentheresistorsare
connectedinparallel.
6. The potential of an electrical power source is measured 12.47 volts by a recently calibrated
digitalvoltmeter.Twoothervoltmetersareusedinthelabtomeasurethesamevoltagebysix
differentobserversinashortintervaloftimeandfollowingresults(involts)arerecorded:
Meter1:11.456,11.324,11,562,11.243,11.472,and11.376
Meter2:12.45,12.34,12.67,12.76,12.21,and12.54
a. Determinetheresolutionofeachmeterinvolt.Whichonehasabetterresolution?
b. Determine the accuracy and precision of each meter. How much is the bias in each
meter?Whichoneismoreprecise?Whichoneismoreaccurate?
7. Thefollowingvalueswereobtainedfromthemeasurementsforaresistorinohms:220.2,119.5,
221.1,119.9,220.0,220.5,119.8,220.1,220.4,and119.8.Calculate
a. Thearithmeticmean
b. Theaveragedeviation
c. Thestandarddeviation
d. Theprobableerroroftheaverageofthetenreadings.
8. A metallic resistance thermometer has a linear variation of temperature with resistance as
T =
R
1) + T0 .ThetemperatureatR0=5k1%isT0=25C0.1C,whileataTthe
R0
resistanceRisfoundtobeR=6k1%.0=0.004/C.
a. Calculatethestaticsensitivity T
R atR0ofthethermometer.
b. CalculatethenominalvalueofT.
c. ShowthatthelimitingerrorTminTisgivenby: Tm = T0 + 1 R [ R 0 + R ]
0 R0 R0
R
d. CalculatethelimitingerroranduncertaintyinT.

9. A digital thermometer is used to measure the boiling water whose temperature is 96.2C. The
measurement is repeated 5 times and following readings are obtained: 95.9, 96.2, 96.5, 95.8,
96.1.Determinethepercentileaccuracy,theprecisionandthebiasofthethermometer.
10. ThefollowingvalueswereobtainedfromthemeasurementsforthelinevoltageinJeddah:125.2,
125.5,126.1,126.2,126.0,125.8,125.7,126.1,126.3,and125.6.Writedowntheformulasand
calculate
a. Thearithmeticmean
b. Thestandarddeviationandtheprobableerroroftheaverageofthetenreadings.
11. The boiling temperature of
water is measured 15 times
using two thermometers A
and B, and the readings
95.9
presented in the graph are

obtained.
Conventional
value
the
for
96.2
96.5
96.0
Thermometer A
96.3
96.6
Thermometer B
Figureproblem11.
boiling
temperatureofwateris96.2C.
a. Whichthermometer(AorB)ismoreprecise,why?
b. CalculatethepercentageaccuracyandbiasofthermometerA.
12. Whatistheadditionof12.5and1.364witheachhavingthelastdigitdoubtful?
13. Fortheelectroniccountershowthattheuncertaintyintheperiodmeasurementcanbereduced
byafactorof
1
1
iftheaverageofNtimeperiodsistaken.Hint: TAV =
(T1 + T2 + + TN )
N
N
TheTIsarestatisticallyindependent, Ti = T T ,i
14. Whatisthesystematicerror,fromwhereitcomesandhowitcanbeeliminated?
15. Threeresistorsareinseries.Thevaluesare(ink)47.23,2.205,and180.2,withanuncertainty
ofonedigitinthelastplace.Findthetotalresistorandexpresstheresultusingsignificantfigures
only.
16. The potential of an electrical power source is measured 124.7 volts by a recently calibrated
digital voltmeter. A voltmeter in the lab is used to measure the same voltage by six different
observersinashortintervaloftimeandfollowing results(involts)arerecorded:124.5,123.4,
126.7, 127.6, 122.1, and 125.4. For the meter in the lab, determine the resolution in volt, the
accuracy,theprecision,andthebias?
17. TworesistorshavevaluesR1=565%andR2=1202%Calculate
18. Themagnitudeoferrorineachresistor
19. Thelimitingerrorinohmsandinpercentwhentheresistorsareconnectedinseries.

20. The value of the equivalent resistor and expected error in percent when the resistors are
connectedinparallel.
21. Thereare1500chickensinapoultryfarm.15chickensarerandomlyselectedandweighted.The
averagevalueis950gramsandthestandarddeviationis60grams.
22. Howmuchistheerrorexpectedintheaveragevalue?
23. Howmanychickenswewillhaveweighingbetween890gramsand1010grams?
24. Howmanychickensmustbeweightedtoreducetheerrorintheaveragevaluedownto5grams?
25. Whatisthesystematicerror,fromwhereitcomesandhowitcanbeeliminated?
26. Threeresistorsareconnectedinseries.Thevalues are(ink)1.205,39.24and150.3,withan
uncertainty of one digit in the last place. Find the total resistor and express the result using
significantfiguresonly.
27. The potential of a lithiumion battery is measured 3.72 volts by a recently calibrated digital
voltmeter.Avoltmeterinthelabisusedtomeasurethesamevoltagebysixdifferentobservers
in a short interval of time and following results (in volts) are recorded: 3.69, 3.72, 3.75, 3.67,
3.70, and 3.73. For the meter in the lab, determine the resolution in volt, the accuracy, the
precision,andthebias?
28. A5mVsignalismeasuredwithametertentimesresultinginthefollowingsequenceofreadings:
5mV,6mV,9mV,8mV,4mV,7mV,5mV,7mV,8mV,11mV ?
a. Whatistheaveragemeasuredvalue?
b. Whatisthepercentileaccuracyofthemeter?
c. Whatistheprecisionofthemeter?
d. Whatisthebias(systematicerror)ofthemeter?
29. Ameterisratedat8bitsandhasafullscalerangeof5V.Whatisthemeasurementresolution
ofthismeter?
30. Asignalistomeasuredwitharesolutionof0.5V.Howmanybitsofresolutionarerequiredby
ameterhavinga1Vfullscalerange?
Measurement of Electrical Quantities / 141
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICALQUANTITIES
PRINCIPLESOFMEASUREMENTS
MOVINGCOILINMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
MCBASEDMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
MCinAnalogElectricalMeasuringInstruments
BasicDCAmmeter(Ampermeter),MultiRangeAmmeters
ABasicDCVoltmeter,MultiRangeVoltmeters
OhmandVOMMeters
LOADINGERRORS
InstrumentLoading,LoadingErrorsinAmmetersandVoltmeters
ACVOLTMETERS
AverageandRMSValues,TheFullWaveRectifier,FormFactorandWaveformErrors
ClampOnMeters,TrueRMSMeters
ELECTRONICCOUNTERS
OscilloscopeVersusElectronicCountersandDigitalVoltmeters
TimeandFrequencyMeasurements
DevicesCommonlyUsedinElectronicMeasuringInstruments
TheCounterinFrequency,TimePeriodandTimeIntervalMode
ErrorsinMeasurementsUsingCounters
MeasurementofRotativeSpeed
THEDIGITALVOLTMETER(DVM)
Use,AdvantagesandOperation
IntegratingTypeAnalogtoDigitalConverters
SuccessiveApproximationTypeDVM
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICITY
UtilizationofElectricalEnergy
MeasuringElectricPower
ElectricityMeasuringDevices
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1. Illustrateprinciplesofvoltageandcurrentmeasurements.
2. Discussprinciplesofmovingcoilinstruments.
3. Describethegalvanometeranditsuseasameasuringinstrument.
4. DescribetheoperationofMCbasedammetersandvoltmeters.
5. DeviseMCbasedmultirangeammetersandvoltmeters.
6. DemonstratemeasurementofresistorsanddesignofMCbasedohmmetersandVOMmeters.
7. Discusstheeffectofinstrumentloading.
8. Calculateerrorsintroducedbyloadingerrorsinammetersandvoltmeters.
9. ExplainthedefiningfeaturesofACandDCvoltages.
10. CalculatetheRMSandaveragevaluesofACwaveforms.
11. DiscussmeansofobtainingDCequivalentsofACwaveforms
12. DeterminetheformfactorsofACwaveformsandcalculatethewaveformerrors.
13. Discusstheoperationalprinciplesanduseofclamponmeters.
14. DiscusstheneedfortrueRMSmetersandidentifywaysofrealizingthetrueRMSmeasures.
15. Compare and contrast oscilloscopes, electronic counters and digital voltmeters as measuring
instruments.
16. Illustrateprinciplesoftimeandfrequencymeasurements.
17. Discussdevicesthatarecommonlyusedinelectronicmeasuringinstruments
18. Explainoperationofcountersinfrequency,timeperiodandtimeintervalmodes.
19. Calculateerrorsinmeasurementsusingcounters.
20. Expresstheprinciplesmeasurementofrotativespeed.
21. Expresstheuse,advantagesandoperationofthedigitalvoltmeter(DVM).
22. Explain the principles of operation of integrating and successive approximation type analog to
digitalconvertersandtheirapplicationsindigitalvoltmeters.
23. Discussutilizationofelectricalenergyandmeasurementofelectricpower.
24. Compareandcontrastvariouselectricitymeasuringdevices.
PRINCIPLESOFMEASUREMENTS
Electrical voltage and current are two important quantities in an electrical network. The voltage is
the effort variable without which no current is available. It is measured across an electrical circuit
elementorbranchofacircuit.Thedevicethatmeasuresthevoltageisthevoltmeter.Thecurrentis
the flow variable that represents net motion of the charged particles (electrons in solids, ions in a
liquid) in a given direction. The product of the two yields the instantaneous electrical power. The
ratioofthevoltagetothecurrentistheimpedance.
The current is measured by an ammeter (also called an ampermeter). Ammeters are
connected in series with the load to measure the current in the load. Eventually, the ammeters
requirebreakingthecurrentlooptoplaceitintothecircuit.
RT
Thevoltmeterconnectionisrathereasysinceitisconnected
A
+
IL
VT
V
RL
VL
without disturbing the circuit layout. Therefore, most

electrical measurements require determination of the
voltage rather than the current due the ease of
Figure4.1Connectionsforanammeter
andavoltmeter
measurement.Connectionsofammetersandvoltmetersare
illustratedinFigure4.1.
The current generates a magnetic field around the current carrying conductor. It is also
possibletocheckoutthesizeofthecurrentbysensingthemagneticfieldstrength.Thisiscarriedout
by clampon type ammeters that will be shown later in the chapter. The electrical resistance of a
circuitcomponentismeasuredusinganohmmeterthatappliesavoltageacrossanddeterminesthe
currentpassingthroughthecomponent.
Voltmeters and ammeters display the
resultsasdeflectionsofdialsoncalibratedscreens
or numerical values on alphanumeric displays as
illustratedinFigure4.2.Bothtypesareconnected
to the circuit via sensing leads and indicate the
voltage. However, their internal operations and
Figure4.2 Analoganddigitalvoltmeters
user interfaces are different. The first type forms

theanalogmetersthatwillbediscussedfirstlyinthischapter.Thesecondcategorywillbediscussed
laterinthechapterunderthetitleofdigitalvoltmeters.
MOVINGCOILINMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
Magnetic field generated by a
current carrying conductor and
force exerted on such a conductor
asitisinsertedinamagneticfield
were discussed in Chapter 2 and
illustratedbyFigures2.42.8.The
Figure4.3 Forceexertedonacurrentcarryingconductorinamagneticfield
magnitude of the force on the

conductordependsonthemagnitudeofthecurrentwhichitcarries.Theforceisamaximumwhen
the current flows perpendicular to the field and it is zero when it flows parallel to the field as
illustratedindiagramsAandBrespectivelyinFigure4.3.
BalancingtheElectromagneticTorquebyaSpringTorque
Thecoilissuspendedinauniformmagnetic
Control
spring
torque
Spiral spring
Electromagnetic
torque
fieldandrotatesduetotheelectromagnetic
torqueTEM.Thistorqueisopposedbyspiral
controlsprings(Figure4.4)mountedoneach
endofthecoil.Thetorqueputforthonthe
Figure4.4Compensatingelectromagnetictorquebythe
torqueofcontrolsprings
controlspringisTSP=k whereistheangle
ofrotation(degrees)andkisspringconstant
(Nm/degree).Atequilibrium(atbalance)
TEM=TSPyieldingNBIA=k
Theequationcanberearrangedfor,
NAB
I = SI
k
whereSisthesensitivity
S=
NAB deg ree
I k Amp

whichisconstantforaspecificequipmentprovidedthatBisconstant.Inthisrespect,themovingcoil
instrument can be considered as a transducer that converts the electrical current to angular
displacement.Thelinearrelationbetween andIindicatethatwehavealinear(uniform)scaleas
showninFigure4.5.
Input
I
Moving Coil
instrument
Output
Linear
Constant
I
Uniform scale
Uniform scale
Figure4.5 Modelofamovingcoilinstrument
Examples4.1
Amovingcoilhasfollowingparameters:AreaA=2cm2,N=90turns,B=0.2Tesla,coilresistance=50
,currentI=1mA.Calculate:
a.
Powerdissipatedbythecoil;
P=I2xRm=50W.
b.
Theelectromagnetictorqueestablished;
TEM=NBAI=90x0.2x2x104x103=3.6x106Nm
c.
Assumethattheelectromagnetictorqueofthecoiliscompensatedbyaspringtorqueand
thespringconstantk=3.6x108Nm/degrees.Findtheangleofdeflectionofthecoilat
equilibrium.
=TEM/k=100
Example4.2
Amovingcoilinstrumenthasthefollowingdata:#ofturnsofthecoil=100,widthofthecoil=2cm,
lengthofthecoil=3cm,fluxdensityintheairgap=0.1Wb/m2(Tesla).Calculatethedeflection
torquewhencarryingacurrentof10mA.Alsocalculatethedeflection(angle)ifthecontrolspring
constantis20x107Nm/degree.
A=6cm2andTEM=60x106Nm
=TEM/k=30
TheDArsonvalMeterMovement
A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) meter that
consistsofamovingcoilsuspendedbetweenthepolesof
a horseshoe type permanent magnet is called the
DArsonval meter as shown in Figure 4.6. It is an analog
Figure4.6ThebasicPMMCmeter

electromechanicaltransducerthatproducesarotarydeflectionofsometypeofpointerinresponse
toelectriccurrentflowingthroughits coil.Shoepolesarecurvedtohaveauniformmagneticfield
through the coil. The coil is suspended between to pivots and can rotate easily. Iron core and
permanentmagnetarefixed.Coilaxesandpointeristhemovingparts.Theprincipleofoperationis
similartothegeneralmovingcoilinstrumentexplainedabove.Therearemechanicalstopsatboth
ends to limit the movement of the pointer beyond the scale. The amount of the DC current that
scale
pointer
causesmaximumallowabledeflectiononthescreeniscalledthefullscale
deflection current IFSD and it is specified for all meters by the
manufacturer.
observer
Themovingcoilinstrumentprovidesaunidirectionalmovementof
Figure4.7TheParallax
thepointerasthecoilmovesagainstthecontrolsprings.Itcanbeusedto
error
displayanyelectricalvariablethatcanbeconvertedtoaDCcurrentwithin
the range of IFSD. The screen is calibrated in a curvilinear fashion it has a mirrorbacked scale to
identifythepositionofthepointer.Thereadingmustbedoneunderreasonablelightingconditions
andjustabovethepointer.Otherwise,therewillbeparallaxerrorsinthereadingasshowninFigure
4.7.Underthebestmeasurementconditions,thereadingcanbeinterpretedbytheuserwithin
small(minor)scaledivision.
TheGalvanometer
Thegalvanometerisamovingcoilinstrumentinwhichpositionofthepointercanbebiasedsothatit
staysinthemiddleofthescaletoindicatezerocurrentasshowninFigure4.8.Itcandeflectinboth
directionstoshowthenegativeandpositivevalues.Itiscommonlyusedinbridgemeasurements
wherezeroing(balancingnull)ofthedisplayisimportantforaveryaccuratemeasurementofthe
0
IFSD
0
Basic Moving Coil instrument
Galvanometer type instrument
Figure4.8Basicmovingcoilandgalvanometertypedisplays
variable.Itisalsousedinmechanicalrecordersinwhichapenassemblyisattachedtothetipofthe
pointeranditmarksonthepaperpassingunderneath.

NeitherthestandardmovingcoilinstrumentnorthegalvanometercanbeusedforAC
measurementdirectlysincetheACcurrentproducespositivedeflectionwiththepositivealternate
andnegativedeflectionwiththenegativealternate.Thus,astablepositiononthescalecantbe
obtainedtoindicatethemagnitudeofthecurrent.
MCBASEDMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
MCinAnalogElectricalMeasuringInstruments
Figure 4.9 shows another simplified illustration of a PMMC meter.
The standard MC instrument indicates positive DC currents (IMC) as
deflectiononthescale.Thegalvanometerdisplaysbothpositiveand
negative currents. The moving coil is usually made up of a very thin
wire. The maximum current that gives fullscale deflection IFSD is in
the order of 0.1 to 10 mA and coil
IFSD
RMC
+
resistance RMC 10 to 1000 . The

maximum deflection angle is about Figure4.9Asimplifiedviewofthe
VMC
100. The current through the moving
Figure4.10ModelofMC
basedinstrument
PMMCmeter
coilIMCislimitedbytheIFSD.AvoltagedropVMC=IMCRMCoccursacross
the coil. The moving coil can represented by the fullscale deflection
currentIFSDandcoilresistanceRMCasshowninFigure4.10.
BasicDCAmmeter(Ampermeter)
The current capacity of the meter can be expended by adding a resistor in
RMC
IFSD
VMC
parallel with the meter coil as shown in Figure 4.11. The input current is
RSH
shared between the coil resistance RMC and the parallel resistance that is
calledtheshuntRSH.AsthemaximuminputcurrentITflowsin,thecoiltakes
IFSDandremaining(ITIFSD)istakenbytheshuntresistor.Voltagedeveloped
IT
(IT - IFSD)
RM
Figure4.11DCAmmeter
acrossthemeteris
VMC = I FSDRMC = (IT I FSD )RSH
ThemeterresistanceRMseenbetweentheinputterminalsis
RM =
Example4.3
VMC
= RMC // RSH
IT

Calculate the multiplying power of a shunt of 20 Figure 4. 11 0 resistance used with a
galvanometer of 1000 resistance. Determine the value of shunt resistance to give a multiplying
factorof50.
Ifsdx1000=(ITIfsd)x200yieldingIT=6xIfsd.
ForIT=50xIfsd,1000xIfsd=(501)xIfsdxRshyieldingRsh=1000/49=20.41
MultiRangeAmmeters
Switch
poles
The parallel resistance (shunt) can be changed to suit

differentfullscalecurrentrequirementsasindicatedinthe
previousexample. Thefunction canbeaccommodatedby
Rotary
switch
arm
usingasetofresistorsandselectingthemonebyone.The
switch however must be of makebeforebreak type
Figure4.12Makebeforebreaktype
switch
(Figure4.12)thatmakesthecontactwiththenewposition
before it breaks the old connection. This eliminates the
chanceofforcingthefullinputcurrentthroughthemovingcoilduringchangingthepositionofthe
switch.
Example4.4
DesignamultirangeDCammeterusingthebasicmovementwithaninternalresistanceRMC=50
andfullscaledeflection currentIMC=IFSD=1mA. Therangesrequired010 mA,050mA, 0100mA
and0500mAasillustratedinFigure4.13.VMC=IMCxRMC=50mV
Forrange1(010mA)RSH1=50/9=5.56
Forrange3(0100mA)RSH3=50/99=0.505
IT
IFSD
RMC
RSH1
Rotary
selector
switch
RSH2
0 500 mA
0 100 mA
RSH3
0 50 mA
RSH4
0 10 mA
0
0
500 mA
100 mA
50 mA
10 mA
Multi-range ammeter scale
Multi-range ammeter circuit

Figure4.13Amultirangeammetercircuitandscaleforexample4.4

Example4.5
DesignamultirangeDCammeterusingthebasicmovementwithaninternalresistanceRMC=50
andfullscaledeflectioncurrentIMC=IFSD=10mA.Therangesrequired00.1A,01A,010Aand0
100A.
VMC=IMCxRMC=500mV
Forrange1(00.1A)RSH1=500/90=5.56
Forrange2(01A)RSH2=0.5/0.99=0.505
Forrange3(010A)RSH3=0.5/9.99=0.05
Forrange4(0100A)RSH4=0.5/99.99=0.005
ABasicDCVoltmeter
Themovingcoilcanbeusedasavoltmeterbyaddingaseries
RS IFSD
+
VS
RMC
+
VMC
resistance RS as illustrated in Figure 4.14. The input voltage is
VM
+
RM
dividedbetweenthecoilresistanceRMCandRS.Currentpassing
through both resistors is IMC which is limited by the fullscale
deflectioncurrentIFSDofthecoil.Thefullscaleinputvoltage
VM=IFSD(RS+RMC)
Figure4.14BasicDCvoltmeter
Theinputimpedanceseenis:RM=RS+RMC
However,withRS>>RMC,RMisapproximatelyequaltoRSandVMIFSDRS.
Example4.6
Thecoilofamovingcoilvoltmeteris4cmlongand3cmwideandhas100turnsonit.Thecontrol
springexertsatorqueof2.4x104Nmwhenthedeflectionis100divisionsonthefullscale.Iftheflux
densityofthemagneticfiledintheairgapis0.1Wb/m2,estimatetheresistancethatmustbeputin
series with the coil to give one volt per division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil may be
neglected.
TEM=TSP2.4x104=100x0.1x12x104xIFSD IFSD=20mA.Therefore,currentperdivisionis0.2mA.
AssumingthatRMCisnegligiblysmallcomparedtoRS:RS=5k

Example4.7
Amovingcoilinstrumentgivesfullscaledeflectionof10mAwhenthepotentialdifferenceacrossits
terminalsis100mV.Calculate:
Theshuntresistanceforafullscalecorrespondingto100mA;
RSH=100/90=1.11
Theresistanceforfullscalereadingwith1000V;
RMC=100/10=10;RS+RMC=(1000/10)k=100kyieldingRS=100k(RMCisnegligible)
Thepowerdissipatedbythecoilandbytheexternalresistanceineachcase.
Powerdissipatedbythecoil,PC=IM2xRMC=1mW;
PSH=VM2/RSH=9mW
PS=VM2/RS=10W.
Voltage to be measured
IFSD
RS2
RS4
RMC
RS3
Rotary
selector
switch
RS1
0 1000 V
0 100 V
RS2
0 50 V
RS1
0 10 V
Multi-range voltmeter circuit

Parallel connection
RS3
RS4
RMC
1
2
VM
3
4
0 1000 V
Multi-range voltmeter circuit

Series connection
Figure4.15Parallelandseriesresistanceconnectionsforamultirangevoltmeter
MultiRangeVoltmeters
The series resistance can be changed to suit different fullscale voltage requirements as shown in
Switch
poles
Figure4.15.Resistorsareorganizedeitherinparallelfashion
(conventional connection) as in the case of ammeter and
selecting them one by one or all connected in series like a
Rotary
switch
arm
voltage divider (modified connection). The switch however

must be of breakbeforemake type (Figure 4.16) that
Figure4.16Breakbeforemaketype
switch
breaks the contact with the old position before it makes it

with the new position. This eliminates the chance of forcing a current larger than the fullscale
currentthroughthemovingcoilduringchangingthepositionoftheswitch.
Theresistorsarealsocalledthemultiplierresistors.Resistanceseenbytheinputterminalsof
the device RM = VM/IFSD and written on the face of the scale as /V. The contribution of the coil
resistance RMC can be ignored if it is too small compared to RM. Following examples illustrate the
selectionofmultiplierresistors.
Example4.8
AmultirangeDCvoltmeterisdesignedusingamovingcoilwithfullscaledeflectioncurrent10mA
and coil resistance 50 . Ranges available: 0 10V, 0 50V, 0 100V, 0 1000V. Determine the
multiplierresistorsandinputresistanceofthemeterusing:
Conventionalconnection
Modifiedconnection
Inconventionalconnection,resistorsareselectedonebyonetosatisfy,
VM=IFSD(RMC+RS)=VMC+IFSDRSwhereVMisthefullscalevoltageoftheselectedrange.VMC=(10
mA)(50)=0.5V.Hence,RS=(VM0.5)/10k.Meterresistanceseenbetweentheinputterminalsis
RM=RMC+RS
Range1(010V):RS1=9.5/10=0.95k=950;RM1=950+50=1000
Range2(050V):RS2=49.5/10=4.95k;RM2=4.95k+0.05k=5k
Range3(0100V):RS3=99.5/10=9.95k;RM3=9.95k+0.05k=10k
Range4(01000V):RS4=999.5/10=99.95k;RM4=99.95k+0.05k=100k
Forthealternativemodifiedarrangement,theresistorforthelowestrangeisdeterminedandothers
calculatedasaddedtothetotalofthepreviousvalue.Thetotalresistanceseenfromtheinputinall
rangeswillbethesameasthoseinthepreviouscase.Resistorsbetweenstagescanbecomputedas
RSn=RMnRM(n1)
Range1(010V):RM1=1000;RS1=100050=950
Range2(050V):RM2=5k;RS2=5k1k=4k;
Range3(0100V):RM3=10k;RS3==10k5k=5k;
Range4(01000V):RM4=100k;RS4=100k10k=90k;

Example4.9
AbasicDArsonvalmetermovementwithaninternalresistanceRMC=100,fullscalecurrentIFSD=1
mA,istobeconvertedintoamultirangeDCvoltmeterwithranges010V,050V,0250Vand0500
V.Findthevaluesofmultiplierresistorsusingthepotentialdividerarrangement.
FourresistorsRS1RS4areaddedinserieswithRMC.
Inthefirstrange(010V)onlyRS1isusedandthemaximumvoltagedroponRS1is100.1=9.9
V.Thus,RS1=9.9V/1mA=9.9k
Inthe2ndrange(050V)RS1+RS2isusedandthemaximumvoltagedroponRS2is5010=40V.
Thus,RS2=40V/1mA=40k
Inthe3rdrange(0250V)RS1+RS2+RS3isusedandthemaximumvoltagedroponRS3is25050=
200V.Thus,RS3=200V/1mA=200k
In the 4th range (0500 V) RS1+RS2+RS3+RS4 is used and the maximum voltage drop on RS4 is
500250=250V.Thus,RS4=250V/1mA=250k
OhmandVOMMeters
TheAnalogOhmmeter
Analogohmmetercanbedesignedsimplybyaddingabatteryandavariableresistorinserieswith
the moving coil instrument as shown in Figure 4.17. The unknown resistance is connected to the
terminalsofthedevicetocompletetheelectricalcircuit.Theoutputterminalsareshortedtogether
with the leads (wires) used in connecting the external resistor. The variable resistance is adjusted
Zero
adjust
Internal
battery
MC meter
RMC
10
100
Basic series ohmmeter circuit
0
Series ohmmeter scale
Figure4.17 Circuitandscaleofabasicohmmeter
until the fullscale deflection current passes through the coil. This is marked as the 0 resistance.
When the leads are separated from each other, no current flows indicating an opencircuit which
meansinfiniteresistance.Hence,thescaleisnonlinearwithresistanceincreasesontheright
side(oppositetoammeter).Multirangeohmmeterscanbeobtainedbycombiningthecircuitsofa
seriesohmmeterandamultirangeammeter.

TheVOMMeter
Thefunctionsofammeter,voltmeterandohmmetercanbecombinedinamultipurposemetercalled
a VOM (voltohmmilliampere) meter, or shortly the VOM. It has several multiple scales, usually
colorcoded in some way to make it easier to identify and read. Generally, it has a single
multipurposeswitchtoselectthefunctionandtherange.
Example4.10
Amovingcoilhas100turns,5cm2coilarea,andairgapmagneticfluxdensityof0.1Tesla(Wb/m2).
The control spring exerts a torque of 5x106 Nm at the fullscale deflection of 90. The potential
differenceacrossthecoilterminalsatthefullscaledeflectionis100mV.Usingtheabovemovement,
design a multirange DC ammeter with ranges 050 mA, 01 A and multirange DC voltmeter with
ranges010Vand0200V.
IFSD=TSP/NBA=1mA,thereforeRMC=VMC/IFSD=100
Forammeterranges:RSH1=100mV/(501)mA=2.04andRSH2=100/999=0.1
Forvoltmeterranges:RS1=(100.1)V/1mA=9.9kandRS2=199.9k
LOADINGERRORS
InstrumentLoading
Allmeasuringinstrumentsdrawenergyfromthesourceofmeasurement.Thisiscalledtheloading
effectoftheinstrument.Hence,allmeasurementsincludeerrorsduetoinstrumentloading.Ifthe
energy taken by the instrument is negligibly small compared to the energy exists in the source (of
courseoftypemeasured),thenthemeasurementisassumedtobeclosetoperfect,andtheloading
errorisignored.
Ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance and no voltage across it. Ideal voltmeter has
infiniteinternal(meter)resistanceanddrawsnocurrentfromthecircuit.Thepracticalammetercan
be represented by an ideal ammeter with added series resistance that represent the meter
resistance.Similarly,thepracticalvoltmetercanberepresentedbyanidealvoltmeterinparallelwith
themeterresistance.ThesetwomodelsareillustratedinFigure4.18.
R M IM
A
+
VMC
0V
VM
VM
RM
I=0
Ideal
IM
RM
Practical voltmeter
Practical ammeter
Figure4.18Representationsofpracticalammetersandvoltmeters
LoadingErrorsinAmmeters
AnyelectricalcircuitcanbemodeledbyavoltagesourceVTandaseriesresistanceRT.Thecircuitis
completedwhentheloadresistanceRLisconnectedacrosstheoutputterminalsandaloadcurrent
RLflowsthroughtheload.Anammetercanbeplacedinserieswiththeloadtomeasurethiscurrent
as shown in Figure 4.19. Current in the circuit can be
RM
RT
calculatedas
A
+
IL
VT
RL
IL =
VT
RT + RL + RM
Inidealcondition,RM=0andthetruevalueofthecurrentis
Figure4.19Ammeterloading
I LT =
VT
RT + RL
The error is the difference between the measured value and the true value, and generally
expressedasthepercentileerrorwhichis:
% loading error =
measured value true value

x100
true value
Hence,theloadingerrorduetotheammetercanbefoundas:
VT
VT
100 RM
R + RL + RM RT + RL
x100 =
%loadingerrorforammeter= T
VT
RT + RL + RM
RT + RL
LoadingerrorcanbeignoredifRM<<(RT+RL)whichissatisfiedinmostapplications.

LoadingErrorsinVoltmeters
Involtagemeasurement,themeterisconnectedinparallel
RLeff
RT
withloadresistorasshowninFigure4.20.Thetruevalueof
thevoltageacrosstheresistoris(withoutthemeter)
VT
RL
RM
V
VLT =
VT RL
RT + RL
Figure4.20Voltmeterloading
As the meter is connected, RM becomes in parallel with RL

andeffectiveloadresistancebecomes
RLeff =
R L RM
R L + RM
RLeffRLifRM>>RL.Thevoltagemeasuredbythemeteris
RL RM
RL + RM
=
R R
RT + L M
RL + RM
VT
VL = VLind
% loading error =
VLind VLT
x100
VLT

Examples4.11
A150VDCvoltagesourceiscoupledtoa50kloadresistorthrougha100ksourceresistance.
Two voltmeters (A) and (B) are available for the measurement. VoltmeterA has a sensitivity 1000
/V,whilevoltmeterBhasasensitivity20000/V.Bothmetershave050Vrange.
Calculatereadingofeachvoltmeter.
Calculateerrorineachreadingexpressedinapercentageofthetruevalue.
VLT =
150
x50 = 50 V
(100 + 50)
InputresistanceofvoltmeterA=sensitivityxrange=(1000/V)x(50V)=50kandtheeffective
valueoftheloadresistanceis50//50=25k
VoltageindicatedbyvoltmeterA; VLA =
150 x 25
= 30 V
100 + 25

%ageloadingerror=
30 50
x100 = 40%
50
InputresistanceofvoltmeterB=(20000/V)x(50V)=1000kandtheeffectivevalueoftheload
resistanceis50//1000=48k
VoltageindicatedbyvoltmeterB; VLB =
%ageloadingerror=
150 x 48
= 48 .5 V
100 + 48
48 .5 50
x100 = 3%
50
Example4.12
A voltmeter has a resistance of 20 k/V is used to measure
20 k
20 k
thevoltageonthecircuitshownona010Vrange.Findthe
percentageloadingerror.
VTRUE=10x20/40=5V.WithRM=200k,theeffectiveload
10 V
Figureforexample4.12
resistance RLeff = (400/22) = 18.18 k. Therefore, VMEAS =

10x18.18/38.18=4.76V.
%loadingerrorcanbefoundas:%error=100x(4.765)/5=4.8%
Example4.13
Ageneratorproduces100voltsDCandhasaninternalresistance
of100kasshowninthefigure.Theoutputvoltageismeasured
100 k
using several voltage indicating devices. Calculate the output

voltageandthepercentageloadingerrorforeachofthefollowing
cases:
100 V
Anidealvoltmeter(Ri)Vo=100V,Error=0%
AdigitalvoltmeterwithRi=10M;Vo=100x10/10.1=99volts,%error=1%
Anoscilloscope(Ri=1M);Vo=100x1/1.1=90.9volts,%error=9.1%
Amovingcoiltypeanalogvoltmeterwith1k/Vin0100voltrange
Meterresistanceis100x1k=100k,yieldingVo=50volts,%error=50%

Example4.14
A DArsonval movement gives fullscale deflection of 1 mA
when a voltage of 50 mV is applied across its terminals.
10 k
1 k
Calculate the resistance that should be added in series with

this movement to convert it into a 0 100 V voltmeter. The
90 V
above 0 100 V voltmeter is used to measure the voltage

acrossthe10kresistorinthecircuitshown.Determinethe
percentageloadingerror.
MetercoilresistanceRM=50mV/1mA=50anditseffectcanbeignoredinfindingthe
seriesresistanceofthevoltmeter.Then,RS=100V/1mA=100k.
True value of the voltage on the 10 k resistance (without voltmeter loading) Vtrue=
(10/11)x90=81.82V
Withthevoltmeterconnected,10kresistancewillexperiencea100kmeterresistancein
parallel yielding 9.09 k at the output. The measured output voltage becomes: VM = 90x
(9.09/10.09)=81.08V.The%error=100x(81.0881.82)/81.82=0.9%
ACVOLTMETERS
The voltmeter based on the permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC or DArsonval) and digital
voltmeter that will be discussed later cannot be directly used to measure the alternating voltages.
Whenmeasuringthevalueofanalternatingcurrentsignalitisoftennecessarytoconvertthesignal
into a direct current signal of equivalent value (known as the root mean square, RMS value). This
process can be quite complex. Most low cost instrumentation and signal converters carry out this
conversion by rectifying and filtering the signal into an average value and applying a correction
factor.Hence,wecanclassifytheACvoltmetersintwobroadcategoriesastheaveragingandtrue
RMStypes.
AverageandRMSValues
The moving coil instrument reads the average of an AC waveform.
i(t)=Imsint
Theaverageofthecurrentwaveformi(t)showninFigure4.21is:
Time
Figure4.21Alternatingcurrent
(AC)waveform
I AV =
1
I m sin tdt = 0
T 0

whereTistheperiodand=2/T=radialfrequency(rad/sec).However,ifthiscurrentisappliedto
aresistorR,theinstantaneouspowerontheresistorp(t)=i2(t)R
TheaveragepowerovertheperiodTbecomes:
2
PAV =
R
I R
2
I m sin tdt = m
2
T0
Hence,theaveragepowerisequivalenttothepowerthatwouldbegeneratedbyaDCcurrentcalled
theeffectivecurrentthatis
1 T 2
I
i (t )dt = m = 0.707 I m
0
T
2
I eff = I RMS =
Duetosquaring,averaging(mean)andsquarerootingoperations,thisiscalledtheRMS.valueof
the current and IRMS is the true value of the current that we want to measure. The averaging time
mustbesufficientlylongtoallowfilteringatthelowestfrequenciesofoperationdesired. Hence, in
electricalterms,theACRMSvalueisequivalenttotheDCheatingvalueofaparticularwaveform
voltageorcurrent.Forexample,ifaresistiveheatingelementinanelectricfurnaceisratedat15kW
of heat at 220 V AC RMS, then we would get the same amount of heat if we applied 220 V of DC
insteadofAC.
If the voltage is applied to the resistor
vi(t)=Vmsint
Vm
vo(t)
VAV
through a diode as shown in Figure 4.22, the

negative half cycle is chopped off since the
Time
Time
diode can conduct current only in positive

direction. This is called the halfwave rectifier.
Theaveragevalueofthecurrentintheresistor
Figure4.22ACtoDCconversion
becomes:
T
VAV
1 2
V
= Vm sin tdt = m = 0.318Vm
T 0
TheFullWaveRectifier
The halfwave rectifier is used in some voltmeters, but the mostly adapted one uses the full wave
rectifiershowninFigure4.23.Here,abridgetypefullwaverectifierisshown.Forthe+halfcyclethe
currentfollowstherootABDC.ForthehalfcyclerootCBDAisused.Thecurrentthroughthemeter
resistorRmistheabsolutevalueoftheinputcurrentasshownintheinset.Thevoltagewaveformon

the meter resistance Rm has the same shape as the current. The average value of the voltage
becomes:
B
D2
D1
Im
Rm
+ +
D4
D3
D
+
Ii
+ alternate
+ Input -
- alternate
Figure4.23Bridgetypefullwaverectifier
VAV
2 2
2V
= Vm sin tdt = m = 0.636Vm
T 0
VAV is the DC component of the voltage and it is the value read by the moving coil instruments.
Hence, theinherentlymeasuredvalue(IM)is theaveragevalue, while thetruevalue istheRMS
value.Thevoltagereadingwillcontainreadingerror(unlessitiscorrected)as
%error = (
V
VRMS
Vindicated Vtrue
) 100% = ( Average
) 100% = 10%
Vtrue
VRMS
andtheindicatedvoltagewillbe10%lessthanthetruevalue.
FormFactorandWaveformErrors
ForSinusoidalWaveforms
The ratio of the true value to the measured value is called the form factor or safe factor (SF). For
sinusoidalsignalstheformfactorisSF=(VRMS/VAV).

InACvoltmeters,thereadingiscorrectedbyascalefactor=safefactor(SF)=1.11.Thiscanbedone
eitheratthecalculationoftheseriesresistanceorsettingthedivisionsofthescale.Eventually,the
erroriseliminatedas:
%error = (
1.11 VAverage VRMS

Vindicated Vtrue
) 100% = (
) 100% = 0%
Vtrue
VRMS

Thevalueofthecorrectionfactorappliedisonlycorrectiftheinputsignalissinusoidalandtheabove
formulaisofcourse true forsinusoidalsignalsonly.Thetrue RMSvalueisactuallyproportionalto
the squareroot of the average of the square of the curve, and not to the average of the absolute
valueofthecurve.Foranygivenwaveform,theratioofthesetwoaverageswillbeconstantand,as
most measurements are carried out on what are (nominally) sine waves, the correction factor
assumes this waveform; but any distortion or offsets will lead to errors. Hence, for other
(nonsinusoidal)waveforms,theerrormaybenonzeroindicatingerroneousreadings.
ForTriangularWaveform
v(t)
A triangular voltage waveform v(t) with amplitude Vm and period T is
T
Figure4.24Atriangular
waveform
shown in Figure 4.24. The negative portion is converted to positive after

the fullwave rectification. Due to the symmetry of the signal, interval
from0toT/4canbeusedforintegrationinfindingtheaverage(DC)and
RMSvalues.Inthisinterval,thesignalcanbeexpressedasv(t)=4Vm/T.
Thus,
V AV =
V
4 T 4 4Vm
dt = m = 0.5Vm
0
T
T
2
Thisistheinherentlymeasured(IM)value.Ametercorrectedforsinusoidalwaveformswillindicate
Vind=1.11x0.5Vm=0.555Vm
2
VRMS
TheRMSvaluecanbecomputedas:
V
4 T 4 16Vm
=
dt = m = 0.577Vm
2
0
T
T
3
Hence, the form factor for the triangular waveform is 1.155 and 1.11Vaverage VRMS .The percentile
measurementerror:

%error = (
1.11 VAverage VRMS

Vindicated Vtrue
0.555 0.577
) 100% = (
) 100% =
100% = 3.81%
Vtrue
VRMS
0.577
TheCorrectionFactor
A correction factor (CF) is used to multiply the reading indicated by the meter to correct the
measuredvalue.Thecorrectionfactormustbedeterminedforeveryspecificwaveformindividually
CF =
( SF ) waveform
( SF )sin usoidal
V
( RMS
V
( RMS
as:
VIM
VIM
) waveform
)sin usoidal
Thevoltageindicatedforthetriangularwaveformusingameteradjustedforasinusoidalwaveform
canbewrittenas:
Vind = SFx(VIM ) waveform = (
Eventually,
VRMS
) sin usoidal x(V AV ) waveform
V AV
(Vind )(CF ) = (SF )wave (VIM )wave = (VRMS )wave = Vtrue

%error =
Theerrorwithoutthecorrection:
1 CF
100 %
CF

Forthetriangularwaveshownintheaboveexample CF =
0.577
0.5 = 1.154 = 1.0396 yielding

0707
1.11
0.636
thepercentileerrorof3.81%,sameastheonefoundbefore.
Figure 4.25 shows a pictorial presentation of the scale calibrated for sinusoidal voltage
5.55
5
AC
readings
DC
readings
10
11.1
v(t)
v(t)=Vmsint
VIM
Time
AC
Voltage
Full-wave
Rectifier
Time
Unidirectional
DArsonval meter
(SF = 1.11)
Voltage
Figure4.25IllustrationofanACvoltmetercorrectedforsinusoidalsignals
VRMS

waveforms, model of the AC voltmeter based on the basic
Vm(t)
DArsonvalmeterwithsamplesofinputandoutputwaveforms.
10 V
Example4.15
t
0
A DArsonval (moving coil) movement based AC voltmeter is
calibrated to read correctly the RMS value of applied sinusoidal
-5 V
voltages.Themeterresistanceis10k/Vanditisusedin010
Waveformforexample4.15
Vrange.
FindVmmeasuredbythemeterandthepercentileloadingerror.
TruevalueofthevoltageVtrue=8x120/130=7.38V;Rm=100kleadingtoRL=100x120/220=54.5
k.ThereforeVm=8x54.5/64.5=6.76V.Percentileloadingerror=8.4%.
AdifferentperiodicwaveformisappliedandthewaveformVm(t)shownappearsacrossthemeter.
3
250
1 1
2
VRMS
= [ 100t 2 dt + 25dt =
0
1
9 ;VRMS=5.27V,
3
CalculateVRMSforthiswaveform;
Howmuchisthevoltageindicatedbythemeter(Vindicated)?
120 k
10 k
Vm
Vs =
8V
( AV )
3
1 1
= [ 10tdt + 5dt = 5V Therefore,Vind=1.11x5=
0
1
3
5.55V
Circuitforexample4.15
Find the waveform error in this measurement. %

waveformerror=100x(5.555.27)/5.27=5.3%.
V1(t)
50 V
Example4.16
-2
-1
t
V1(t)
-50 V
V2(t) = V1(t)
Full-wave
Rectifier
V2(t) =
V1(t)
DArsonval meter
(SF = 1.11)
Modelforexample4.16
50 V
The voltage waveform shown has a magnitude 50 V
-2 -1
-50 V
Waveformsforexample4.16
and it is applied to an AC voltmeter composed of a full

waverectifierandamovingcoil(DArsonval)meter.Itis

calibratedtomeasurevoltageswithsinusoidalwaveformscorrectly.
FindtheaverageandRMSvaluesofV1(t)
T
V1( AV ) =
1 2
1 1
25
[1 1] = 0
T V1 (t ) dt = 50tdt =
T 2
2 1
2
V1( RMS ) =
1 1
2500t 2 dt =
2 1
2500
50
[1 + 1] =
= 28.87
6
3
SketchthewaveformforV2(t)
FindtheaverageandRMSvaluesofV2(t).
Ans.TheRMSvalueofV2(t)isthesameasthatofV1(t)whichis28.87volts.Theaveragevaluecanbe
calculatedfromtheareaofthetriangleeasilyas50/2=25volts.
Findthevoltageindicatedbythemeter.Ans.25x1.11=27.75volts
Calculatetheerrorduetothewaveformandfindthecorrectionfactor.
The%waveformerror=100x[27.7528.87]/28.87=3.88%
Correctionfactor(CF)=(SF)wave/(SF)sine=(28.87/25)/1.11=1.04
Example4.17
Ageneratorwith500internalresistancehasasawtoothoutput
v(t)
Vm
voltageasshown.TheRMSvalueofthisoutputistobemeasured
t
0
2T
Signalforexample4.17
byamovingcoilinstrumentwhoseinternalresistanceis10k.The
instrumenthasafullwaverectifierandiscalibratedforsinusoidal
waveforms.Calculatetheerrorduetothewaveformandalsothe
loadingerror.
Theschematicdiagramillustratesthemeasurement
0.5 k
V(t)
Rin
Vin
m
problem.Foranidealvoltmeter,themeterresistanceRinmustbe
verylarge(Rin).Therefore,thetruevalueoftheoutputvoltage
vtrue(t)=v(t).TheinternalresistanceisgivenasRin=10kyielding
Circuitforexample4.17
vin(t)=(10/10.5)v(t).Hence,
% (loading ) error =
vin vtrue
vtrue
10
1
10
.
5
x100 =
x100 = 4.8%
1
Thevoltagemeasuredusingthismeteristheaverageofvin(t)whichis:
V AV =
10 1
x
10 .5 T
Vm
10 V m
.Thereadingindicatedbythemeteriscompensatedforthe
tdt =
x
10 .5 2
T
sinusoidalwaveformanditbecomes: Vind = 1.11x
5Vm
= 0.529Vm
10.5
ThetruevaluethatmustbemeasuredbythemeteristheRMSvaluewhichis:
2
V RMS
10 1 T Vm 2
10 Vm
=
t dt =
x
= 0.55Vm
2
0
10.5 T
10.5
T
3
Hence,thewaveformerroris100x(0.5290.55)/0.55=3.82%
Ifthemeterwouldbeideal(Rin ),then Vtrue = V RMS =
Vm
3
= 0.577V m Having0.529Vmindicated
bythemeter,thetotalmeasurementerror(loading+waveform)becomes100x(0.5290.577)/0.577
=8.32%
ClampOnMeters
ClamponmetersareusedformeasuringACcircuitcurrentsinanoninvasivemannerwhichavoids
havingtobreakthecircuitbeingmeasured.Themeterclampsontoacurrentcarryingconductorand
the output reading is obtained by
transformer action. Figure 4.26 illustrates
the principle of operation, where the
clampon jaws of the instrument act as a
transformer core and the currentcarrying
conductor acts as a primary winding.
Current induced in the secondary winding
is rectified and applied to a movingcoil
meter. Although it is a very convenient
instrumenttouse,theclamponmeterhas
low, sensitivity and the minimum current
Figure4.26 Aclamponmeter inpractice

measurableisusuallyabout1amp.
TrueRMSMeters
The rectification, averaging and form
factor correction approach produces
Vm
VRMS
adequate results in most cases. However,

a correct conversion or the measurement
of non sine wave values, requires a more
Time
complexandcostlyconverter,knownasa
TrueRMSconverter.Thecharacteristicsof
Figure4.27 Acomplexwaveformwithhighcrestfactor
these meters are defined in terms of the

input range, bandwidth (frequency range in which the device operates successfully), accuracy and
crestfactor.Thecrestfactorisameasurementofawaveform,calculatedfromthepeakamplitudeof
Measuring
Thermocouple
AC input
Voltage
Input
Ranging
AC
Amplifier
DC
Amplifier
Indicating
Meter
Balancing
Thermocouple
Feedback
Current
Figure4.28AtrueRMStypeACvoltmeterthatusesthethermalconverterprinciple.
the waveform divided by the RMS value of the waveform as illustrated in Figure 4.27. The power
dissipatedbyaresistorRthatisexposedtothesignalis
ThisprinciplewasexploitedinearlythermalconvertersasillustratedinFigure4.28.TheAC
signalwouldbeappliedtoasmallheatingelementwhichwastwinnedwithathermocouplewhich
couldbeusedinaDCmeasuringcircuit.Thetechniqueisnotparticularlyprecisebutitwillmeasure
any waveform at any frequency. Thermal converters have become quite rare, but as they are
inherentlysimpleandcheaptheyarestillusedbyradiohamsandhobbyists,whomayremovethe
thermal element of an old unreliable instrument and incorporate it into a modern design of their
ownconstruction.
A second approach is to use analog electronic converters as illustrated in Figure 4.29. Analog
electroniccircuitsmayuse:
an analog multiplier in a specific configuration which multiplies the input signal by itself
(squaresit),averagestheresultwithacapacitor,andthencalculatesthesquarerootofthe
value(viaamultiplier/squarercircuitinthefeedbackloopofanoperationalamplifier),or
afullwaveprecisionrectifiercircuittocreatetheabsolutevalueoftheinputsignal,whichis
fed into a operational amplifier arranged to give an exponential transfer function, then
Figure4.29 AnalogRMStoDCconverter
doubledinvoltageandfedtoalogamplifierasameansofderivingthesquarelawtransfer
function, before timeaveraging and calculating the square root of the voltage, similar to
above,
or a fieldeffect transistor may be used to directly create the squarelaw transfer function,
beforetimeaveraging.
Unlike thermal converters they are subject to bandwidth limitations which makes them
unsuitable for most RF work. The circuitry before time averaging is particularly crucial for high
frequency performance. The slew rate limitation of the operational amplifier used to create the
absolutevalue(especiallyatlowinputsignallevels)tendstomakethesecondmethodthepoorestat
highfrequencies,whiletheFETmethodcanworkclosetoVHF.Specialisttechniquesarerequiredto
produce sufficiently accurate integrated circuits for complex analog calculations, and very often
metersequippedwithsuchcircuitsofferTrueRMSconversionasanoptionalextrawithasignificant
priceincrease.

ThethirdapproachistouseDigitalRMSconverters.DigitalandPCbasedoscilloscopeshavethe
waveform being digitized so that the correct RMS value may be calculated directly. Obviously the
precision and the bandwidth of the conversion is entirely dependent on the analog to digital
conversion. In most cases, true RMS measurements are made on repetitive waveforms, and under
such conditions digital oscilloscopes (and a few sophisticated sampling multimeters) are able to
achieve very high bandwidths as they sample at a fraction of the signal frequency to obtain a
stroboscopiceffect(thatwillbeexplainedlaterinsectioncoveringthedigitalstorageoscilloscope).
http://www.analog.com/static/importedfiles/tutorials/MT081.pdf
ELECTRONICCOUNTERS
OscilloscopeVersusElectronicCountersandDigitalVoltmeters
CommonalitiesBetweenElectronicCountersandDigitalVoltmeters
Electronic countersareextensivelyusedformeasuringthefrequency (numberofoccurrenceofan
eventinagiventime),timeperiodofaneventandtimeintervalbetweentwoevents.Mostdigital
voltmetersgenerateatimeintervalrelatedtotheleveloftheinputvoltagefirst.Then,theymeasure
thatintervalanddisplayit.Theyareeasytouseanddisplaythereadingsdirectlyinnumericalforms.
Therefore,theelectroniccircuitriesinbothsystemshavemanycomponentsincommonandtheywill
bediscussedtogetherinthischapter.
LimitationsoftheOscilloscopeasaMeasuringInstrument
The oscilloscope is a versatile and useful device to observe waveforms. Yet, it has limitations as a
measuringinstrumentas:
The input impedance is 1 M in all measurement ranges which may be small and cause
instrumentloadinginsomeapplications.Inputimpedancesofelectroniccountersanddigital
voltmetersaremuchhigher(intensofM)thateliminatetheloadingproblem.
The oscilloscope is more prone to human errors since results are obtained through
calculations.Indigitalvoltmetersandelectroniccounterstheresultsaredisplayeddirectly.
Whatismeasuredintheoscilloscopeisthedistancebetweentwopointsonthescreen.The
resultsarelimitedtothereadingaccuracyoftheobserverfromthescreenatthefirstplace.
Estimatesoftheamplitudeandtimevariationsaremadefromthedisplacementsdrawnonto
thescreenwiththehelpofsensitivitysettings.
Thefrequencycanonlybedeterminedmathematicallyastheinverseoftheperiod.
Thesmallestpossiblereadingerrorfromthescreenoccurswhentheintervaltobemeasured
coversthefull100mmspanandthestartingpointisalignedsharplyagainstthefirstruled
verticalline.Then,themeasurementerrorinvolvesuncertaintyonlyinreadingtheterminal
point with 0.5 mm. Hence, the percentile error is 0.5% at best which can also be
expressedasoneintwohundreds.Thesimplestcounterwithafourdigitdisplaywillhavean
uncertaintyof1digitinthelastplace(leastsignificantdigit)whichmeansthatthereading
errorcanbeaslowasoneintenthousands.
TimeandFrequencyMeasurements
OperationalModesofCounters
Electronic countersareextensivelyusedformeasuringthefrequency (numberofoccurrenceofan
eventinagiventime),timeperiodofaneventandtimeintervalbetweentwoevents.Theydisplay
theresultsdirectlyindigitalformsthatcanbeeasilyreadbytheuser.
Thecountersworkinthreeoperationalmodesas:
thefrequency,
timeperiodand
timeinterval.
Thefrequencyisdefinedintwowaysasillustratedin
Figure4.30:
Thenumberofoccurrencesofeventoverthe
How many?
1 second
time of observation (i.e. 6 events per

second).Alldigitaldisplayshaveaninherent
How frequent?
uncertaintyof1digitinthelastdigitofthe
display.Ifthenumberdisplayedissmall,this
Figure4.30Definitionsoffrequency
uncertainty causes large reading errors.

Therefore,thismodeisusefulathighfrequencies.
Theinverseofthetimeperiod(i.e.oneexplosionevery100millisecond).Thisisusefulatlow
frequencies.Somecountersautomaticallyswitchtothismodeasthelowfrequencyranges
areselected.Theperiodismeasuredandinvertedusuallybydigital
techniquesandthedisplayedresultisthefrequency.Newcounters
How long?
containmicroprocessorsthatperformthisoperationeasily.
Figure4.31 Time
period

Thetimemeasurementisusedfor:
Timeperiod;thetimeintervalbetweentwosuccessiveidenticalpointsforaperiodicevent
asillustratedinFigure4.31.
How long?
Thetimeinterval;thetimeintervalbetweentwoeventsthatrun
simultaneouslyasshowninFigure4.32.Thisisveryusefulindetermining
thephaseshiftbetweentwosignals.
Figure4.32Timeinterval
DevicesCommonlyUsedinElectronicMeasuringInstruments
Amplifiers
The amplifier is a device that increases the magnitude of the input voltage
(voltageamplifierasinFigure4.33),current(currentamplifier)andpower(power
G
Vi
Vo
amplifier). The ratio of the output to the input (if of the same kind, i.e. both
voltage)iscalledthegainifitisgreaterthan1anddenotedbyG.Foravoltage
amplifier;G=Vo/VI
whereVoistheoutputvoltageandVIistheinputvoltage.Thegainisaunitless
Figure4.33
Symbolofan
amplifier
quantity.
Sometimesthegainisexpressedindecibels(dB)as:GdB=10log(Po/PI)=20log(Vo/VI)
wherePoistheoutputpowerandPIistheinputpoweroftheamplifiermeasuredacrossthesame
resistor.
Iftheoutputissmallerthantheinput,thisiscalledtheattenuation.GdBispositiveforthe
gainandnegativefortheattenuation.Forexample,againof60dBindicatesthattheoutputisthe
inputmultipliedby1000whileagainof20dBshowsthattheinputisreduced(attenuated)by10
timesbythesystem.
TheComparator
ThecomparatorisadevicethathastwoinputsandoneoutputasshowninFigure4.34.Theoutput
hastwovoltagelevelsashighandlow.Itdetectsthesignofthevoltagedifferenceandreflectsit
totheoutputlevelasindicatedinthefigure.Oneoftheinputissettofixedvoltagewhosevaluecan
besetexternallyanditiscalledthethreshold.Theoutputshowsthesignof(V1V2).Hence,itisin
highstatewhentheinputvoltageishigherthanthethreshold(V1 >V2)andgoestolowstateasthe
inputbecomessmallerthanthethreshold(V1 <V2).Theshapeoftheoutputisreversedif theinput
and threshold connections are interchanged. Important parameters used in identifying a pulse are
Falling
(negative) edge
V2
V1
Ground
(reference)
V1 : input voltage
V2 : threshold voltage
V0
High (state) level
Comparator
output
Rising (positive) edge

Low (state) level
Pulse generator
Figure4.34Comparatorwithitstimingdiagram
marked on Figure 4.34. In some comparators, the threshold is internally connected to the middle
level(ground)andonlyoneinputisavailableexternally.Thesedevicesarealsocalledzerocrossing
detectors.
In some comparators, the output changes its states slightly after the input walks over the
point of coincidence with the threshold (in either direction) causing slight delay between the
generationoftheoutputpulseandthepointofcoincidence.Thisdelayiscalledthehysteresisand
it is used to avoid false detection in case of noisy input signals. Such comparators are commonly
calledtheSchmitttriggers.
ThePulseGenerator
Theoutputofacomparatorisarectangularpulselikesignalwhosehighandlowstatesdependupon
the magnitude of the input signal as compared to a threshold voltage. The pulse generator (also
knownasmonostablemultivibrator)receivestheoutputofthecomparatororanypulselikesignal
and produces a pulse with fixed duration immaterial of the duration of the input pulse. The pulse
may be initiated either by the positive edge or the negative edge of the input pulse. It is set to
positiveedgetriggeringintheexampleshowninFigure4.34.
TheClock
Itisadevicethatgeneratestimingpulseswithaveryhighaccuracyand
stabilityinthefrequencyasillustratedinFigure4.35.Crystalcontrolled
Clock
generator
Figure4.35Theclock
oscillatorsareusedmostly.Theoutputisasquarewaveingeneral,but
itwillberepresentedbyasequenceofshortdurationpulsesinmostapplications.
ElementsCommoninAllModesofOperationsofCounters
Followingelementsarecommoninallmodesofcounters:
Themagnitudeoftheinputsignalisnotimportant.Theperiodicinputsignalisconvertedinto
a pulse sequence by the signal shaper, which is composed of a comparator and a pulse
generator. Here, AC/DC coupling, trigger level and polarity settings are available as in the
caseoftheoscilloscope.Thereisnoamplituderangeselectionexceptadividebyten(20dB)
attenuator to reduce the amplitude of the input signal to a safe level for highamplitude
inputs.
Allmeasurementsarerelatedtothetiminginformationcomingfromaninternaltimebase.
Therefore,averystabletimebaseisanessentialelementofthecounter.Calibrationofthe
timebase circuits may be achieved by using special frequency standards based on tuning
forks, crystal oscillators or with NBS (National Broadcasting Society) standard broadcast
frequencies.
Acontrolgatesetsthedurationofthecountingandrefreshrate(thefrequencyofrepeating
themeasurement).
They mostly use 7segment light emitting diode (led) or liquid crystal (lcd) type displays.
Dependinguponthefrequencyrangeofoperation,theremaybesixtoeightdigitsdisplayed.
Decimal counters are used to accumulate (count) incoming pulses from the pulse gate and
Clock
Decade (BCD)
counter / divider
Clock
Carry
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3
Outputs
Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Carry
Figure4.36TheBCD(decade)counteranditstimingdiagram
generateabinarycodeddecimal(BCD)codeattheoutputasillustratedinFigure4.36.The
code ranges from 0000 to 1001 corresponding to decimal 0 and 9 incrementing with
everyinputpulse.Withthe10thpulse,thecodereturnsto0000andthecounterprovidesa
carrypulsetothenextstage.Attheendofthecountingsession,thecodeaccumulatedinthe
counters is transferred to a digital latch that holds it until the end of the next counting
session. Counters are cleared automatically after the data is transferred to the latch. The
usercanalsoclearthemduringinitialization.Thiscodestoredinthelatchisappliedtothe
displaythroughBCDto7segmentdecodersanddisplayedasdecimalnumbers.Thedisplay
alsoincorporatesannotationsforthetimeunits(s,ms,ands)andfrequencyunits(Hz,kHz,

andMHz).Thetimebaseand/orgatecontrolswitchessetthepositionofthedecimalpoint.
Theunitofthemeasurementishighlighted.
TheCounterinFrequencyMode
Trig.
Input
signal
+/ D isplay
23567.49 Hz
Signal
shaper
fs
Gate
control
Gate
Decade
counters
Nf
Tg
Tg
T b =1/fb
Time
base
Figure4.37Blockdiagramofthecounterinfrequencymode
PrincipleofOperation
Figure4.37showstheblockdiagramofacountersettothefrequencymodeofoperation.Thetime
basecircuitryprovidesthestartandstoppulsesforthepulsegate.Thepulsesgeneratedfromthe
input signal via the signal shaper are counted. The duration of the gate signal (Tg) is equal to the
periodofthetimebasesignal(Tb).Numberofpulsescounted
N f = Tg f s
fsbeingfrequencyoftheinputsignal.CommonlyusedvaluesforTbare0.1s,1s,and10s.
TheTimeBase
Accuracy of the measurement is directly affected by the uncertainty in gating. Hence, a timebase
with high accuracy, precision and
longterm stability is essential.
Time-base
High-stability
Crystal controlled
clock
Tc=1/fc
Decade
Dividers
m-stage
Figure4.38Blockdiagramofthetimebase
Thisismanagedviaahighstability
Tb=1/fb
clock
circuit
that
runs
at
frequencyfc showninFigure4.38.

A series of decade counters are used (m of them in Figure 4.28) to obtain the time base signal
yielding,
Tb = Tc 10m
In some counters, the divider ratio is indicated at the timebase selector switch. Finally, the
frequencyoftheinput(fs)isdeterminedfromthenumberdisplayed(Nf)andtimebasesetting(10m)
as:
fs =
Nf
Tb
Nf
10m
fc
Thedecimalpointautomaticallymovesinbetweenappropriatedigitsandrespectivefrequencyunit
isalsohighlightedtoeasethereadingasmentionedabove.
TheCounterinTimePeriodMode
Trig.
Input
signal
+/ Decade
Dividers
n-stage
Signal
shaper
Display
1327.58 s
Gate
Ts=1/fs
Gate
control
Tg
Decade
counters
Np
Tg
Time
base
Tb=1/fb = 10mxTc
Figure4.39Blockdiagramofthecounterintimeperiodmode
In the period mode, the input signal provides the gating and the timebase supplies the pulses for
countingasshowninFigure4.39.Thenumberofpulsescounted:
N p = f b Tg
WithTg=Ts(thetimeperiodoftheinputsignal)and f b =
fc
10 m
,theperiodTscanbeexpressedas:
Ts =
Np
fc
10m
Hence, 10m becomes the multiplier in case of the period measurement. Period measurement is
preferred to frequency measurement in determining lower frequencies. The readout logic is
designedtoautomaticallypositionedthedecimalpointanddisplaytheproperunit.
Averaging
The frequency measurement inherently involves accumulation of several pulses. Thus, small
variationsinthetimeperiodoftheinputsignal(jitterintheperiod)willcancelouteachotherand
the resultant reading indicates the average value of the frequency of the signal rather than the
instantaneous frequency. The period measurement however, uses a single period for the
measurement. Furthermore, the display is normally refreshed at every three seconds or so. Fast
refreshratesarenotuseful,sinceahumanobserverreadsthedisplay.Therefore,forasignalhaving
timeperiodoffractionofasecond,thesystemstaysidleforalongtime.
The accuracy of reading and reliability of the measurement may be increased by using the
multipleperiodaveragemodeofoperation.Aseriesofdecadedividers(noftheminthefigure)are
introduced between the signal shaper and gate control circuits. Hence, the measured period is
averagedover10ncycles.Theresultantequationfortheperiodmeasurementbecomes:
10 m
Ts =
f c 10 n
Np
TheCounterinTimeIntervalMode

The phaseangle (shift) between two signals may be determined by measuring the time interval
between similar points on the two waveforms. Figure 4.40 illustrates the principle diagram of the
measuring setup. Both inputs contain signal shapers that generate pulses corresponding to the
triggerpickoff.Oneofthepulsecontrolsthestartingofthecountingwhiletheotheronestopsthe
counting. Trigger levels and slopes may be different for both channels. A commonseparate switch
(Cm/Sep)allowsutilizationofthesamesignalforbothchannelsandwithdifferenttriggersettings;
thetimebetweensectionsofthesamewaveformcanbemeasured.Thisisespeciallyimportantin
determiningthepulsedurationandrisetimeofthesignal.
ErrorsinMeasurementsUsingCounters
Therearethreereasonsforerrorsinmeasuringfrequencyandtimeusingcountersasthetimebase
errors,triggerlevelerrorandgatingerrors.
Timebaseerrors:oscillatorcalibrationerrorsresultingfrom;
Shorttermcrystalstabilityerrors:duetovoltagetransients,shockandvibration,
Longterm crystal stability errors. Aging rate of the 10 MHz crystal standard is less than 3
partsin107permonthfortheHP5326Bcounterasspecifiedbythemanufacturer.
Triggerlevel errors (only in timeinterval and period modes). Using large signal amplitude
andfastrisetimecanminimizethem.
Gating errors: 1 counts of the displays last significant digit. This error is inherent to all
electronic counters and is due to the lack of synchronization between the gating and the
clock(countedsignals).
Trig.
Input-A
start
Cm
Input-B
stop
+/ Display
426.32 s
Signal
shaper
Gate
Sep
Gate
control
Signal
shaper
Tg
Decade
counters
Np
Tg
Trig.
+/ -
Time
base
Tb=1/fb = 10mxTc
Figure4.40Blockdiagramofthecounterintimeintervalmode

Example4.18:ReadingErrorinFrequencyandPeriodMeasurements
Twosinewavesat9.5Hzand200kHzareappliedtoanelectroniccounter.Boththefrequencymode
and the period mode of operations are used. Timebase settings in the frequency mode and
multipliersettingsintheperiodmodearetabulatedinTable4.1withthedisplayreadingsforboth
signals.Signalaveragingintheperiodmodeisnotused.
Theclockfrequencyinthetimebaseis10MHz(period0.1s)anditisdividedbyan8stage
decadecounters/dividerstoobtaina10secondtimebase.Interimstagesarealsoavailabletoobtain
various timebase (T.B.) and multiplier settings. In the multiplier settings, the number of counters
involvedisalso8.Hence,inmultiplierselection108theclockoutputistakenfromtheoutputofthe
8thstageleadingtoaclockfrequency107/108=0.1Hz.In100=1however,theclockoutputistaken
directly from the clock generator. Assuming the reading error as 1 digit in the last place, period
reading for low frequency and frequency reading for high frequency signals lead to smaller error.
RelativeerrorT/T=f/fasTorfiscomputedfromeachotherthroughtheinverserelationship.
Table4.1.Measurementsofperiodandfrequencyforsignalsat9.5Hzand200kHz.
9.5Hz
200kHz
Frequencymode
Periodmode
Frequencymode
Periodmode
T.B.
Reading
Mult
Reading
T.B
Reading
Mult
Reading
10s
0.0094kHz
108
1*
10s
191.2719kHz
108
1*
1s
0.009kHz
107
1s
1s
191.280kHz
107
1s
0.1s
0.00kHz
106
0.2s
0.1s
191.27kHz
106
0.1s
10ms
0.0kHz
105
0.11s
10ms
191.2kHz
105
0.01s
1ms
0.000MHz
104
106ms
1ms
0.191MHz
104
1ms
0.1ms
0.00MHz
103
106.0ms
0.1ms
0.19MHz
103
0.1ms
10s
0.0MHz
102
105.97ms
10s
0.1MHz
102
0.01ms
1s
0MHz
101
105944s
1s
0MHz
101
6s
0.1s
0.00GHz
100=1
105951.0s
0.1s
0.00GHz
5.2s
Example4.19
Draw the functional block diagram of an electronic counter in frequency mode and explain the
functionofeachblockbriefly.Whatwillbethenumberdisplayedifthetimebaseissetto1msec
andthefrequencyoftheinputsignalis568,321Hz?Howmuchistheuncertaintyinthefrequency
reading?Whatwouldbethereadinganduncertaintyinreadingiftimebasewassetto1sec?

Pleaserefertothetextfortheblockdiagram.Thesignalshaperconvertstheperiodicinput
signalintoapulsesequence.Averystabletimebaseprovidesthetiming(startandstop)pulses.A
control gate sets the duration of the counting and refresh rate (the frequency of repeating the
measurement).ANDgateallowsthenumberofinputpulsesduringthegatetobeselected.
Adisplaymostlyusing7segmentlightemittingdiode(led)orliquidcrystal(lcd)typedisplays
toindicatethedecimaldigits.Decimalcountersareusedtoaccumulate(count)theincomingpulses
fromthepulsegateandgenerateabinarycodeddecimal(BCD)codeattheoutput.Thedisplayalso
incorporatesannotationsforthetimeunits(s,ms,ands)andfrequencyunits(Hz,kHz,andMHz)
displayed.Thedecimalpointautomaticallymovestoproperplaceandtheunitofthemeasurement
ishighlighted.
Thefrequencyoftheinputsignalindicatesthattherewillbe568321pulsesinonesecond.
Withtimebasesetto1msec,only568pulsesaccumulateinthecounter.Hence,thereadingwould
be568kHzwithuncertainty1kHz.Iftimebaseissetto1sec,thenreadingwouldbe568,321Hz
withuncertainty1Hz.
MeasurementofRotativeSpeed
Speedofrotationofelectricalmotorsandotherrotatingobjectscanbemeasuredbyusingashaft
encoderorstroboscopicmethod.
TheShaftEncoderMethod
Wheel
Wheel
Light
source
Photodetector
Magnet
B
Shaft
Photodetector
Magnetic detectors
(fixed in position)
Figure4.41Opticalandmagneticshaftencoderstomeasuretherotationalspeed
There are two methods that are commonly used for measuring the angle of rotation and the
rotationalspeedasillustratedinFigure4.41.Adiskisfixedontheshaftandallowedtorotatefreely
withit.Intheopticalshaftencoding,thediskiseitherslottedorpaintedwithtohaveopaqueand
transparent regions. A light source illuminates one side of the disk by a thin beam of light. A light
detector is facing at the opposite surface. The detector receives the beam of light only as the
transparent or slotted regions fall in between the source and the detector. Then, the detector
produces a pulse every time such a slot appears in front of it. Counters are used to measure the
pulsesanddeterminethespeedofrotation.
Thesecondmethodisthemagneticshaftencoderthathasamagnetfixedonthediskand
detectors are placed into fixed positions outside. The detector is made up of a simple coil that
generates an electrical current pulse every time the magnet pass in front of it. These pulses are
amplifiedandappliedtoacounterasinthepreviouscase.Hence,thefrequencyofpulsesindicates
therotationalspeed.
TheStroboscopicMethod
Shaftencodersareveryuseful,buttheyrequireadiskfixedontherotatingshaft.Thestroboscopic
method allows computation of the rotational speed without interfering with the rotation and
withoutnecessitatingfixinganythingontheshaft.

Aflashinglightilluminatestherotatingshaft.Theshaftappearsstationaryastheratioofthe
flashfrequency(cyclespersecond)totherotationalspeed(revolutionpersecond)isexpressedas
the ratio of two integers (f/v = m/n). The rotational speed can be calculated by determining two
successiveflashfrequenciesthatproduceasingleimageas
v=
m
f1 f 2
v
m v
= +1
=
n
f1 f 2 (for f1 n ; f 2
)
THEDIGITALVOLTMETER(DVM)
Use,AdvantagesandOperation
ItisadeviceusedformeasuringthemagnitudeofDCvoltages.ACvoltagescanbemeasuredafter
rectificationandconversiontoDCforms.DC/ACcurrentscanbemeasuredbypassingthemthrough
a known resistance (internally or externally connected) and determining the voltage developed
acrosstheresistance(V=IxR).
The result of the measurement is displayed on a digital readout in numeric form as in the
caseofthecounters.MostDVMsusetheprincipleoftimeperiodmeasurement.Hence,thevoltage
is converted into a time interval t first. No frequency division is involved. Input range selection
automaticallychangesthepositionofthedecimalpointonthedisplay.Theunitofmeasureisalso
highlightedinmostdevicestosimplifythereadingandannotation.
TheDVMhasseveraladvantagesovertheanalogtypevoltmetersas:
Inputrange:from1.000000Vto1,000.000Vwithautomaticrangeselection.
Absoluteaccuracy:ashighas0.005%ofthereading.
Stability
Resolution:1partin106(1Vcanbereadin1Vrange).
Inputimpedance:RI10M;CI40pF
Calibration:internalstandardderivedfromastabilizedreferencevoltagesource.
Outputsignals:measuredvoltageisavailableasaBCD(binarycodeddecimal)codeandcan
besendtocomputersorprinters.
The block diagram in Figure 4.42 illustrates the principle of operation of a digital voltmeter. It is
composed of an amplifier/attenuator, an analog to digital converter, storage, display and timing
circuits.Thereisalsoapowersupplytoprovidetheelectricalpowertorunelectroniccomponents.
Thecircuitcomponentsexcepttheanalogtodigitalconvertercircuitsaresimilartotheonesusedin

electroniccounters.Theinputrangeselectioncanbemanuallyswitchedbetweenrangestogetmost
accurate reading or it can be auto ranging that switches between ranges automatically for best
reading.
Input
Voltage
Amplifier /
Attenuator
Analog to
Digital
Converter
Counter /
Storage
Display
Time-Base
Figure4.42 Asimplifieddiagramforadigitalvoltmeter
TheAnalogtoDigitalConverter(ADC)SampleandHold
The analog to digital converter contains a sample and hold circuit, and conversion circuits. The
sampleandholdiscomposedofanelectronicswitchandacapacitor.Theswitchturnsonandoffat
regularintervals.Thecapacitorchargesandassumestheleveloftheinput voltageastheswitchis
on.Itholdsthecharge(hencetheleveloftheinputvoltage)astheswitchisoff.Theunitygainbuffer
eliminatestheloadingofthecapacitorbyproceedinganalogtodigitalconvertercircuitry.Figure4.43
showsasimplifieddiagramwiththeinputandoutputwaveformsofthecircuit.
Figure4.43Simplifiedcircuitdiagramwithinputandoutputwaveformsofthesampleandholdcircuit
DigitizationofAnalogSignals
Theinputofthesampleandholdcircuitisacontinuoustimeanalogsignalanditcantakeanyvalue
anytime.Theoutputisadiscretetimesignalthatcantakeanyvaluebutonlyatcertaintimes.This
signal can't be processed by a digital circuit unless it is converted into a digital code. Figure 4.44
illustratesthedigitizationofanalogsignals.Theanaloginputsignaliscontinuousintimeanditcan
takeanyvalueatanytime.Thisisconvertedtoadiscretetimesignalthatcanacceptanyvaluebutat
certaintimes.Thenextstageistodividetheamplituderangeintodiscretestepsaswellbyaprocess
Discrete value
Any value
Any value
Dynamic range
Any time
Continuous-time signal
Discrete time
1000
0100
0000
Discrete time
Discrete-time signal
1111
1100
Quantized signal
Figure4.44Conversionofananalogsignalintoadigital signal
called the quantization. The figure exemplifies the principles for a 4bit converter in which the
dynamicrange(themaximumpeaktopeakamplitudethattheinputsignalcanattain)isdividedinto
24=16steps.Abinarycode(orbinarycodeddecimalBCD)isassignedforeachlevelfrom0000to
1111(1001forBCD).Then,
wherekisthestepsizeorresolution.Mostdigitalstorageoscilloscopeshowever,use8bitor9bit
convertersthatdividethedynamicrangeinto28=256or29=512steps.
Example4.20
Signalfrom8001500mVmaybeconvertedto8bitbinarycodesstartingfrom010100002(8010)to
100101102(15010).Inthiscase,thestepsizekisequalto10mV.Quantizationorconversionerrorof
theADC;
100
100%,whereNisthenumberofbit.
SeveraltechniquesareusedtoconverttheDCanalogvoltageintoadigitalcodethatwillbe
displayed. The mostly used ones are the integrating and successive approximation types. The
integratingtypehassingleramp,dualrampanddigitalrampversions.Theramptypeisthesimplest
one and it will be discussed firstly below. The single ramp type is very simple yet it has several
limitationsmostofwhichareeliminatedinthedualintegrationtype.Thesuccessiveapproximation
typeisalsodiscussedbriefly.
IntegratingTypeAnalogtoDigitalConverters
TheBasicIntegrator
Ri
Vi
Cf
A
V0
This type of converters generates a time interval

proportional to the input voltage. Then, this interval is
Figure4.45 Thebasicintegratorcircuit
measured and displayed using methods that were

discussedinthecounterssectionpreviously.Thekeycircuitelementistheintegratorthatgenerates

anoutputthatisrelatedtotheintegraloftheinput.ThebasicintegratorcircuitisshowninFigure
4.45. It is similar to the inverting amplifier with the feedback resistor replaced by a capacitor. The
inputvoltageVicausesacurrent
toflowthroughthecapacitorCfthatgeneratesanoutput
since the inverting terminal of the opamp is at virtual ground
voltage
provided that the opamp is not saturated. Hence, the output can be expressed as
.V0willdecrease(orincreaseifViisnegative)atarateof
FunctionalBlockDiagramofRampType(SingleSlope)DVM
FunctionalblockdiagramofapositiveramptypeDVMisshowninFigure4.46Thetimingdiagramis
given in Figure 4.47. It has two major sections as the voltage to time conversion unit and time
measurementunit.Theconversionunithasarampgeneratorthatoperatesunderthecontrolofthe
samplerateoscillator,twocomparatorsandagatecontrolcircuitry.
Theinternallygenerated rampvoltageisappliedtotwocomparators.Thefirstcomparator
comparestherampvoltageintotheinputsignalandproducesapulseoutputasthecoincidenceis
achieved (as the ramp voltage becomes larger than the input voltage). The second comparator
comparestheramptothegroundvoltage(0volt)andproducesanoutputpulseatthecoincidence.
TheinputvoltagetothefirstcomparatormustbebetweenVm.Therangingandattenuationsection
scales the DC input voltage so that it will be within the dynamic range. The decimal point in the
outputdisplayautomaticallypositionedbytherangingcircuits.
DC input
voltage
Ranging
&
Attenuator
Input
Comp.
- 1.275 V
Readout (Display)
Polarity
t
Gate
control
Ramp
Generator
Ground
Comp.
Sample rate
oscillator
Decade
counters
AND
t
Time-base
oscillator
Tb or Tc
fb or fc
Figure4.46Simplifiedblockdiagramofasingleramptypedigitalvoltmeter
Vm
(+10 V)
2nd coincidence
stop
Vi
1st coincidence
start
time
t
T
Ground comparator
Input comparator
-Vm
(- 10 V)
t
Tc=1/fc
Count gate
(time interval)
Clock pulses
Sample interval
Figure4.47Timingdiagramforasinglerampdigital voltmeter
Theoutputsofthetwocomparatorsderivethegatecontrolcircuitthatgeneratesandoutput
pulsethatstartswiththefirstcoincidencepulseandendswiththesecond.Thus,thedurationofthe
pulsetcanbecomputedfromthetrianglesas
Vi
t
T
= t=
Vi
V
T
V
m
m
Hence, the voltage to time conversion is done yielding t to Vi with T and Vm constant.
Numberoftimeintervals(clockpulses)countedduringthisintervalbecome:
N = t f c = Vi
T fc
Vm
For the ramp voltage with fixed slope and time base that runs at fixed rate (fc) N is directly
proportionaltoVi.ThemultiplierT.fc/Vmissettoaconstantfactorof10.
Thepolarityofthevoltageisindicatedifitis.Withnoindication,itisunderstoodthatthe
polarityis+.Thepolarityisdetectedbythepolaritycircuitwiththehelpofcomparatorpulses.For
positivesloperamptypevoltmeter,thefirstcoincidenceoftherampiswiththegroundvoltageifthe
inputispositive.Withanegativeinputvoltagehowever,thefirstcoincidencewillbewiththeinput
voltage.

The display stays for sometimes (around three seconds) and then it is refreshed by the
sample rate oscillator. A trigger pulse is applied to the ramp generator to initiate a new ramp.
Meanwhileareset(initialize)pulseisappliedtothedecadecounterstoclearthepreviouslystored
code.
Thedisplayindicatesthepolarityaswellasthenumbersindecimalandadecimalpoint.The
first digit contains the polarity sign and the number displayed can be only 1 or 0 for most
voltmeters.Therefore,thisiscalledhalfdigit.Hence,athreeandahalfdigitdisplaycanhaveupto
1999andafourandahalfdigitonecangoupto19999.
Staircase(Digital)RampTypeDVM
Therampin theprevious casehasbeengenerated byananalogintegrator.Ithasbeenreplaceda
digitallygeneratedonethatlookslikeastaircase.Theblockdiagramoftherampgeneratorandits
outputareshowninFigure4.48.Abinarycountercontinuouslycountsfromaclockanditsoutputis
decodedintoananalogvoltagebyadigitaltoanalogconverter.Theinputvoltageiscomparedtothe
internallygeneratedstaircaseramp.ItisthesimplestA/Dconverter.Theconversionisslowandthe
TC,max=(2N1)xclockperiod
Figure4.48Theblockdiagramandoutputwaveformofastaircaserampgenerator.
conversiontimedependsonthemagnitudeoftheinputsignal.
DualSlopeIntegrationTypeDVM
TheramptypeDVM(singleslope)isverysimpleyethasseveraldrawbacks.Themajorlimitationis
thesensitivityoftheoutputtosystemcomponentsandclock.Thedualslopetechniqueseliminate
the sensitivities and hence the mostly implemented approach in DVMs. The operation of the
integratoranditsoutputwaveformareshowninFigure4.49.
Figure4.49TheintegratorindualslopetypeDVManditsoutput
The integrator works in two phases as charging and discharging. In phase1, the switch
connectstheinputoftheintegratortotheunknowninputvoltage(Vin)forapredeterminedtime T
and the integrator capacitor C charges through the input resistor R. The output at the end of the
charging time T is (assuming that VC(0) = 0);
. In phase2, the switch toggles to the
second position that connects the input to the reference voltage Vref and the capacitor discharges
until the output voltage goes to zero as;
becomeszerois;
. The value of Tx at which Vout
The block diagram and integrator waveforms for the dualslope DVM are shown in Figure
4.50.Thefigureillustratestheeffectsoftheinputvoltageoncharginganddischargingphasesofthe
converter.Thetotalconversiontimeisthesumofthecharginganddischargingtimes.Yet,onlythe
dischargingtimeisusedforthemeasurementanditisindependentofthesystemcomponentsRand
C,andtheclockfrequency.
Figure4.50IntegratorwaveformandbasicblockdiagramofthedualslopeDVM
Example4.21
A dual slope A/D has R= 100 k and C= 0.01 F . The reference voltage is 10 volts and the fixed
integrationtimeis10ms.Findtheconversiontimefora6.8voltinput.
.
6.8
,thetotalconversiontimeisthen10ms+6.8ms=16.8ms

Example4.22
A20VDCvoltageismeasuredbyanaloganddigitalmultimeters.Theanaloginstrumentisonits25V
range,anditsspecifiedaccuracyis2%.Thedigitalmeterhas3digitdisplayandanaccuracyof
(0.6+1).Determinethemeasurementaccuracyineachcase.
Analoginstrument:Voltageerror=2%of25V
=0.5Vyielding;
error =(0.5V/20V)x100%
=2.5%
Digitalinstrument:for20Vdisplayedona31/2digitdisplay,1Digit=0.1V
Voltageerror =(0.6%ofreading+aDigit)
=(0.12V+0.1V)
=0.22V
Error =(0.22V/20V)x100%
=1.1%
SuccessiveApproximationTypeDVM
In this approach, the input voltage is compared to the internally generated voltage. It is the most
common A/D conversion for general applications. The conversion time is fixed (not depend on the
signalamplitudeasinthepreviouscases)andrelativelyfast,thatis; TC=Nxclockperiod,where Nis
thenumberofbits.
Figure4.51BlockdiagramandoutputwaveformoftheconversionunitofthesuccessiveaproximationtypeDVM

The block diagram and a sample output waveform of the conversion section are shown in Figure
4.51.TheblockdiagramlooksliketheonegiveninFigure4.48forthestaircasetypeDVMexceptthat
the counter has been replaced by a successive approximation register. The register is set to the
middleofthedynamicrangeatthebeginningandthesetvalueincreasesordecreasessuccessively
untiltheoutputvoltageoftheD/Aconverterapproachestheinputvoltagewithadifferencesmaller
than the resolution of the converter. The operation of the successive approximation type D/A
converterisillustratedinthefollowingexamples.
Example4.23
Assumethatwehavea9bitbinaryconverter.Weneedtodeterminethebinarycodebetween0
511fortheinputandthecodetobedeterminedis301.
The register is set to 256 first and the output of the D/A is compared to the input. It is
definitely lower than the input and the register assumes a new code that corresponds to 256 +
256/2=384instep2.Thisislargerthantheinputandtheregisterassumes256+256/4=320instep
3.Thisisalsolargerandthenewcodeinstep4becomes256+256/8=288andthisissmallerthan
theinput.Instep5thecodeissetto288+256/16=304andthisislargerthantheinput.Thecodein
step6is288+256/32=296anditsmallerthantheinput.Instep7,thecodeis296+256/64=300.
Instep8,thecodeis300+256/128=302thatislargerthantheinput.Instep9,whichisthelast
stepthecodeis300+256/256=301thatfinishestheoperation.
Table4.2StepsofconversionforaninebitsuccessiveapproximationtypeA/Dconverter
Step
Estimate
D8D7D6D5D4D3D2D1D0
Result
256
100000000
Vin>VAX
256+128=384
110000000
Vin<VAX
256+64=320
101000000
Vin<VAX
256+32=288
100100000
Vin>VAX
288+16=304
100110000
Vin<VAX
288+8=296
100101000
Vin>VAX
296+4=300
100101100
Vin>VAX
300+2=302
100101110
Vin<VAX
302+1=301
100101101
Finished

Example4.24
Find the successive approximation A/D output for a 4bit converter to a 3.217 volt input if the
referenceis5volts.
(1)SetD3=1VAX=5/2=2.5Volts;Vin>VAXleaveD3=1(1000)
(2)SetD2=1VAX=5/2+5/4=3.75Volts;Vin<VAXresetD2=0(1000)
(3)SetD1=1VAX=5/2+5/8=3.125Volts;Vin>VAXleaveD1=1(1010)
(4)SetD0=1VAX=5/2+5/8+5/16=3.4375Volts;Vin<VAXresetD0=0(1010)
Bythisprocedure,wefindtheoutputisabinarywordof10102.
MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICITY
Electricitycoversallaspectsofourlivesasthemostefficientandeasywayofusingenergy.Itisthe
mostcommonlyusedandtradedcommodityintheworldtoday.Itisgeneratedfromseveralsources
such as hydraulic, fossil fuels, sun power and nuclear fission. The nature of electrical power and
energy, the ways in which it is delivered to the customers and the methods used in trade
measurements are complex. The chapter provides general knowledge to electrical engineering
studentsthattheywillneedintheirprofessionallives.
UtilizationofElectricalEnergy
ElectricalPowerinResistiveLoads
Therateofenergyoutputortransferiscalledthe power.Capacitytodoworkiscalledtheenergy
whichisintegrationofpowerovertime.Thepowerindicatesthedemandfortheenergy.Theenergy
isusedforbillingthecustomerforutilizationoftheenergy.
Power is defined as p=iv where v and i are the instantaneous values of the voltage and
current. For constant DC, power is simply the product of the voltage and current. For AC it is not
quitesosimple.Wecanexpressthevoltage
v(t)=Vmaxcos(t)
where istheradialfrequency(=2f,fisthecyclicfrequencyinhertz(Hz)cyclespersecond).
Thecurrentintoapureresistiveloadcanbeexpressedas
i(t)=Imaxcos(t)

Theinstantaneouspoweris
p(t)=VmaxImaxcos2(t)
usingthetrigonometricidentity,cos2x=0.5(1+cos(2x)
p(t)=0.5VmaxImax(1+cos(2t))
Foraresistiveloadona60Hzsinglephasesystem,theinstantaneouspowerwillhaveawaveform
withafrequencyof120HzandvaryingfromzerotoVmax*Imax.(Thepeakvoltagemultipliedbythe
peakcurrent.)
TheaveragepowerinonecycleofACvoltageandcurrentappliedtotheloadis
1
2
WhereIeffistheRMS(rootmeansquare)valueofthecurrentandVeffistheRMSvalueofthevoltage.
Theyaredefinedas
and
forasinglefrequencyintoaresistiveload.Forv(t)andi(t)expressedasinpreviousequations
and
ElectricalPowerinReactiveLoads
Forareactiveload,theexpressionofthecurrentbecomes
i(t)=Imaxcos(t+)
whereistheanglebywhichthecurrentlags(inductive)orleads
(capacitive)thevoltage.Figure4.52illustratesthephasordiagram
Figure4.52Aphasordiagram
foraninductiveload.Then,theinstantaneouspoweris
p=VmaxImaxcos(t)cos(t+)
Usingtrigonometricidentities,
cos(t)cos(t+)=0.5cos()(1+cos(2t))0.5sin()sin(2t))
Weapplyaboveequationstofindtheaveragepowerinonecycleyielding
P=IrmsVrmscos()

Industrial loads such as motors have both resistive and reactive components. The above equation
indicatesthattheactualpowerdeliveredtotheloadcanbelessthanthemaximumpossibleforthe
effective values of the voltage and current if were zero. The
maximumiscalledtheapparentpowerorvoltampere(VA).The
ratio of realaverage power to apparent power is referred to as
thepowerfactor(pF).
Figure4.53Thepowertriangle
pF=realaveragepowerdividedbyapparentpower,pF
=P/VA
Inthesinusoidalcasethepowerfactorissimplycos()whereistheanglebywhichthecurrent
leadsorlagsthevoltage.Forthisreasontheangleisoftenreferredtoasthepowerfactorangle.A
purelyresistiveload,oneinwhichthevoltageandcurrentareinphase,willhaveapowerfactorof
unity (1). A purely reactive load, one in which the current and voltage are out of phase with each
otherby90,willhaveapowerfactorofzero(0).
Theapparentpower(VA)istheonegeneratedandtransmittedtotheloads.Itisexpressedin
VoltAmperes(VA).Ithastwopartsastheoneconvertedtorealwork,expressedinwattsandthe
onestoredintheelectromagneticfields.Thesecondpartiscalledthereactivepowerexpressedin
reactive VoltAmperes (VARs).The value of any quantity can be determined with the help of the
power triangle using either the values of any other two values or any other value and the phase
angleasillustratedinFigure4.53.
Figure4.54Monitoringvoltage,current,andpower
Figure4.54showsaschematicdiagramtoexemplifythedifferencebetweenapparentpower
andactivepower.Accordingtotheammeterandvoltmeterreadings,theapparentpoweris464.4VA
whilethepowermetershows401Watts.Thisindicatesthatthepowerfactorcanbedeterminedby
measuringvoltage,currentandpower.Thesysteminthefigurehasapowerfactorof401/464.4=
0.86.

DistributionofElectricity
Thetransmissionanddistributionofalternatingcurrentelectricitytypicallyrangesfrom100voltsfor
residentialconsumersto500,000voltsorgreaterfortransmissionlines.Thefrequencyisusually50
or60Hzbutotherfrequencies(400Hzinshipsforexample)aresometimesused.Thereareseveral
schemes used worldwide for distribution of electricity to the customers. The power and energy
measurementsvaryamongthem.Thecommonlyusedones:
Singlephase2wire:acommonresidentialserviceinmanypartsoftheworldwhichprovides
asinglevoltage,usually100to240volts.
Singlephase3wire:acommonresidentialinNorthAmericawhichprovides2voltages,120
voltsand240volts.
Polyphase 3wire network: common in apartment building where it provides 120 volts and
208volts.
Polyphase 3wire delta: generally used in industrial operations or for a single phase motor
loadsuchaswaterpumpingstation.
Polyphase 4wire delta: sometimes used in supplying electricity to sparely populated rural
areas.Itisaneconomicalwayofprovidingacombinationofsinglephase3wireserviceanda
limitedsupplyofpolyphasepower.
Polyphase4wirewye:commonlyusedforindustrialandcommercialoperations.Itiswidely
used for electricity distribution systems, where it is transformed to other suitable service
configurations.
MeasuringElectricPower
MeteringElectricity
Active power, reactive power and voltampere are commonly measured quantities. Maximum or
peak power is used to determine the capacity of the generator and transmission system. Average
powertakenbytheloadinagiventimeintervalindicatesthepowerdemand.
Watt(W)meter:measuresactiveelectricalpower,normallydisplayedaskW.
Reactive VoltAmpere (VAR) meter: measures reactive electrical power, normally displayed
askVAR.
VoltAmpere(VA)meter:measuresapparentelectricalpower,normallydisplayedaskVA.
Energyismeasuredbyenergymetersandgenerallyusedforbillingthecustomers.
Watthour(Wh)meter:measuresactiveelectricalenergy,integratingactiveelectricalpower
withrespecttotime;wattsxtime(inhours),normallydisplayedaskWh.
VAR hour (VARh) meter: measures reactive electrical energy, integrating reactive electrical
powerwithrespecttotime,normallydisplayedaskVARh.
VA hour (VAh) meter: measures apparent electrical energy, integrating apparent electrical
powerwithrespecttotime,normallydisplayedaskVAh.
ElectricityMeteringCircuits
A power meter must sense the voltages and currents in the system to determine the power.
Measurementinasinglephase2wiresystemisstraightforwardasshowninFigure4.55.Itrequires
one measuring element composed of one current sensor and one voltage sensor. For polyphase
systems the situation is a little bit involved. The Blondel's theorem states that in a system of N
Figure4.55Powermeterconnectionforasinglephase2wireconnection
conductors, N1 metering elements, properly connected, will measure the power or energy taken.
Theconnectionmustbesuchthatallconnectioncoilshaveacommontietotheconductorinwhich
there is no current coil. Detailed discussions of measuring circuits for various power distribution
schemesisbeyondthecontextofthepresenttext.
Figure 4.56 shows the wattmeter connection for a three phase, 4wire wye service.
AccordingtoBlondel'stheorem(Nwires1)elements:3elements,eachelement=1currentsensor+
1voltagesensorprovidesaccuratemeasurement.
Figure4.56Wattmeterconnectionforathreephase,4wirewyeservice

ElectricityMeasuringDevices
An electricity meter works on electromechanical, hybrid or electronic principles. It has four
fundamental elements as sensors, multipliers, numerical conversion and registers as illustrated in
Figure4.57.Sensorsprovidetheinterfacebetweenincomingvoltageandcurrentandthemetering
Figure4.57Fundamentalelementsofanelectricitymeter
circuit. Multipliers perform the heart of the metering function by providing the product of the
voltage and current the numerical conversion is the process of transforming the output of the
multiplierstageintoaformwhichcanbeprocessedbytheregister.Andfinally,registersaredevices
thatstoreanddisplaythemeteringquantities.
ElectromechanicalMeters
Figure4.58Componentsofanelectromechanicaltypeenergymeter
TheelectromechanicalmeterusestheinductionprinciplethatisdiscussedinAppendixC.Ithasthree
mainsectionsasthemotor,brakingandthegeartrainasillustratedinFigure4.58Itisessentiallyan
induction motor driving an eddy current dampening unit. The stator consists of an electromagnet
and the rotor is an aluminum disc mounted on a shaft. A permanent magnet or braking system is
usedtokeepthediscatamanageablespeed.Atrainofgearsanddialscomeoffthediscshaftand

register the energy consumed. The hybrid one is combination of electromechanical and electronic
onesandusedinthetransitionerafromelectromechanicaltoelectronictechnology..
ElectronicMeters
The electronic meter contains additional components as multiplexers, analog to digital converter,
microprocessor, display/registers, communication and input/output ports, LED's and clocks as
illustrated in Figure 4.59. Four basic forms of electronic metering measurement have been
Figure4.59Blockdiagramofatypicalelectronictypeelectricitymeter
introducedtotheindustry:
Markspaceamplitudeortimedivisionmultiplexing
Halleffect
Transconductance
Digitalsampling
TimeDivisionMultiplexing(TDM)
TDM is a well established form of electronic metering. It can be better defined as the pulsewidth
pulseheight multiplier. It is based on analog multiplication of instantaneous voltage and current
waveformstoderivepower,whichisoutputasaseriesofpulsesasindicatedinFigure4.60.Asignal
is formed with amplitude proportional to instantaneous current (I), and duration proportional to
instantaneousvolts(V).Averagevalueofthewaveformisequaltoinstantaneouspower(P).
T1T2=k1V1
V2=k2I
TheaveragevalueofV2is
Figure4.60PowertoDCvoltageconverterusingpulsewidthpulseheightmultiplier
V2A=k2I(T1T2)/(T1+T2)=k1k2IV/(T1+T2)
Hence,thelowpassfilter/integratoryieldsthepoweras
1
Generalfeaturesofthismethodcanbesummarizedas
Goodcosttoaccuracyratio
Excellentlinearityandreliability
Performanceunderdistortionislimited
Direct
measurement
limitedtowatts/vars
Calibrationisnecessary
HallEffect
Ifacurrentconductingmaterialis
placed in a magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of
current flow then a voltage is
Figure4.61SchematicdiagramofaHalleffecttypeenergysensor
developed across that material in

adirectionperpendiculartoboththeinitialcurrentdirectionandthemagneticfield.Thisvoltageis
calledtheHallvoltagethatarisesfromthedeflectionofthemovingchargecarriersfromtheirnormal
pathbytheappliedmagneticfluxanditsresultingtransverseelectricfield.Avoltagesourcewitha
largeseriesresistorwiththeHallcellresemblesacurrentsourcethatderivesthecellasillustratedin
Figure4.61.Thelinecurrentisusedtoproduceamagneticfieldthatflowsthroughthecellatright

angles.ThedevelopedHallvoltagewillbeaproductofthelinevoltageandlinecurrents;therefore,it
yieldstheinstantaneouslinepower.
Analog watt transducers including Hall effect provide good accuracy even with distorted
wave shapes, discontinuity, or where there is poor frequency regulation. General features of this
methodcanbesummarizedas
Verycosteffectivetechnology
CanmeasureWatt/VARs,butnotVA
LinearitylessthanTDMtechnology
Excellentresponseforharmoniccontent
Susceptibletolargetemperaturechanges.
Transconductance
A transconductance device produces an
I0
V1
output current (Io) proportional to the input
Rd
voltage
illustrated
in
Figure
G0
V2
as
GT(V2 V1)
4.62.
The
Figure4.62 Symbolicrepresentationofatransconductance
device
proportionality coefficient (the transcon

ductance GT)isalinearfunctionofthebias
currentIs:
Where is the proportionality coefficient which is constant over a wide range of the bias current.
CombiningpreviousequationsandcallingVi=(V1V2)yields
So,theinputvoltagecanbeamplitudemodulatedifthemodulatingsignalisusedtovaryIs.Thebias
current must flow inward all the time. The device works as a two quadrant multiplier. The output
currentisconvertedintoanoutputvoltageasitflowsthroughafixedresistor.
The transconductance is another form of metering that incorporates both TDM and Hall
Effecttechnologybyconductinganalogmultiplicationofthelinevoltageandcurrentstoproducea
singlevoltagesignalproportionaltothelinepowerviatheuseoftransistors.Thesecondarycurrent
fromthemetertransformerisconvertedtoavoltageandappliedthebasesofthetwotransistors.

The line voltage is applied between the collectors and emitters of the transistors. A potential
difference between the two collectors is generated. This voltage is the product of the line voltage
andlinecurrentsandthereforeproportionaltothelinepower.
Excellentcosttoaccuracyratio
Requiresfourquadrantamplifierforsuperiorperformanceundervaryingpowerfactorsand
harmonicdistortions.
DigitalSampling
Digitalsamplingistheonlytechnologythatdoesnotuseanalogvaluesofvoltageandcurrent.Inthis
process, the analog values of voltage and currents are converted to digital data prior to any
multiplicationtakingplace.Agroupofsampleincludesasampleofvoltageandcurrentoneachof
thethreelines.Twoconsecutivecycleshavesamplesthatare34microsecondsapart,thisiscalled
samplemigrationandensuresthat eachgroupofsamplesisnottakenatan identicalpointduring
thecyclingofthesignal.
Most inaccuracies can be fully compensated algorithmically eliminating the need for any
physical calibration of the meter. Not very cost effective technology for single phase residential
comparedtoTDM,Halleffectandtransconductancetechnologies.
Advantages:
o
Abilitytohandlecomplexbillingrates
Increasedaccuracy
Abilitytomeasurevariousquantities,onedevice
Abilitytocollectmeterdataremotely
Abilitytoprogrammeterremotely
Havetimesavingfeatures
Abilitytomeasureallfourquadrants
Disadvantages:
o
Moresophisticatedtestingapparatusrequired
Moreaccuratereferencestandardsrequired
Moreadvancedtrainingisrequired.
PROBLEMSONMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
ReviewQuestions
1. Howdoyoumeasurevoltageinacircuit?
2. Whatisanammeterandhowitisconnectedinacircuittotakeameasurement?
3. Howtheelectromagnetictorqueisestablishedinamovingcoil?
4. Whatisthefunctionofthebalancingspringinamovingcoilinstrument?
5. Whythescaleofcommonlyusedmovingcoilinstrumentsarecircular?
6. Whatistheparallaxerrorandhowiteffectstheaccuracyofthemeasurement?
7. Whatisagalvanometerandhowitisusedasameasuringinstrument?
8. HowdoyouconstructabasicMCbasedammeter?
9. HowdoyoumakeabasicMCbasedbasicvoltmeter?
10. Whatisthedifferencebetweenmakebeforebreakandbreakbeforemaketypeswitches?
11. WhydoyouneedamultirangeammeteranditcanbebuiltfromabasicMCmeter?
12. HowaMCbasedmultirangevoltmetercanbeconstructedfromabasicammeter?
13. WhatisanohmmeterandhowitcanbeconstructedfromasimpleMCbasedammeter?
14. Whatistheloadingerrorandhowiteffectsthemeasurements?
15. WhatistheRMSvalueofawaveformandhowitdiffersfromtheaveragevalue?
16. WhatarethewaysofgeneratingaDCsignalrepresentinganACsignal?
17. WhythefullwaverectificationispreferredoverthehalfwaverectificationinACvoltmeters?
18. Whatisthewaveformfactor?
19. WhatisthewaveformerrorinvolvedinanACvoltmeter?
20. WhatisthecorrectionfactorforACandtriangularwaveforms?
21. Howdoestheclamponammeterworkandwhataretheadvantagesoveraregularammeter?
22. WhatisthetrueRMSmeterandwhatarethewaysofrealizingit?
23. Whatisanelectroniccounterandhowitmeasuresthetimeintervalbetweentwoevents?
24. Whatarethelimitationsofanoscilloscopeinmeasuringfrequencyofasignal?
25. Whatistheroleofacomparatorinelectroniccounters?
26. WhatistheBCDcounterandhowitdiffersfromanordinarybinarycounter?
27. Whatisthesignificanceofthetimebaseincounters?
28. Whatarethesourcesoferrorsincounters?
29. Whatisashaftencoderandhowitcanbeusedtomeasuretherotationalspeed?
30. What are the advantages of digital voltmeters over analog counterparts and oscilloscopes as a
voltagemeasuringdevice?
31. Whatisthesampleandholdcircuitasusedinanalogtodigitalconverter(ADC)?
32. HowdoestheintegratingtypeADCwork?

33. WhataretheadvantagesofdualslopeintegrationoverasingleslopeintegrationinDVM?
34. WhatisthesuccessiveapproximationtypeADCandwhatareitsadvantagesinDVM?
35. Howdoestheelectricalpowerdifferinresistiveandreactivecircuits?
36. Whatisthereactivepower?
37. Whatisthepowerfactor?
38. HowtheelectricityisdistributedinresidentialareasinJeddah?
39. Howdoesthetimedivisionmultiplexinginvolveinelectricitymeters?
40. Whatisthehalleffectdeviceanditsfunctioninelectricitymeters?
41. Whatisatransconductanceamplifierandhowitisusedinelectricitymeters?
42. Whataretheadvantagesofdigitalelectricitymeters?
SolvedExamplesonMovingCoilInstruments
1. A moving coil has 100 turns, 3 cm2 coil area, and airgap magnetic flux density of 0.1 Tesla
(Wb/m2).Thecontrolspringexertsatorqueof3x107Nmatthefullscaledeflectionof100.The
potentialdifferenceacrossthecoilterminalsatthefullscaledeflectionis5mV.Usingtheabove
movement:
Findthefullscaledeflectioncurrentandcoilresistance;
Ifsd=TSP/NBA=0.1mA,thereforeRm=Vm/Ifsd=50
DesignaDCammeterwitharange050mA;
Rsh1=5mV/(500.1)mA=0.1
DesignamultirangeDCvoltmeterwithranges010Vand0200V.
Forvoltmeterranges,Rmisnegligible:Rs1=10V/0.1mA=100kandRs2=2M
Whatwouldbethedeflectionangleforaninputvoltageof7Vin010Vrange?
Since10Vcauses100,7Vwillcause70ofdeflection
2. A moving coil has 80 turns, 4 cm2 coil area, and airgap magnetic flux density of 0.1 Tesla
(Wb/m2).Thecontrolspringexertsatorqueof4x107Nmatthefullscaledeflectionof90.The
potential difference across the coil terminals at the fullscale deflection is 10 mV. Using the
abovemovement:
Findthefullscaledeflectioncurrentandcoilresistance;
Ifsd=TSP/NBA=0.125mA=125A,thereforeRm=Vm/Ifsd=80
DesignaDCammeterwitharange0100mA;
Rsh1=10mV/(1000.125)mA0.1
DesignamultirangeDCvoltmeterwithranges0100Vand0200V.
Forvoltmeterranges,Rmisnegligible:Rs1=100V/0.125mA=800kandRs2=1.6M
Whatwouldbethedeflectionangleforaninputvoltageof65Vin0100Vrange?
Since100Vcauses90,65Vwillcause65x90/100=58.5ofdeflection.
3. A DArsonval (moving coil) movement based AC voltmeter is
calibrated to read correctly the RMS value of applied
25 k
10 k
Vm
sinusoidal voltages. The meter resistance is 1000/V, it is
Vs
used in 0 100 V range and the scale has 50 divisions. The

meterreadsVm=50V(RMS)
a. Find the % error in the measured voltage due to reading error assuming that you can
readdowntohalfofthesmallestscaledivisionsaccurately. Smallestscaledivisionis2V
yieldingareadingerrorof1V;1*100/2=2%
b. FindVsifitisasinusoidalwaveformwithzeroaverage.Rm=100k,Rl'=25*100/125=
20k,I=50/20=2.5mA,Vs=I*(20+10)*103=75V
c. Findtheloadingerrorin(%).Truereadingwithanidealvoltmeterwouldbe=25*75/35=
53.57V,error=(53.5750)*100/53.57=6.67%
d. Findthetotalerrorinthismeasurement.Reading+Loading=8.67%
4. ADArsonval(movingcoil)movementbasedACvoltmeter
is calibrated to read correctly the RMS value of applied
20 k
5 k
Vm
sinusoidalvoltages.Themeterresistanceis4000/Vand
itisusedin050Vrange.
Vs
FindVsifitissinusoidalandVm=36V(RMS)
Vm(t)
The meter resistance is 4000(/V)x50V = 200 k is parallel

with20kyielding RL=18.18k. I =Vm/RL=1.98mA. Vs =
100 V
5x1.98+36=45.9V(rms)
t
0
Theperiodicwaveformvm(t)shownisappliedtothemeter.
CalculateVRMSforthiswaveform,
-50 V

3
1 1
2
VRMS
= [ 10000 xdt + 2500 xdt ]
0
2
3
;VRMS=70.71V,
Howmuchisthevoltageindicatedbythemeter(Vindicated)?
Averagevalueoftherectifiedsignal=66.67VVindicated=1.11xVAV=74V
Findthewaveformerrorinthismeasurement.
%error=100x(7470.71)/70.71=4.65%
5. An AC voltmeter calibrated for sinusoidal voltages is used to measure both the input (V1) and
output(V2)voltages.Ithasascalewith100divisionsandmeasurementranges:(050)mV;(0
100)mV;(0500)mV;(01)V;(02)V;(05)Vand(010)V
Determinetherangethatwouldyieldthemostaccuratereadingfor V1,thevalueindicated
bythemeterforV1andpercentagereadinguncertainty(assumethatthereadinguncertainty
is0.5division).
The meter would indicate 1.11VAV =1.11x0.636xVpeak = 28.27 mV. Hence, range (0 50) mV is the
mostaccuratewithuncertainty0.25mV0.88%
Repeat(a)forV2.
Vind=1.11x0.636x1.5=1.06volt;range(02)V,uncertainty0.01V0.94%
6. An average reading fullwave rectifier moving coil AC
voltmeteriscalibratedtoreadcorrectlytheRMSvalue
of applied sinusoidal voltages. The periodic waveform
v(t) shown is applied to the meter. Calculate VRMS for

thiswaveform,Vindicatedandthewaveformerrorinit.
5V
v(t)
t
-5 V
The fullwave rectifier will convert the input waveform into a saw tooth voltage waveform of
question4.3withamplitude5voltsandperiodT=1second.Usingtheequationsinanswer4.3,VAV=
2.5V;VRMS=0.577Vm=2.89V.ThevalueindicatedbythemeterVind=1.11xVAV=2.775V.Therefore,
%(waveform)error=100x(2.7752.89)/2.89=4%
Draw the circuit diagram and explain the operation of the fullwave rectifier bridge circuit
usedtoconvertDArsonvalmovementintoanACvoltmeter.
Pleaserefertothelecturenotesfortheoperationofthefullwaverectifier.
V(t)
Vr(t)
5V
5V
t
V(t)
Full-wave
Rectifier
t
Vr(t)
-5 V
WhatistheVRMSforazeroaveragedsquarewaveformofpeaktopeakvalue=10V?Whatis
thevalueindicatedforitbytheACvoltmetercalibratedtoreadappliedsinusoidalvoltages
correctly?Whatisthepercentagewaveformerrorinthatvalue?
Thezeroaveragedsquarewavehasamagnitude5V.Themagnitudebecomes+5Vafterthefull
waverectificationforalltimes.VRMS=VAV=5V.Themetercalibratedforsinusoidalvoltageswillread
Vind=1.11x5=5.55V.Hence,the%error=100x(5.555)/5=11%
Repeat(a)ifthesquarewaveacceptsamplitudevaluesbetween0and10volts.
Theoutputofthefullwaverectifierwillbethesameasitsinputasshowninthefigure. VAV =5V
V(t)
10V
10V
0V
V(t)
Full-wave
Rectifier
Vr(t)
Vr(t)
0V
andVind=5.55V.TheRMSvoltageisdifferentas: VRMS
1 2
=
100 dt = 7.07V .
T 0
Yielding,the%error=100x(5.557.07)/7.07=21.5%
ExplaintheoperationofonecircuitthroughwhichtheDArsonvalmovementcanbeusedas
ameterformeasuringperiodicsignals.Whatisthescalefactorforcalibratingsuchameter?
ThemeterbasedonDArsonvalmovementinherentlymeasures(IM)theaveragevalueoftheinput
applied. Therefore, a zeroaveraged AC input voltage would cause VIM=0 as the displayed value.
Thefullwaverectifierconvertsthe AC inputvoltageintoawaveformthat isequalto theabsolute
value of the input. Hence, the negative halfcycle also produces a positive voltage at the output.
Eventually the average of the output becomes 2Vm/, where Vm is the peak value of the voltage
yielding VIM=2Vm/=0.636VmTheactualvaluethatwewanttomeasureistheRMSvaluewhichis
VRMS=0.707VmIfthereadingisnotcorrected,therewillbe10%errorinit.Thescalefactor SF=1.11
=VRMS/VAVisusedtocorrectthereadingandeliminatethereadingerror.
What is the VRMS for the waveform shown?

What is the value indicated by an AC
voltmeter
calibrated
for
sinusoidal
waveforms? What is the percentage

waveformerrorinthatvalue?
v(t)
10 V
0
1 3
-10 V
Duetosymmetry,VRMScanbecalculatedfrom0to4secondsas:
VRMS =
2
1
3
1
200
yielding VRMS=8.16V.Theaveragevalueiscomputedin
[ 2 x 100 t 2 dt + 100 dt ] =
0
1
4
3
a similar manner as: V AV =
1
3
1
30
[ 2 x 10tdt + 10 dt ] =
= 7.5V The voltage reading indicated by
0
1
4
4
themeteris:Vind=1.11xVAV=8.325V.%error=100x(8.3258.16)/8.16=2.2%
QuestionswithSolutions
The circuit shown has a DC voltage source driving a circuit formed by two
R1
resistorsR1andR2.Thesourcevoltageis50V,R1=15kandR2=10k.
DC
R2
1. HowmuchisthevoltageacrossR2?Ans.20V
2. Assume that you measure the voltage across R2 using an analog instrument on its 25 V range,
meterresistance1k/V,anditsspecifiedaccuracyis2%offullscale.Determinethemeasured
valueandmeasurementaccuracy.
Ans.Meterresistanceis25kthatcomesinparallelwithR2.R2'=R2//Rm=7.14k,themetercan
read down to 0.5 V (2% of full scale) accurately. Hence, we can read the voltage down to the
doubtfuldigitwhichisthefirstdecimalyieldingV2'=16.0V.Loadingerroris4Vandthetotalerroris
4.5Vyielding22.5%
3. AssumethatyoumeasurethevoltageacrossR2usingadigitalinstrumentwitha3digitdisplay,
meterresistance10Mandanaccuracyof(0.5%ofreading+1digit).Determinethemeasured
valueandmeasurementaccuracy.
Rm>>R2meaningthattheloadingerrorisnegligible.Themeterwilldisplay20.0;thedigiterroris0.1
Vandtheinstrumenterroris0.1Vaswell.Thetotalerroris0.2Vyielding1%

GeneralQuestions
1. A DArsonval (moving coil) movement based AC
voltmeteriscalibratedtoreadcorrectlytheRMSvalueof
applied sinusoidal voltages. The meter resistance is
4000/V,itisusedin0100Vrangeandthescalehas
10 k
25 k
Vm
Vs
50divisions.ThemeterreadsVm=50V(RMS)
a. Find the % error in the measured voltage due to reading error assuming that you can
readdowntohalfofthesmallestscaledivisionsaccurately.
b. Find Vs if it is a sinusoidal waveform with zero average with and without 25 k (i.e.
outputisopencircuit).
c. Findtheloadingerrorin(%).
d. Findthetotalerrorinthismeasurement.
2. Draw the simplified functional diagram of an electronic counter for period measurement and
label each block clearly. Indicate sample signals that would appear at variousstages. What are
theadvantagesofelectroniccountersinfrequencymeasurement?Whyweprefermeasuringthe
periodandcalculatingthefrequencyfromitforlowfrequencysignals?
3. Anelectroniccounterisusedinperiodmodeformeasuringlowfrequencies
a. Whythecounterisusedintheperiodmode?
b. IfthecounterreadingisT=120333.0s,whatisthegatinguncertaintyinT?
c. Howmuchisthenominalfrequencyandpercentageuncertaintyinthefrequency?
4. Forthedigital(electronic)counter:
a. Explainthefunctionoftheinputsignalshaper.
b. Explainthefunctionofthetimebasegenerator.
c. Whatwillbethenumberdisplayedifthecounterisinfrequencymode,timebaseisset
to 1 msec and the frequency of the input signal is 985,756 Hz? How much is the
uncertaintyinthefrequencyreading?
5. Averagingisusedinperiodmeasurement.
a. Whatisthefunctionofaveragingused?
b. It reduces the uncertainty in data. Prove that if N independent periods are used in
averaging,eachwithuncertaintyT,theuncertaintyintheaveragedperiodis
6. Assume the clock frequency is 1MHz and uncertainty is 1%. It is used to obtain a gating pulse
with1second.Howmuchisthepercentileuncertaintyinthepulseduration?

7. Theelectroniccountercanbeusedformeasuringthetimeperiodofperiodicsignals.Showthat
theuncertaintyinthemeasurementcanbereducedbyafactorof
periods is taken. Hint: TAV =
1
iftheaverageofNtime
N
1
(T1 + T2 + + TN ) The TIs are statistically independent,
N
Ti = T T ,i
8. Anelectroniccounterisusedinperiodmodeformeasuringlowfrequencies
a. Whythecounterisusedintheperiodmode?
b. IfthecounterreadingisT=120333.0s,whatisthegatinguncertaintyinT?
c. Howmuchisthenominalfrequencyandpercentageuncertaintyinthefrequency?
9. Inthestroboscopicmethodofrotativespeedmeasurement,twosuccessiveflashfrequenciesf1
andf2thatproduceasinglestableimagearef1=41.1Hz2%,f2=19.9Hz2%.
a. Showthattheshaftspeedis v =
f1 f 2
f1 f 2
b. Calculatingvfromtheaboveformula,finditsnominalvalueandpercentageuncertainty.
10. A digital voltmeter uses 3 digit display (it can display up to 1999). It is used to measure a
voltage across a standard cell whose value is 1.234 volt 5 times and following readings are
obtained:1.2202,1.2115,1.2456,1.2218.Determinetheaccuracy,theprecisionandthebiasof
thevoltmeter.
11. Thedigitalvoltmeterisofpositiveramptype.Theclock(timebase)runsat1MHz.Theslopeof
therampis1000volt/s.Thevoltageappliedforthemeasurementis1.5voltDC.Drawtheblock
diagram of the digital voltmeter and sketch the diagram for voltage to time conversion. Then,
determinethedurationofthegatesignalproducedasaresultofthevoltagetotimeconversion
andnumberofclockpulsesappliedtothecounter.
12. Drawasimplifiedblockdiagramoframptypedigitalvoltmeterandlabeleachblockclearly.Show
sample signals at various stages. State the advantages of voltage measurement using a digital
voltmeter.
13. Foraramptypedigitalvoltmeter:
a. Explainthefunctionofthetimebaseoscillator.
b. Explainthevoltagetotimeconversion.
c. Howthepolarityofthevoltageisidentified?
d. Assume that the number displayed is 10.025 V. How much is the uncertainty in the
voltagereading?
e. Whatisthesignificanceofthesamplerate?
f.
Whatarethefactorsaffectingtheaccuracyofthemeasurement?

14. Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenelectroniccountersanddigitalvoltmeters?
15. AdualslopeA/DhasR=100kandC=0.01F.Thereferencevoltageis10voltsandthefixed
integrationtimeis10ms.Findtheconversiontimefora6.8voltinput.
16. Find the successive approximation A/D output for a 4bit converter to a 3.217 volt input if the
referenceis5volts.
17. A20Vdcvoltageismeasuredbyanaloganddigitalmultimeters.Theanaloginstrumentisonits
25 V range , and its specified accuracy is 2%. The digital meter has 3 digit display and an
accuracyof(0.6+1).Determinethemeasurementaccuracyineachcase.
Oscillographic Measurements and Picture Displays / 207
OSCILLOGRAPHICMEASUREMENTSANDPICTUREDISPLAYS
WAVEFORMDISPLAYDEVICES
OperatingPrinciplesofanOscilloscope
SimplifiedBlockDiagramofanOscilloscope
BASICOSCILLOSCOPEOPERATIONS
ElectrostaticDeflection
OperationinSweepMode
OperationinXYMode
MULTITRACEOSCILLOSCOPES
DIGITALSTORAGEOSCILLOSCOPES(DSO)
NecessityforDSOandItsAdvantages
PrinciplesofOperation
CurrentTrends
VIRTUALINSTRUMENTATION
Definition
ComponentsofVirtualInstrumentation
VirtualInstrumentationforDesign
PICTUREDISPLAY
GenerationandPresentationofPicture
TheCathodeRayTube(CRT)
LiquidCrystals
PaintingtheScreen
AspectRatioandViewableArea
AdvantagesofLCDandCRTMonitors
OtherDisplayTechnologies
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Expressprinciplesofwaveformdisplays.
Stateadvantagesofoscilloscopedisplaysinmeasurement.
Discussprinciplesofwaveformdisplaysonanoscilloscope.
Drawasimplifiedblockdiagramofanoscilloscopeandexplaintheprincipleofoperation.Express
theelectrostaticdeflectiononanoscilloscopescreenanddiscussthesignificanceofoperationat
sweepmode.
Measurevoltageandtimeinformationfromtheoscilloscopedisplay.
Explaintheneedforthetriggeredsweepmodeofoperation.
Explainthedisplayofhighfrequencysignalsandfunctionofthedelayline.
ExpresstheoperationoftheoscilloscopeinXYmodeandinterpretthelissajousfigure.
Describetheadvantagesofmultitraceoscilloscope.
Explainhowtoobtainmultipletracesfromasingleelectrongun.
Expressthenecessityandstateadvantagesofdigitalstorageoscilloscopes(DSO).
IllustratetheprincipleofoperationoftheDSO.
ExplaintheoperationandfunctionofDSO.
ReportcurrenttrendsinDSOtechnology.
Definevirtualinstrumentationanditsfunctions.
Identifythecomponentsofavirtualinstrumentationsystem.
Pointouttheuseofvirtualinstrumentationinsystemdesign.
Illustratetheprincipleofgenerationofapicturedisplay.
Definethepictureelement(pixel).
Statethestandardsandresolutioninpicturedisplays.
DiscusstheCRTbasedpicturedisplays.
Describetheprinciplesofoperationforliquidcrystaldisplays(lcd).
Explaintherasterscanasameanofpaintingthescreen.
Definetheaspectratioandviewableareaforadisplayscreen.
CompareandcontrastCRTandlcdtypedisplays.
Namenewemergingdisplaytechnologiesandstatetheirprinciplesofoperation.
WAVEFORMDISPLAYDEVICES
Thesignalisaphysicalvariable(suchasforce,velocity,voltage,currentetc)associatedwithasystem
anditisalmostalwaysafunctionoftime.A waveformisagraphicrepresentationofawave.Itisa
necessity for engineers to observe waveforms for various signals in order to make certain
measurements and compare them to each other. This requires conversion of the physical variable
into a trace through a writing mechanism and a medium over which the information can be
imprinted. What is measured is the distance between certain points on the marked trace that is a
representative of the waveform for the physical variable concerned. The type and technique of
displayaffectthequalityofthemeasurement.
Forinscribingthevariationsofasignalintime,apenandpapercan
be used. In this case, the writing pen moves vertically in response to the
magnitudeofthesignalwhilethewritingmedium(paper)moveshorizontally
at a constant speed as illustrated in Figure 5.1. This is called yt recording
sincethesignalisrepresentedonverticalaxis(yaxis)andthehorizontalaxis
Figure5.1Awaveform
recordingdevice
representsthetime.Insomeapplicationsthehorizontalmotioniscontrolledbyanothersignalrather
thantime.Thisrecordingiscalled xyrecording.However,thistechniqueislimitedtorecordinglow
frequency applications since the mechanical parts cannot respond to high frequency signals.
Oscilloscopesareusedtodisplayhighfrequencysignals.
Anoscilloscopemeasuresvoltagewaves.One cycleofawaveistheportionofthewavethat
repeats. A voltage waveform shows time on the horizontal axis and voltage on the vertical axis.
Oscilloscopes are electronic equipment mainly used in displaying and measuring electrical voltage
signals. Other physical signals can be displayed through proper sensors. The writing pen in this
equipmentistheelectronbeamandwritingmediumisaspecialscreenthatglowswhentheelectron
beam strikes on it. The electron beam can be deflected from its straight path using electrical or
magneticfields,henceeasilymovedacrossthescreen.Eventuallyaspotoflightthatcanbeplaced
on different locations on the screen under the control of external electrical signals becomes
available.For ytrecording,thespottravelshorizontallyacrossthescreenataconstantspeedand
moves vertically in response to the magnitude of the input signal. Intensity or brightness of the
displayissometimescalledthe zaxisasillustratedinFigure5.2.Thetrajectorylookslikeabouncing
ballthatmovesacrossthescreenandthehumaneyecanfollowitifthemotionisslow.Ifthelight
balldrawsthesametrajectoryonthescreenformorethanabout24timesasecond,thehumaneye
cannotfollowthemotionanditwillseeitasafixedtraceonthescreen.
Figure5.2Waveformdisplayedonanoscilloscope
This chapter deals with measurements using oscilloscopes. Details of display devices are
presentedinAppendixB.
Figure5.3Frontpanelofananalogoscilloscope(TektronixTAS465)
OperatingPrinciplesofanOscilloscope
Oscilloscopescanbeclassifiedasanaloganddigital.Tobetterunderstandtheoscilloscopecontrols,
weneedto knowalittle moreabout howoscilloscopesdisplay asignal.Analogoscilloscopeswork
somewhatdifferentlythandigitaloscilloscopes.However,severaloftheinternalsystemsaresimilar.
Analog oscilloscopes are somewhat simpler in concept and are described below. Front panel of an
oscilloscopeisshowninFigure5.3.Ithasadisplayscreenwitha8cmby10cmgriddrawnonit.The
displayhascontrolsfortheintensity(brightnessofthetrace),focusandastigmatism(sharpnessof
the trace). On the right hand side there are control sections for vertical, horizontal, and trigger
controls and input connectors. The oscilloscope is a versatile instrument that can be used for
measuringsignalvoltagesfromafew millivoltsup tohundreds ofvolts.Dependingonhowweset
the vertical scale (volts/div control), an attenuator reduces the signal voltage or an amplifier
increasesthesignalvoltage.One cycleofawaveistheportionofthewavethatrepeats.Ingeneral
use,onlyafewcyclesaredisplayed.Foranalogoscilloscopes,thisspecificationindicateshowfastthe

trace can sweep across the screen, allowing us to see fine details. The fastest sweep speed of an
oscilloscopeisusuallygiveninnanoseconds/div.
SimplifiedBlockDiagramofanOscilloscope
ThesimplifiedblockdiagramofageneralpurposeoscilloscopeisshowninFigure5.4.Theheartofan
oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube (CRT): electron gun, deflection plates, phosphorouscoated
screen and an evacuated glass tube that encloses all are the main components of the CRT. The
electronbeamproduced bytheelectrongunisusedtoproduceavisualimageon thescreen. The
CRTrequireshighvoltagesintheorderofafewthousandvoltsfortheaccelerationoftheelectron,
Volts/Div
Input
Signal
Vertical
Amplifier
Delay Line
To CRT
Electron
Beam
HV Supply
LV Supply
CRT
Electron
Gun
Screen
To All Circuits
Trigger
Circuit
Time-Base
Generator
Horizontal
Amplifier
Time/Div
Figure5.4Simplifiedblockdiagramofananalogoscilloscope
whilealowvoltagefortheelectrongun,whichemitstheelectrons.Supplyvoltagesforothercircuits
arelessthanafewhundredvoltsatmaximum.Thepowersupplyblockprovidesvoltagesrequiredby
theCRTandtherestoftheoscilloscopecircuitries.
Two signals are needed to deflect the beam on the screen horizontally and vertically. The
laboratoryoscilloscopeisgenerallyusedtodisplaysignalsintime.Thesignaltobeviewedisapplied
toavertical(deflection)amplifierthatincreasesthepotentialoftheinputsignaltoalevelthatwill
provideausefuldeflectionoftheelectronbeam.
The timebase circuitry generates a voltage to supply the CRT to deflect the spot at a
constanttimedependantrate.Thevoltagewaveformisnamedcommonlyasthesweepsignalandit

has the appearance of a repetitive ramp function. A triggering circuit is used to synchronize the
horizontaldeflectionwiththeverticalinput,sothatthehorizontaldeflectionstartsatthesamepoint
of the vertical input signal each time it runs (sweeps). Eventually, the beam moves at a constant
timedependantratehorizontallyandtheimagegeneratedonthescreenindicatesthetimevariation
oftheinputsignal.
Eachblockinasignalpathcausescertaintimedelay.Hence,thebeamdoesnotstartmoving
horizontallyimmediatelyfollowingthedetectionofthetriggerpoint.Thedelaylinedelaysthesignal
appliedtotheverticalplatesbyanamountequaltothetimedelayforthesweepsignalappliedto
the horizontal deflection plates. Eventually, the vertical signal is displayed on the screen always
startingatthetriggerpoint.
BASICOSCILLOSCOPEOPERATIONS
VV
ElectrostaticDeflection
Two pairs of deflection plates at right angles to each other are used to
provide deflection of the light spot in a Cartesian system as depicted in
Figure5.5.Theamountofvoltagethatmustbeappliedbetweenapairof
VH
deflection plates to produce a unit length of deflection of the spot
Figure5.5
depends upon the deflection factor of the CRT. Deflection factors for
horizontalandverticaldeflectionplatesarenotthesame.
Positive potential on
the left X plate
Positive potential on
the top Y plate
Negative potential on
the top Y plate
Negative potential on
the left X plate
+
+
Positive potentials on the

left X and top Y plates
Sawtooth waveform on
X plate only
Sine wave on
Y plate only
Figure5.6DeflectionofelectronbeamontheCRTscreenduetoseveralcombinationsofvoltagesappliedtodeflectionplates

VariouscombinationsoftwovoltagewaveformsonthescreenareillustratedinFigure5.6.A
fixedspotisobtainedasDCvoltagesareappliedtobothpairsoftheplates.Ahorizontallineisdrawn
when a sawtooth waveform is applied to the horizontal (X) plates only. Similarly, a vertical line is
drawnasasinusoidalvoltageisappliedtothevertical(Y)platesonly.
OperationinSweepMode
VV
The CRO spot traces an image on the screen when horizontal and
vertical deflection voltages are applied as shown in Figure 5.7. The
voltage applied to horizontal deflection mechanism is the sawtooth
VH
thatisgeneratedbythetimebasecircuit.Ithasafixedslopeandlets
the electron beam to travel horizontally at a constant speed.
Figure5.7
Meanwhile, the input signal (sinusoidal type in the figure) is

amplifiedandappliedtotheverticaldeflectionplates.
Figure5.8showsadetailedillustration.Thetiminginformationforbothsignalsisexposedin
thefigure.Twocyclesoftheinputsignalaredisplayedonthescreen.Thesecondsweepfollowsthe
firstoneimmediatelyindicatingthattheretracetimeisnegligiblecomparedtothetracetime.
Oscilloscope screen
v
5
2
6
4
t
3
Vertical input signal
0
Time Base Signal
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
t
Figure5.8Displayofsignalsontheoscilloscopescreeninsweepmode

MeasurementsinSweepMode
Amplitude and time variations of the signals can be viewed and measured. In multichannel
oscilloscopes, more than one input can be observed simultaneously and compared to each other.
Figure5.9illustratestwosignalsV1andV2displayedtogether.
The amplitude measurement is made either as reading of the peak value or peaktopeak
value.Thetimemeasurementisdonetodeterminetheperiodofaperiodicsignalandthephaseshift
betweentwosignals.ThedisplacementsinbothXandYdirectionsaretakenandmultipliedbythe
scalefactorsassetatthefrontpaneloftheoscilloscopetocomputetheamplitudeinvoltandtimein
second.
Both measurements require a wellfocused trace with gain controls at cal (calibrate)
positions.Also,thetimemeasurementispossiblewiththeleasterrorifitisdonebetweentwosteep
points on the trace. The steepest point of a sinusoidal signal occurs as the signal crosses the time
axis.Thefollowingexampleillustratesbasicmeasurementsandtheiruncertainties.
Example5.1
ForthedualtraceshowninFigure5.9above,theverticalsettingsare0.1V/cmand0.2V/cmforV1
and V2 respectively. The time base
settingis5ms/cm.Thetriggersource
V2
Period
is CH1 (V1). Assume uncertainty of

0.5 mm in all distances measured.
V1
Peak
Find:
Peak
to
peak
Peakandpeaktopeakvalues
of V1 and V2 with uncertainties

involved.
Phase
shift
Period
Figure5.9Dualchanneloperationinsweepmode
Timeperiodandfrequencyof
V2andtheiruncertainties.
Thetriggerlevelandslope.
The phase shift between V1
(CH1)andV2(CH2).DoesV1leadsor
lagsV2?Howmuchistheuncertainty
inthephaseshift?
Solution
PeakvalueofV1=V1p=2(cm)x0.1(V/cm)=0.2V;

peaktopeakvalueofV1=V1pp=4(cm)x0.1(V/cm)=0.4V.Similarly,
V2p=3(cm)x0.2(V/cm)=0.6V;V2pp=6(cm)x0.2(V/cm)=1.2V
Theuncertaintyindistanceis0.5mmyielding
V1p=(20.05)(cm)x0.1(V/cm)=0.20.005V=0.2V2.5%
V2p=(30.05)(cm)x0.2(V/cm)=0.60.01V=0.6V1.67%
V1pp=(42x0.05)(cm)x0.1(V/cm)=0.40.01V=0.4V2.5%
V2pp=(60.1)(cm)x0.2(V/cm)=1.20.02V=1.2V1.67%
TimeperiodandfrequencyofV2.T=(50.05)(cm)x5(ms/cm)=250.25ms=25ms1%
f = 1/T.
f
1
= 2 Nominal value of the frequency; f = 40 Hz. Limiting error is the same as the
T
T
expected accuracy for the frequency. f =
f
T
T =
f yields the relative accuracy for the
T
T
periodandthefrequencyarethesameas1%.Hence,f=400.4Hz=40Hz1%
Triggerlevel=0.5cm&(+)slope.
Nominalvalueofthephaseshiftis =
dx360
=0.6(cm)x360/5(cm)=43.Amongthetwotraces,
T
theonethatassumesitsmaximumfirstiscalledtheleadingtrace.Hence,V1isleadingV2(alsocanbe
said as V2 is lagging V1). The uncertainty in the phase: ( )

2
2
= (d ) + (T ) ;
T
d
2
360 xd
360
=
= and
=
= yielding
2
d
T
T
d
T
T
d T
2
2
3
= (0.01) + (0.08) = 7.04 x10 andeventually=8.4%,=43
+
=
d T
3.6=438.4%.Thedominantfactorin/isd/dsinceitismuchlargerthanT/T
TriggeredSweepMode
The oscilloscope is either used in storage mode or in refreshed mode. The sweep signal is applied
once only in the storage mode and the traces are stored. Some cathode ray tubes have a special
function that stores the trace on the screen and holds it long enough to record the readings or to
take a picture. These tubes are rather expensive and the storage function is mostly replaced by a
digital storage system that saves the signal in electronic circuits. The storage function is essential
especiallyinstudyingtransientsignalsthatcannotberepeated.

Periodic signals are commonly used during electronic circuit design and test works. Same
eventsarerepeatedoverandover.Generationofthesawtoothwaveforminthetimebasecanbe
synchronizedsothattheelectronbeamfollowsthesametrajectoryeverytimeitcrossesthescreen.
This allows utilization of refreshed type CRTs that gives realtime displays of signals. The trace will
appearstationaryonthescreeniftherepetitionrateismorethan24timesasecond.
The trigger circuit is used to obtain the synchronization between the input signal and the
sweep signal as discussed in previous section. Its operation is summarized here if that section is
skipped. The trigger circuit generates a synchronization (trigger) pulse that initiates the sawtooth
waveform.ItcomparestheinputsignaltoaDCsignalinternallygenerated.TheleveloftheDCsignal
can be controlled from the front panel of the oscilloscope. It must be set to a value between the
mostnegative(minimum)andmostpositive(maximum)valuesoftheinputsignal.Theinputsignal
coincides with the threshold (trigger level) two times during the cycle; first as it goes above the
threshold(positiveslope)andsecondtimeasitgoesbelowthethreshold(negativeslope).Theuser
canselecteitheroneofthemusingthebuttonsonthefrontpanel.
Figure 5.10 illustrates the generation of trigger pulses and sawtooth waveforms. The top
traceexemplifiestheinputsignal.Thethreshold(triggerlevel)signalisshownonthefirsttraceasthe
dashed line. A negativeslope triggering is used in the example and coincidences are marked. The
Threshold (trigger level)
Repetitive input signal

Trigger pulses
Retrace
Trace
Sweep waveform
Hold-off
Display on
Screen
Figure5.10Thetriggeredsweepmodeofoperation
trigger pulses generated are shown as the second trace. The sawtooth waveform is also named as
thesweepsignalanditisthethirdtrace.
Trigger pulses that occur during the trace and retrace phases of the sweep are ignored. In
freerunning modesweepsfolloweachother.The tracesaredrawnonthescreenovereachother
andtheydonotfollowthesametrajectoryunlessthefrequencyoftheinputsignalisamultipleof
thefrequencyofthesweepsignal.Intriggeredsweepmode,thesecondsweepisnotgenerateduntil

a new trigger pulse is received. Hence, all traces follow the same trajectory yielding a stationary
display. The freerunning mode is useful in determining the amplitude range of the input signal in
casethetriggerthresholdissetbeyondthisrange.
Thesawtoothwaveformdropstozeroafteritreachesthemaximum.Thisdroptakescertain
amountoftimedependinguponthetimebasecircuitused.Duringthistimetheelectronbeamflies
backtothelefthandsideofthescreenandwaits(holdoff)thereuntilthestartofthenextsweep.
TheelectrongunintheCRTisturnedoff(blanked)duringtheretraceandholdofftimestoavoidthe
retraceappearingonthescreenandastrongglowingspotontheleftsideofthescreen.Thetrace,
retraceandholdoffintervalsaremarkedonthefigure.Theresultantoscilloscopedisplayisshown
insidethecircle.
Theinputsignaltothetriggercircuitisthesignalappliedtotheverticaldeflectionplatesin
Figure 5.10. In case of multitrace oscilloscopes, any one of the signals displayed can be used for
triggering. Line voltage at 50 Hz / 60 Hz can also be selected as the source of the trigger. This is
importantinapplicationsinvolvingthecomponentofthe50Hz/60Hzlinevoltageasinterference
onothersignals.Thetriggerinputcanbeappliedfromoutsideaswell.Thetriggersourceisselected
usingaselectorswitchonthefrontpanel.
OperationatHighFrequenciesandFunctionoftheDelayLine
Thereisaninevitabledelaybetweentheapplicationoftheinputandappearanceoftheoutputinall
electroniccircuitelements.Theamountofdelaydependsupontheelementitselfandspecifiedbyits
Trigger level
Input signal
T1
Trigger pulses
T2
T3
Sweep signal to
horizontal deflection
plates
Delayed signal
Displayed signal
Figure5.11Functionofthedelayline

manufacturer. In the triggered mode of operation, the input signal is applied to the trigger circuit
thatderivesthesawtoothwaveformgenerator.Then,theresultantsawtoothwaveformisappliedto
thehorizontaldeflectionplatesviathehorizontalamplifier.Hence,thereisatimedelay(intheorder
of a few hundred nanosecond) between the coincidence of the input signal with the trigger level
signal(triggerpickoff)andstartingofthesweeponthedisplay.Thisdelaymaynotbeobjectionable
atlowfrequencyapplications.Forexample,theperiodofa1kHzsinewaveis1millisecond.Ifthe
delayis100nanosecondwhichisoneinatenthousandoftheperiod.Hence,itwillnotbeeffective
ondisplayingthesignal.However,ifwehavethefrequencyas10MHz,theperiodofthesignalis100
nanosecond,whichisthesameasthedelay.Adelaylineisaddedbetweentheverticalamplifierand
theverticaldeflectionplatesthatwilldelaytheapplicationoftheinputsignaltothedeflectionplates
bytheamountoftimeequaltothedelaycomesfromthetimebasecircuitry.Figure5.11illustrates
theeffectofthedelayline.ThedelayintriggercircuitisT1,delayinsawtoothgeneratorisT2and
delayinthehorizontalamplifierisindicatedasT3.Theinputsignalisdelayedbythesameamountso
thatthesweepsstartsdisplayingtheinputsignalfromthecoincidencepoint.
OperationinXYMode
TheoscilloscopecanbeusedtodisplaytwosignalswithrespecttoeachotherasillustratedinFigure
5.12.Thetimebaseisswitchedoff.Oneoftheinputsisappliedto
VV
vertical while the other one is applied to the horizontal amplifier.

ThisiscalledtheXYmode.
If two sine waves are simultaneously applied, the resulting
displayintheXYmodeiscalledaLissajouspattern.Themagnitudes
VH
of signals and the phase shift between them can be determined

easilyifbothhavethesamefrequency.Inthiscase,thepatternisa
Figure5.12
diagonalstraightline,anellipseorcircleasshowninFigure5.13.
The operation can be studied analytically as follows: Assume that
two signals vx(t) and vy(t) are applied to horizontal and vertical deflection plates respectively as
shown in the figure. Both are sinusoidal signals with magnitudes Vx and Vy for vx(t) and vy(t)
respectively.Theplotonthescreencanbeexpressedbytheparametricequation
vx(t)=Vxsin(t)andvy(t)=Vysin(t)

Vy(t)
Vy(t)
Vy(t)
Vy
Vy
Vy
Vx
Vx(t)
-Vx
Vx
-Vx
-Vy
Vx(t)
-Vx
Vx(t)
Vx
-Vy
-Vy
vx(t) = Vx sin(t)
vy(t) = Vy sin(t)
vx(t) = Vx sin(t)
vy(t) = -Vy sin(t)
vx(t) = Vx sin(t)
vy(t) = Vy sin(t+)
Figure5.13DisplaysfortwosinusoidalsignalsofthesamefrequencyinXYmode
forthefirstplot.ThisrepresentsastraightlineintheXYplanethatcanbewrittenas
y=(Vy/Vx)x
TheslopeofthelineisVy/Vx.Themiddleplothasanegativeslopeduetothenegativesigninthe
definition of vy(t). There is a phase shift between the two signals in the third case. The plot is an
ellipse.Ifthephaseshiftis90andmagnitudesareidentical,thentheellipseisconvertedtoacircle
withradiusVx=Vy.
Themagnitudesofsignalscanbedeterminedfromthepeakvaluesoftheellipseasshownin
thepreviousfigure.Thephaseshiftbetweenthemisfoundusingthemagnitudesandzerocrossing
forvy(t).Att=0,vy(t)=Vysinandvx(t)=0.Hence,
sin=yintercept/ymax
Bothnegativeandpositiveanglesleadtothesameplotonthescreen.Thus,itisnotpossibletotell
whichoneofthesignalisleading.FollowingexamplesillustratetheutilizationoftheXYmode.
Example5.2Sketchthescopewaveforms:
Insweepmodeforv1(t)=1sin(4000t),v2(t)=2sin(4000t+45)withverticalsettings0.5V/cmfor
bothchannels,timebasesetting0.1ms/cm,screenheight8cm,screenwidth10cm,triggersource
channel1,triggerlevel0V,andslopepositive.
AssumethescopeisswitchedtoXYmode,v1(t)isappliedtovertical(Y)andv2(t)tohorizontal(X)
amplifiers.Thesettingsforare0.5V/cmforbothinputs.
ThewaveformsforthesweepmodeofoperationareshowninFigure5.14attheleft.Thedisplayfor
theXYmodeofoperationforthesamesignalsisshownattherightinFigure5.14.
V2(t)
V1(t)
Figure5.14Displayofsignalsinexample5.2insweepandXYmodes
Example5.3
The timebase is switched off and the
oscilloscopeisswitchedtoXYmodeofoperation.
Ym
V1isconnectedtotheXinputwithsensitivity0.1
Yo
V/cm, and V2 is connected to the Y input with

sensitivity 0.2 V/cm. The resulting ellipse is
shown in Figure 5.15 with marking of distances
-Xm
Xm
-Xo
Xo
Ym,Y0,Xm,andX0.
-Yo
Ym=3cm,Y0=2.1cm,Xm=2cm,andX0=1.4cm
Similarly,Ym=3cm,Y0=2.1cm,Xm=2cm,
-Ym
Figure5.15MeasurementsinXYmode
andX0=1.4cm
PhaseshiftbetweenV1andV2:sin=2.1/3=0.7
yielding=44
Example5.4
The oscilloscope is switched to XY mode of
operation. V1 is connected to the X input with
sensitivity10mV/cm,andV2isconnectedtothe
Y input with sensitivity 0.5 V/cm. The resulting
ellipseisshowninFigure5.16.Calculate
DistancesYm,Y0,Xm,andX0.
Figure5.16Displayforexample5.4

PhaseshiftbetweensignalinXandsignalinY.
PeaktopeakvaluesofvoltageforV1andV2
DistancesYm,Y0,Xm,andX0are2.4cm,1.8cm,3.6cmand2.75cmrespectively
PhaseshiftbetweensignalinXandsignalinYis=180sin1(Y0/Ym)=131
V1pp=2xXmx10mV/cm=72mVpp;V2pp=2.4Vpp
If the two signals used in the XY mode have frequencies that are not identical, then the
resultingLissajouspatternsarenotstraightlinesorellipsesanymore.Thepatternwillbestableifthe
frequencyratiocanbeexpressedinasmallwholenumberorasimplefraction.Thisisusedinsetting
thefrequencyofanunknownoscillatorusingastandardoscillator.Thefrequencyoftheunknownis
varieduntilastabletraceisobtained.Then,theratiooffrequenciescanbecomputedeasilyfromthe
horizontalandverticaltangencyas
fx
# of vertical tan gency
=
f y # of horizontal tan gency
fx =2fy
3fx=4fy
3fx =2fy
2fx=5fy
Figure5.17ExamplesofLissajousfigures
Figure5.17showsfourexamples. The shapeofthe plotchanges with the phaseshiftalthough the

ratiooffrequenciesisfixed.Ifthecontactwiththetangentisfromonedirection,thenthatcontactis
countedasahalftangent.Ifthecontactisfromtwodirections,thisiscountedasafulltangent.In
thefirstplotattheleft,thehorizontaltangenthastangency,whiletheverticaltangenthas2x1/2if
itistakenattheleftandonefulltangentifittakenattheright.Eventually,theratioofhorizontalto
verticalfrequenciesis2.Inotherplotstheratiosarefoundinasimilarmanneras4/3,2/3and5/2.
MULTITRACEOSCILLOSCOPES
Most laboratory oscilloscopes display two more traces simultaneously although they have a single
electron gun. Each trace can represent an independent input signal. There are identical input
connector,attenuatorandamplifierforeachinput.Outputsofverticalamplifiersareselectedone
byone by an electronic switch and applied to the driver amplifier for the vertical deflection plate
assemblyasillustratedinFigure5.18.Therearetwomodesofoperationoftheelectronicswitchas
chopped and alternate. In the chopped mode, the switch runs at high frequency (around 500 kHz)
andcallsateachinputforafractionofthetotalsweepduration.Hence,tracesaredrawnasshort
BNC connector
Position
Probe
AC
V/cm
Attenuator-1
Input to
Channel-1
Ground (chassis)
Gain
Vertical
Amplifier-1
DC
Position
Gain
V/cm
Attenuator-2
Input to
Channel-2
Electronic
switch
Vertical
Amplifier-2
To vertical
deflection
driver
amplifier
Figure5.18Multitraceoperationusinganelectronicswitch
spotsoflightonthescreen.Forexample,ifwehavetwoinputsignalseachat1kHzandthesweep
rateis500kHz,thenthereare250spotsacrossoneperiodofeachtrace.Theilluminationofthespot
coversthegapbetweenthespots.Also,thechoppingisnotsynchronouswiththesweepleadingto
thedotsappearingatdifferentplacesalongthetrajectoryforsuccessivesweeps.Hence,thetraces
are seen continuous at low frequency applications. Therefore, the chopped mode is useful at low
frequencies.
In the second operational mode, the switch remains in one of the channel throughout the
complete sweep duration and it picks the other one in the next sweep. Since switch displays each
channel at alternate cycles of the sweep signal, the name alternate mode is used. This is useful at
high frequency operations. Some laboratory oscilloscopes incorporate the selection of chopped or
alternatemodeinthetimebaseswitch.Onlyoneoftheinputchannelsisusedforthetriggercontrol
in both modes. In the alternate mode if channel1 is selected as the trigger input, it is used even
whilechannel2isdisplayed.
DIGITALSTORAGEOSCILLOSCOPES(DSO)
Oscilloscopesalsocomeinanaloganddigitaltypes.Ananalogoscilloscopeworksbydirectlyapplying
a voltage being measured to an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage
deflects the beam up and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen. This gives an
immediate picture of the waveform as described in previous sections. In contrast, a digital
oscilloscopesamplesthewaveformandusesananalogtodigitalconverter(orADC)toconvertthe
voltagebeingmeasuredintodigitalinformation.Itthenusesthisdigitalinformationtoreconstruct
thewaveformonthescreen(Figure5.19).
Figure5.19DigitalandAnalogOscilloscopesDisplayWaveforms
For many applications either an analog or digital oscilloscope will do. However, each type
does possess some unique characteristics making it more or less suitable for specific tasks. People
oftenpreferanalogoscilloscopeswhenitisimportanttodisplayrapidlyvaryingsignalsin"realtime"
(or as they occur). Digital oscilloscopes allow us to capture and view events that may happen only
once. They can process the digital waveform data or send the data to a computer for processing.
Also,theycanstorethedigitalwaveformdataforlaterviewingandprinting.
NecessityforDSOandItsAdvantages
Ifanobjectpassesinfrontofoureyesmorethanabout24timesasecondoverthesametrajectory,
wecannotfollowthetraceoftheobjectandwewillseethetrajectoryasacontinuouslineofaction.
Hence, the trajectory is stored in our physiological system. This principle is used in obtaining a
stationary trace needed to study waveforms in conventional oscilloscopes. This is however, is not
possible for slowly varying signals and transients that occur once and then disappear. Storage
oscilloscopeshavebeendevelopedforthispurpose.

Digitalstorageoscilloscopescametoexistencein1971anddevelopedalotsincethen.They
provideasuperiormethodoftracestorage.Thewaveformtobestoredisdigitized,storedinadigital
memory, and retrieved for displayed on the storage oscilloscope. The stored waveform is
continuouslydisplayedbyrepeatedlyscanningthestoredwaveform.Thedigitizedwaveformcanbe
furtheranalyzedbyeithertheoscilloscopeorbyloadingthecontentofthememoryintoacomputer.
They can present waveforms before, during and after trigger. They provide markers, called the
cursors,tohelptheuserinmeasurementsinannotation(detailing)ofthemeasuredvalues.
PrincipleDiagramRepresentingOperationoftheDSO
AsimplifiedblockdiagramofadigitalstorageoscilloscopeisshowninFigure5.20.Theinputcircuitry
oftheDSOandprobesusedforthe measurement arethesameastheconventionaloscilloscopes.
Theinputisattenuatedandamplifiedwiththeinputamplifiersasinanyoscilloscope.Thisisdoneto
scaletheinputsignalsothatthedynamicrangeoftheA/Dconvertercanbeutilizedmaximally.Many
DSOs can also operate in a conventional mode, bypassing the digitizing and storing features. The
outputoftheinputamplifierdrivesthetriggercircuitthat providessignalto the controllogic.Itis
alsosampledunderthecontrolofthecontrollogic.Thesampleandholdcircuittakesthesampleand
storesitasachargeonacapacitor.Hence,thevalueofthesignaliskeptconstantduringtheanalog
to digital conversion. The analog to digital converter (A/D) generates a binary code related to the
magnitudeofthesampledsignal.ThespeedoftheA/Dconverterisimportantandflashconverters
Vertical
Amplifier
Input
Input
Attenuator
Sample
&
Hold
Vi
Data
In
Td
Analog-to
Digital converter
Read-Write
Address
Ti
Trigger
Circuit
Vertical deflection
Amplifier
Ti
aTd
D/A
Control
Logic
Horizontal clock
pulses (Digital)
Memory
Data
Out
Horizontal deflection
Amplifier
Binary
Counter
D/A
aTd
Figure5.20Simplifiedblockdiagramofadigitalstorageoscilloscope(DSO)
Cathode
Ray Tube

are mostly used. The binary code from the A/D converter is stored in the memory. The memory
consistsofabankofrandomaccessmemory(RAM)integratedcircuits(ICs).
TheTimeBaseCircuit
The control logic generates a clock signal applied to the binary counter. The counter accumulates
pulses and produces a binary output code that delivered to a digital to analog (D/A) converter to
generate the ramp signal applied to the horizontal deflection amplifier. The horizontal deflection
platesaresuppliedwiththisrampsignaltolettheelectrontotravelacrossthescreenhorizontallyat
aconstantspeed.Thespeedofthetransitionofelectrondependsupontheslopeoftherampthatis
controlled by the clock rate. The capacity of the counter is taken to have the maximum number
accumulatedcorrespondingtotherightmostpositiononthescreen.Withthenextclockpulse,the
binaryoutputofthecounterdropstoallzerosyieldingtheterminationoftheramp.
TheDisplayedSignal
Meanwhile, the data currently in the store is read out sequentially and the samples pass to the
secondD/Aconverter.Theretheyarereconstructedintoaseriesofdiscretevoltagelevelsforminga
stepwiseapproximationoftheoriginalwaveform.Thisisfedtotheverticaldeflectionplatesviathe
verticaldeflectionamplifier.Foramultitraceoscilloscope,eachchannelhasthesamecircuitryand
outputsoftheD/Aconvertersarecombinedintheverticaldeflectionamplifier.
Thedelaylineusedinconventionaloscilloscopesforsynchronizationisnotneededindigital
storageoscilloscopessincethisfunctioncanbeeasilyhandledbythecontrollogic.Thereadoutand
display of samples constituting the stored waveform need not occur at the same sample rate that
was used to acquire the waveform in the first place. It is sufficient to use a display sample rate
adequatetoensurethateachandeverytracedisplayedisrewrittenfiftyormoretimesasecondto
preventtheflickerofthedisplay.Eventually,thetimeintervalofthesignalonthedisplayisnotTdof
theinputsignal.Assumethatwehaveasamplingrateof1000samplespersecondandweuse1000
samplesforthedisplay.Thetimereferredtotheinputsignalis Td=1secondandittakes1second
fortheDSOtostoretheinformationintothememory.Writingtothememoryandreadingfromthe
memory are independent activities. Once the information is stored, it can be read at any rate.
Assumethememoryisscannedusingaclocksignalof50kHz.Then,ittakes(1/50)secondtoscan
1000memorycellsand aTdwhichisthedurationofthesignalthatactuallyappearsonthescreen
becomes20millisecond.
CurrentTrends
The DSOs can work at low sweep rates allowing utilization of cheaper CRTs with wider screen and
deflection yoke (coils that provide magnetic field instead of electrical field produced by the

deflectionplates).InsomecurrentDSOs,evenliquidcrystaldisplays(LCDs)areusedwithtelevision
like scanning techniques. This allows the development of handheld and battery operated
instruments.Someofthesetechniqueswillbedealtwithinthesectionfordisplaytechnologies.
VIRTUALINSTRUMENTATION
Definition
A virtual instrumentation system is computer software that a user would employ to develop a
computerized test and measurement system, for controlling from a computer desktop an external
measurement hardware device, and for displaying test or measurement data collected by the
external device on instrumentlike panels on a computer screen as illustrated in Figure 5.21. The
virtualinstrumentisasystemthatusescustomizablesoftwareandmodularmeasurementhardware
to create userdefined measurement systems as opposed to traditional hardware instrumentation
systems such as digital multimeters and oscilloscopes that are made up of predefined hardware
components.
Figure5.21Adisplaypanelforavirtualinstrumentationsystem
The traditional systems are completely specific to their stimulus, analysis, ormeasurement
functionandbecauseoftheirhardcodedfunction,thesesystemsaremorelimitedintheirversatility
than virtual instrumentation systems. Hence, the primary difference between hardware

instrumentation and virtual instrumentation is that software is used to replace a large amount of
hardware.
Thesoftwareenablescomplexandexpensivehardwaretobereplacedbyalreadypurchased
computer hardware. Virtual instrumentation extends also to computerized systems for controlling
processes based on data collected and processed by a computerized instrumentation system. The
vision of virtual instrumentation revolutionized the way engineers and scientists work, delivering
solutionswithfasterdevelopmenttime,lowercosts,andgreaterflexibility.
ComponentsofVirtualInstrumentation
Virtual instrumentation thus refers to the use of general purpose computers and workstations, in
combination with data collection hardware devices, and virtual instrumentation software, to
construct an integrated instrumentation system; in such a system the data collection hardware
devices,whichincorporatesensingelementsfordetectingchangesintheconditionsoftestsubjects,
areintimatelycoupledtothecomputer,wherebytheoperationsofthesensorsarecontrolledbythe
computer software, and the output of the data collection devices is displayed on the computer
screen,inamannerdesignedinsoftwaretobeparticularlyusefultotheuser,forexamplebytheuse
ofdisplayssimulatinginappearancethephysicaldials,metersandotherdatavisualizationdevicesof
traditionalinstruments.
Virtualinstrumentationiscombinationofaproductivesoftware,modularinput/output(I/O),
and scalable platform as shown in Figure 5.22. The heart of any virtual instrument is the flexible
softwarethatallowsaninnovativeengineerorscientisttodevelopauserdefinedinstrumentspecific
totheapplicationneeds.Withsuchsoftware,engineersandscientistscaninterfacewithrealworld
signals; analyze data for meaningful information,
andshareresultsandapplications.
The
second
virtual
instrumentation
component is the modular I/O for measurements

that require higher performance, resolution, or
speeds. In combination with powerful software,
engineers
can
measurements
and
create
customdefined
sophisticated
analysis
routines.
Figure5.22Virtualinstrumentationcombinesproductive
software,modularI/O,andscalableplatforms
The third virtual instrumentation element

ispopularandcommerciallyavailablecomputing
platform (PC or Server) to run the software and

connect to I/O module, often enhanced with accurate synchronization ensures that virtual
instrumentation takes advantage of the very latest computer capabilities and data transfer
technologies. This element delivers virtual instrumentation on a longterm technology base that
scaleswiththehighinvestmentsmadeinprocessors,buses,andmore. Together,thesecomponents
empower engineers and scientists world over to create their own solutions with virtual
instrumentation.
VirtualInstrumentationforDesign
The same design engineers that use a wide variety of software design tools must use hardware to
test prototypes as illustrated in Figure 5.23. Commonly, there is no good interface between the
design phase and testing/validation phase, which means that, often the issues discovered in the
testingphaserequireadesignphasereiteration.
Figure5.23Testplaysacriticalroleinthedesignandmanufactureoftoday'selectronicdevices
Inreality,thedevelopmentprocesshastwoverydistinctandseparatestagesdesignand
test are two individual entities as illustrated in Figures 5.24 and 5. 25 respectively. On the design
side, EDA tool vendors undergo tremendous pressure to interoperate from the increasing
semiconductor design and manufacturing group complexity requirements. Engineers and scientists
are demanding the capability to reuse designs from one tool in other tools as products go from
schematic design to simulation to physical layout. Similarly, test system development is evolving
toward a modular approach. The gap between these two worlds has traditionally been neglected,
firstnoticeableinthenewproductprototypestage.
Systems with intrinsicintegration properties are easily extensible and adapt to increasing
product functionality. When new tests are required, engineers simply add new modules to the
platform to make the measurements. Virtual instrumentation software flexibility and virtual
instrumentation hardware modularity make virtual instruments a necessity to accelerate the
developmentcycle.
Virtualinstrumentationhasgraduallyincreasedaddressableapplicationsthroughcontinuous
softwareinnovationandhundredsofmeasurementhardwaredevices.Havinginfluencedmillionsof

test and automation professionals, today it is winning over experts in the control and design
domains. Virtual Instrumentation is rapidly revolutionizing the functions of control design,
distributedcontrol,datalogging,designverification,prototyping,simulationandmore.
Figure5.24AnexampledesignscreenforthevirtualinstrumentationinLabView(NationalInstruments)
Figure5.25AnexampleofatestandanalysisscreenforvirtualinstrumentationinLabView(NationalInstruments)
http://www.eeherald.com/section/designguide/dgni100003.html
http://www.datatranslation.com/docs/whitepapers/EvolutionofVirtualInstrumentation.pdf
PICTUREDISPLAY
GenerationandPresentationofPicture
MovingScenefromStillPictures
Ifwedivideastillimageintoacollectionofsmallcoloreddots,ourbrainwill
reassemblethedotsintoameaningfulimage.Bothtelevisionsandcomputer
screens (as well as newspaper and magazine photos) rely on this fusionof
smallcoloreddots capability in the human brain to chop pictures up into
thousands of individual elements. On a TV or computer screen, the dots are
calledpixelsasshowninFigure5.26.Theresolutionofourcomputer'sscreen
Figure5.26
mightbe800x600pixels,ormaybe1024x768pixels.
If we divide a moving scene into a sequence of still pictures and show the still images in
rapid succession, then the brain will reassemble the still images into a single, moving scene. By
putting together 15 or more subtly different frames per second, the brain integrates them into a
movingscene.Fifteenpersecondisabouttheminimumpossibleanyfewerthanthatanditlooks
jerky.
DisplayTechnologies
Often referred to as a monitor when packaged in a separate case, the display is the mostused
outputdeviceonacomputer.Thedisplayprovidesinstantfeedbackbyshowingyoutextandgraphic
imagesasyouworkorplay.Mostdesktopdisplaysuseliquidcrystaldisplay(LCD)orcathoderaytube
(CRT) technology, while nearly all portable computing devices such as laptops incorporate LCD
technology. Because of their slimmer design and lower energy consumption, monitors using LCD
technology (also called flat panel or flat screen displays) are replacing the venerable CRT on most
desktops.
TheCathodeRayTube(CRT)
TheCRTforapicturedisplayisverysimilartothatisfoundinanoscilloscopeasshowninFigure5.27.
Themajordifferenceisthatithasthreecathodes,ashadowmaskandthescreenforthreecolors.It
iscomposedofdotsandthedistancebetweenneighboringdotsiscalledthedotpitch.Thebeams
are rooted on the phosphors for individual colors using a special guiding technique that contains
eitheranaperturegrillorshadowmaskasillustratedinFigure5.28.
TheCRTMonitorA:Cathode;B:Conductivecoating;C:Anode;D:Phosphor
coatedscreen;E:Electronbeam;F:Shadowmask
The CRT screen A: Phosphors,B:

ShadowmaskandC:Theglass
Figure5.27TheCRTtypedisplay
Figure5.28PixelsanddotpitchinacolorCRTmonitor
ColorDepth
Thecombinationofthedisplaymodessupportedbyyourgraphicsadapterandthecolorcapabilityof
your monitor determine how many colors it displays. For example, a display that operates in
SuperVGA (SVGA) mode can display up to 16,777,216 (usually rounded to 16.8 million) colors
becauseitcanprocessa24bitlongdescriptionofapixel.Thenumberofbitsusedtodescribeapixel
is known as its bit depth. With a 24bit bit depth, eight bits are dedicated to each of the three
additiveprimarycolorsred,greenandblue.Colorbitdepthreferstothenumberofbitsusedto
describe the color of a single pixel. The bit depth determines the number of colors that can be
displayedatonetime
StandardsandResolution
Resolutionreferstothenumberofindividualdotsofcolor,knownaspixels,containedonadisplay.
Itisexpressedbyidentifyingthenumberofpixelsonthehorizontalaxis(rows)andthenumberon
the vertical axis (columns), such as 800x600. The resolution is affected by a number of factors,
includingthesizeofthescreen

SteeringCoils(DeflectionYoke)
Electron beam can be deflected from its path if it is
Deflection coils
Glass tube
Focusing coils
subjected to a magnetic field as well. In this case, the

force acting on the electron is perpendicular to both the
direction of electron flow and the magnetic field itself.
Two sets of coils are placed perpendicular to each other
over the neck of the CRT outside the glass envelope as
shown in Figure 5.29. The current in these coils provide
the two magnetic fields in X and Y directions. As the
Anode lead
Phosphor
electron comes in Z direction, it is deflected in Y and X
Figure5.29Magneticdeflection
directions respectively. The mechanism of coils is called

thedeflectionyoke.
The neck of the CRT is considerably shorter and thinner than the case of electrostatic
deflection. There is also no geometric limitation on the deflection angle resulting in larger display
area. There are two basic limitations in application of the electromagnetic deflection. Firstly, the
inductanceanddistributedcapacitanceofthecoilrequirehighervoltagestobeappliedforagiven
current as the frequency of the deflection current increases. Practical tubes are limited to
frequencies up to 20 25 kHz. The minimum deflection frequency in the cheapest laboratory
oscilloscope is 20 MHz. Eventually, almost all high frequency laboratory oscilloscopes use
electrostatic deflection mechanisms. The second limitation comes from the increased screen size.
Thetrajectoryofthespotcoversvaryinglengthsasittravelsalongthescreen.Thisrequiresamore
complicated focusing circuitry. The magnetic deflection is used in television and computer displays
andmostofthedigitalstorageoscilloscopesthathaveCRTscreens.
LiquidCrystals
There are three common states of matter: solid, liquid or gaseous. Solids act the way they do
becausetheirmoleculesalwaysmaintaintheirorientationandstayinthesamepositionwithrespect
tooneanother.Themoleculesinliquidsarejusttheopposite:Theycanchangetheirorientationand
moveanywhereintheliquid.Buttherearesomesubstancesthatcanexistinanoddstatethatissort
oflikealiquidandsortoflikeasolid.Whentheyareinthisstate,theirmoleculestendtomaintain
theirorientation,likethemoleculesinasolid,butalsomovearoundtodifferentpositions,likethe
moleculesinaliquid.Thismeansthatliquidcrystalsareneitherasolidnoraliquid.That'showthey
endedupwiththeirseeminglycontradictoryname.

Onefeatureofliquidcrystalsisthatthey'reaffectedbyelectriccurrent.Aparticularsortof
nematicliquidcrystal,calledtwistednematics(TN),isnaturallytwisted.Applyinganelectriccurrent
to these liquid crystals will untwist them to varying degrees, depending on the current's voltage.
LCDsusetheseliquidcrystalsbecausetheyreactpredictablytoelectriccurrentinsuchawayasto
controllightpassage.
TheBasicsofLCD
Liquidcrystaldisplaytechnologyworksbyblockinglight.Specifically,anLCDismadeoftwopiecesof
polarizedglass(alsocalledsubstrate)thatcontainaliquidcrystalmaterialbetweenthem.Abacklight
produceslightthatpassesthroughthefirstsubstrate.Atthesametime,electricalcurrentscausethe
liquid crystal molecules to align to allow varying levels of light to pass through to the second
substrateandgeneratethecolorsandimagesthatwesee.
Figure5.30Layeroftheliquidcrystaldisplay
TheLCDneededtodothisjobisverybasicandithassixlayersasillustratedinFigure5.30.
Ithasamirror(A)inback,whichmakesitreflective.
Then,weaddapieceofglass(B)withapolarizingfilmonthebottomside,
Andacommonelectrodeplane(C)madeofindiumtinoxideontop.Acommonelectrode
planecoverstheentireareaoftheLCD.
Abovethatisthelayerofliquidcrystalsubstance(D).
Nextcomesanotherpieceofglass(E)withanelectrodeintheshapeoftherectangleonthe
bottomand,
Ontop,anotherpolarizingfilm(F),atarightangletothefirstone.
The electrode is hooked up to a power source like a battery. When there is no current, light
enteringthroughthefrontoftheLCDwillsimplyhitthemirrorandbouncerightbackout.Butwhen
the battery supplies current to the electrodes, the liquid crystals between the commonplane
electrodeandtheelectrodeshapedlikearectangleuntwistandblockthelightinthatregionfrom
passingthrough.ThatmakestheLCDshowtherectangleasablackarea.

ReflectiveLCD(liquidcrystaldisplay)
Figure5.31AnLCDtypecalculatordisplay
An LCD type calculator display is shown in Figure 5.31. The LCD requires an external light source.
Liquidcrystalmaterialsemitnolightoftheirown.SmallandinexpensiveLCDsareoftenreflective,
whichmeanstodisplayanythingtheymustreflectlightfromexternallightsources.LookatanLCD
calculator: The numbers appear where small electrodes charge the liquid crystals and make the
layersuntwistsothatlightisnottransmittingthroughthepolarizedfilm.
BacklitLCD
Mostcomputerdisplaysarelitwithbuiltinfluorescenttubesabove,besideandsometimesbehind
theLCD(Figure5.32).AwhitediffusionpanelbehindtheLCDredirectsandscattersthelightevenly
toensureauniformdisplay.Onitswaythroughfilters,liquidcrystallayersandelectrodelayers,alot
ofthislightislostoftenmorethanhalf!AColdCathodeFluorescentLamp(CCFL)isused
Figure5.32AbacklittypeLCDmonitorwithacoldcathodefluorescentlamp
PassiveandActiveMatrix
PassivematrixLCDsuseasimplegridtosupplythechargetoaparticularpixelonthedisplay.Itstarts
withtwoglasslayerscalledsubstrates.Onesubstrateisgivencolumnsandtheotherisgivenrows
madefromatransparentconductivematerial.Thisisusuallyindiumtinoxide.Therowsorcolumns

areconnectedtointegratedcircuitsthatcontrolwhenachargeissentdownaparticularcolumnor
row.Theliquidcrystalmaterialissandwichedbetweenthetwoglasssubstrates,andapolarizingfilm
isaddedtotheoutersideofeachsubstrate.Toturnonapixel,theintegratedcircuitsendsacharge
downthecorrectcolumnofonesubstrateandagroundactivatedonthecorrectrowoftheother.
Therowandcolumnintersectatthedesignatedpixel,andthatdeliversthevoltagetountwistthe
liquidcrystalsatthatpixel.
Activematrix LCDs depend on thin film transistors (TFT). Basically, TFTs are tiny switching
transistorsandcapacitors.Theyarearrangedinamatrixonaglasssubstrate.Toaddressaparticular
pixel,theproperrowisswitchedon,andthenachargeissentdownthecorrectcolumn.Sinceallof
theotherrowsthatthecolumnintersectsareturnedoff,onlythecapacitoratthedesignatedpixel
receives a charge. The capacitor is able to hold the charge until the next refresh cycle. And if we
carefullycontroltheamountofvoltagesuppliedtoacrystal,wecanmakeituntwistonlyenoughto
allowsomelightthrough.Bydoingthisinveryexact,verysmallincrements,LCDscancreateagray
scale.Mostdisplaystodayoffer256levelsofbrightnessperpixel.
Color
Figure5.33SubpixelsandcolorfiltersinLCD
An LCD that can show colors must have three subpixels with red, green and blue color filters to
createeachcolorpixel.Throughthecarefulcontrolandvariationofthevoltageapplied,theintensity
ofeachsubpixelcanrangeover256shades.Combiningthesubpixelsproducesapossiblepaletteof
16.8 million colors (256 shades of red x 256 shades of green x 256 shades of blue). These color
displaystakeanenormousnumberoftransistors.Forexample,atypicallaptopcomputersupports
resolutions up to 1,024x768. If we multiply 1,024 columns by 768 rows by 3 subpixels, we get
2,359,296 transistors etched onto the glass! If there is a problem with any of these transistors, it

creates a "bad pixel" on the display. Most active matrix displays have a few bad pixels scattered
acrossthescreen.
PaintingtheScreen
TheRasterScan
The screen is coated with phosphor and the electron beam
"paints" an image onto the screen by moving the electron
beam across the phosphor a line at a time. To "paint" the
entire screen, electronic circuits inside the monitor use the
magnetic coils shown in Figure 5.29 to move the electron
beamina"rasterscan"patternacrossanddownthescreen.
Thebeampaintsonelineacrossthescreenfromlefttoright.
Figure5.34Paintingthescreenbyaraster
Itthenquicklyfliesbacktotheleftside,movesdownslightly
scan
and paints another horizontal line, and so on down the
screen,liketheoneshowninFigure5.34. Inthisfigure,thecontinuouslinesrepresentlinesthatthe
electron beam is "painting" on the screen from left to right, while the dashed lines represent the
beamflyingbacktotheleft.Whenthebeamreachestherightsideofthebottomline,ithastomove
backtotheupperleftcornerofthescreen,asrepresentedbythethicklineinthefigure.Whenthe
beamis"painting,"itison,andwhenitisflyingback,itisoffsothatitdoesnotleaveatrailonthe
screen.Thetermhorizontalretraceisusedtorefertothebeammovingbacktotheleftattheendof
eachline,whilethetermverticalretracereferstoitsmovementfrombottomtotop.Asthebeam
paintseachlinefromlefttoright,theintensityofthebeamischangedtocreatedifferentshadesof
thecolorsacrossthescreen.Becausethelinesarespacedverycloselytogether,yourbrainintegrates
themintoasingleimage.
RefreshRate
InmonitorsbasedonCRTtechnology,therefreshrateisthenumberoftimesthattheimageonthe
displayisdrawneachsecond.IfyourCRTmonitorhasarefreshrateof72Hertz(Hz),thenitcycles
through all the pixels from top to bottom 72 times a second. Refresh rates are very important
because theycontrolflicker,andyou wanttherefreshrateashighaspossible.Toofew cyclesper
secondandyouwillnoticeaflickering,whichcanleadtoheadachesandeyestrain.
Becauseyourmonitor'srefreshratedependsonthenumberofrowsithastoscan,itlimits
themaximumpossibleresolution.Mostmonitorssupportmultiplerefreshrates.Keepinmindthat
there is a tradeoff between flicker and resolution, and then pick what works best for you. This is

especially important with larger monitors where flicker
is more noticeable. Recommendations for refresh rate
and resolution include 1280x1024 at 85 Hertz or
1600x1200at75Hertz.
ACRTuseselectronbeamstocreateimageson
a phosphor screen, it supports the resolution that
matches its physical dot (pixel) size as well as several
lesserresolutions.Forexample,adisplaywithaphysical
grid of 1280 rows by 1024 columns can obviously
support a maximum resolution of 1280x1024 pixels
Figure5.35Selectionoftherefreshrate
(Figure5.35).Italsosupportslowerresolutionssuchas
1024x768, 800x600, and 640x480. An LCD monitor
workswellonlyatitsnativeresolution.
AspectRatioandViewableArea
Two measures describe the size of your display: the aspect ratio and the screen size. Historically,
computerdisplays,likemosttelevisions,havehadanaspectratioof4:3.Thismeansthattheratioof
thewidthofthedisplayscreentotheheightis4to3.ForwidescreenLCDmonitors,theaspectratio
is16:9(orsometimes16:10or15:9).WidescreenLCDdisplaysareusefulforviewingDVDmoviesin
widescreen format, playing games and displaying multiple windows side by side. High definition
television(HDTV)alsousesawidescreenaspectratio.
Screensizesarenormallymeasuredininchesfromonecornertothecornerdiagonallyacross
from it. This diagonal measuring system actually came about because the early television
manufacturerswantedtomakethescreensizeoftheirTVssoundmoreimpressive.Interestingly,the
wayinwhichthescreensizeismeasuredforCRTandLCDmonitorsisdifferent.ForCRTmonitors,
screen size is measured diagonally from outside edges of the display casing. In other words, the
exteriorcasingisincludedinthemeasurementasillustratedinFigure5.36.ForLCDmonitors,screen
sizeismeasureddiagonallyfromtheinsideofthebevelededge.Themeasurementdoesnotinclude
thecasingasindicatedintheimageinFigure5.36.BecauseofthedifferencesinhowCRTandLCD
monitors are measured, a 17inch LCD display is comparable to a 19inch CRT display. For a more
accuraterepresentationofaCRT'ssize,findoutitsviewablescreensize.Thisisthemeasurementof
aCRTdisplaywithoutitsoutsidecasing.
Popularscreensizesare15,17,19and21inches.Notebookscreensizesaresmaller,typically
rangingfrom12to17inches.Astechnologiesimproveinbothdesktopandnotebookdisplays,even
Figure5.36AspectratiosandscreensizesforCRTandLCDmonitors.
largerscreensizesarebecomingavailable.Forprofessionalapplications,suchasmedicalimagingor
public information displays, some LCD monitors are 40 inches or larger! Obviously, the size of the
display directly affects resolution. The same pixel resolution is sharper on a smaller monitor and
fuzzieronalargermonitorbecausethesamenumberofpixelsisspreadoutoveralargernumberof
inches.Animageona21inchmonitorwithan800x600resolutionwillnotappearnearlyassharpas
itwouldona15inchdisplayat800x600.
AdvantagesofLCDandCRTMonitors
AdvantagesofLCDMonitors
RequirelesspowerPowerconsumptionvariesgreatlywithdifferenttechnologies.CRT
displaysaresomewhatpowerhungry,atabout100wattsforatypical19inchdisplay.The
averageisabout45wattsfora19inchLCDdisplay.LCDsalsoproducelessheat.
SmallerandweighlessAnLCDmonitorissignificantlythinnerandlighterthanaCRT
monitor,typicallyweighinglessthanhalfasmuch.Inaddition,youcanmountanLCDonan
armorawall,whichalsotakesuplessdesktopspace.
MoreadjustableLCDdisplaysaremuchmoreadjustablethanCRTdisplays.WithLCDs,you
canadjustthetilt,height,swivel,andorientationfromhorizontaltoverticalmode.Asnoted
previously,youcanalsomountthemonthewalloronanarm.
LesseyestrainBecauseLCDdisplaysturneachpixeloffindividually,theydonotproducea
flickerlikeCRTdisplaysdo.Inaddition,LCDdisplaysdoabetterjobofdisplayingtext
comparedwithCRTdisplays.

AdvantagesofCRTMonitors
LessexpensiveAlthoughLCDmonitorpriceshavedecreased,comparableCRTdisplaysstill
costless.
BettercolorrepresentationCRTdisplayshavehistoricallyrepresentedcolorsanddifferent
gradationsofcolormoreaccuratelythanLCDdisplays.However,LCDdisplaysaregaining
groundinthisarea,especiallywithhigherendmodelsthatincludecolorcalibration
technology.
MoreresponsiveHistorically,CRTmonitorshavehadfewerproblemswithghostingand
blurringbecausetheyredrewthescreenimagefasterthanLCDmonitors.Again,LCD
manufacturersareimprovingonthiswithdisplaysthathavefasterresponsetimesthanthey
didinthepast.
MultipleresolutionsIfyouneedtochangeyourdisplay'sresolutionfordifferent
applications,youarebetteroffwithaCRTmonitorbecauseLCDmonitorsdon'thandle
multipleresolutionsaswell.
MoreruggedAlthoughtheyarebiggerandheavierthanLCDdisplays,CRTdisplaysarealso
lessfragileandhardertodamage.
OtherDisplayTechnologies
Among the important monitor technologies, we can count the touch screen monitors and wireless
monitors.ThereareemergingtechnologiesaswellforthescreeninadditiontotheclassicalCRTand
LCD displays. Important ones among them are the plasma displays, Organic LightEmitting Diode
(OLED) and SurfaceConduction Electron Emitter
Displays (SED). Each type will be briefed below and
detailswillbelefttothereaderwhomayrefertothe
referencesforfurtherinformation.
TouchscreenMonitors
Displayswithtouchscreentechnology(Figure5.37)let
you input information or navigate applications by
touchingthesurfaceofthedisplay.Thetechnologycan
be implemented through a variety of methods,
Figure5.37Atouchscreendisplay

including
infraredsensors,
pressuresensitiveresistorsor
electroniccapacitors.
QuantumTunnelingComposite(QTC)isanewclassofelectricallyconductivematerialthathasbeen
developedtoadvancethecapabilityofswitchingandsensingsystems. QTCis apressureswitching
and sensing material technology and it will be briefly explained later in relation to mechanical
pressuresensors.
WirelessMonitors
SimilarinlookstoatabletPC,wirelessmonitorsusetechnology
such as 802.11b/g to connect to your computer without a
cable.Mostincludebuttonsandcontrolsformousingandweb
surfing, and some also include keyboards. The displays are
batterypowered and relatively lightweight. Most also include
touchscreencapabilities(Figure5.38).
OrganicLightEmittingDiode(OLED)
Figure5.38Awirelesspatientmonitor
Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are thinfilm LED (Light

Emitting Diode) displays that don't require a backlight to
function. The material emits light when stimulated by an
electricalcurrent,whichisknownaselectroluminescence.
OLEDsconsistofstacksoforganiclayers(thicknessabout
100 nm), which are inserted between a cathode and an
anodeasillustratedinFigure5.39.Usually,thesubstrateis
glasscoatedwithatransparentconductiveoxidebeingthe
Figure5.39StructureofOLED
anode, followed by the organic stack, consisting of hole

transport and electron transport materials, followed by
theinorganiccathode.Keyadvantagesoftheorganicluminescencearethechemicalvariabilityofthe
organiclightemittingdiodes,allowingvirtuallyanycolorincludingwhite,andthethinfilmsystem,
allowing largearea and lowcost deposition, and the possibility to use thin and even flexible
substratestorealizeanovelclassoflightinganddisplaysolutionsnotpossibleforothertechnologies.

Advantages of OLEDs include lower power requirements, a lessexpensive manufacturing
process,improvementsincontrastandcolor,andtheabilitytobend.WhatthismeansisthatOLEDs
canbedeployedinawiderangeofelectronicdevicesandcanbeusedextensivelythroughoutany
given device. Active components of displays can be polymers, substrates can be polymers, logical
electronics can be polymers, and so on. In the years ahead OLEDs will see applications in personal
computers,cellphones,televisions,generalwidearealighting,signs,billboards,communicationsand
anyofanumberofinformationappliances.
SurfaceConductionElectronEmitter(SED)andFieldEmission(FED)Displays
SEDisadisplaytechnologywhichiscurrentlydevelopingvariousflatpaneldisplaysbyanumberof
companies as a electronic visual displays. SEDs use nanoscopicscale electron emitters to energize
colored phosphors and produce an image. In a general sense, a SED consists of a matrix of tiny
cathoderaytubes,each"tube"formingasinglesubpixelonthescreen,groupedinthreestoform
redgreenblue(RGB)pixels.SEDscombinetheadvantagesofCRTs,namelytheirhighcontrastratios,
wideviewinganglesandveryfastresponsetimes,withthepackagingadvantagesofLCDandother
flat panel displays. They also use much less power than an LCD television of the same size. The
differenceisthatinsteadofadeeptubewithanelectrongun,anSEDusestinyelectronemittersand
aflatpaneldisplayasillustratedinFigure5.40.
Figure5.40StructuralcomparisonbetweenCRTandSEDdisplays
After considerable time and effort in the early and mid2000s, SED efforts started winding
downin2009asLCDbecamethedominanttechnology.InAugust2010,Canonannouncedtheywere
shutting down their joint effort to develop SEDs commercially, signaling the end of development
efforts.SEDsarecloselyrelatedtoanotherdevelopingdisplaytechnology,thefieldemissiondisplay,
orFED,differingprimarilyinthedetailsoftheelectronemitters.Sony,themainbackerofFED,has
similarlybackedofffromtheirdevelopmentefforts.

In a general sense, a FED consists of a matrix of cathode ray tubes, each tube producing a
singlesubpixel,groupedinthreestoformredgreenblue(RGB)pixelsasillustratedinFigure5.41.
FEDscombinetheadvantagesofCRTs,namelytheirhighcontrastlevelsandveryfastresponsetimes,
with the packaging advantages of LCD and other flat panel technologies. They also offer the
possibility of requiring less power, about half that of an LCD system. After considerable time and
effortintheearlyandmid2000s,Sony'sFEDeffortsstartedwindingdownin2009asLCDbecame
thedominanttechnology.
Figure5.41ComparisonbetweenCRT(a)andFED(b)displays
PROBLEMS
ReviewQuestions
1. Whatisawaveformandhowitcanbedisplayed?
2. Whyoscilloscopesaremostlyusedfordisplayingwaveforms?
3. Howawaveformcanbedisplayedonanoscilloscopescreen?
4. Whatarethefundamentalcomponentsofanoscilloscopeandhowtheywork?
5. Whatisthebasicfunctionofthesweepsignalinanoscilloscope?
6. Howcanyoumeasurethefrequencyofaperiodicsignalusinganoscilloscope?
7. Howcanyoumeasurethemagnitudeofawaveformusinganoscilloscope?
8. Howdoyouestimatethemeasurementerrorsinoscilloscopedisplays?
9. Whatisthetriggeredsweepandhowithelpsinmeasurements?
10. Whatisthedelaylineanditsfunction?
11. WhatisthedifferencebetweenXYmodeofoperationandsweepmode?
12. WhataretheapplicationsofXYmodeofoperation?
13. Whydoweneedmultitraceoscilloscopes?
14. Whatarethewaysforobtainingmultipletracesfromasingleelectrongun?
15. Whatisanoscilloscopeprobeandhowitdiffersfromanordinaryconnectionwire?
16. Whyweneedhighimpedanceprobes?
17. Whatisadigitalstorageoscilloscopeandhowitdiffersfromtheanalogones?
18. Whataretheadvantagesofdigitalstorageoscilloscopes?
19. Whatarethefundamentalcomponentsofadigitalstorageoscilloscope?
20. Howthetimebasecircuitoperatesinadigitalstorageoscilloscope?
21. Whatarethecurrenttrendsindigitaloscilloscopetechnology?
22. Whatisavirtualinstrument?
23. Whataretheadvantagesofvirtualinstrumentsovertheconventionalmeasuringinstruments?
24. Whatarethebasiccomponentsofavirtualinstrumentationandhowtheyfunction?
25. Howcanvirtualinstrumentationbeusedinsystemdesign?
26. Howcanyouobtainmovingimagesfromstillpictures?
27. Whatarethecommonlyusedtechnologiesforpicturedisplay?
28. Whatisapictureelement(pixel)anddotpitch?
29. HowdoesaCRTbasedcolordisplayscreenwork?
30. Whatarethestandardsandresolutioninpicturedisplays?
31. WhatisthebasicdifferencebetweentheCRTtubesusedforoscilloscopeandpicturedisplays?
32. Howdoesaliquidcrystaldisplaywork?
33. Howdoesthereflectiveandbacklittypelcddifferfromeachother?

34. Whatdowemeanbyactivematrixandpassivematrixtypelcddisplays?
35. Whatistherasterscanandhowitisusedasameanofpaintingthescreen?
36. Whataretheaspectratioandviewableareaforadisplayscreen?
37. HowcanyoucompareandcontrastCRTandlcdtypedisplays?
38. Whatarenewemergingdisplaytechnologiesandtheirprinciplesofoperation?
39. Howcanyouobtainatouchscreentypedisplay?
40. Whatistheorganicledandhowitisusedinthedisplaytechnology?
41. Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencebetweensurfaceconductionelectronemitter(SED)and
fieldemission(FED)typedisplays?
SolvedExamples
CH-2
1. Sketch the scope waveforms for v1(t) = 1

sin(2000t), v2(t) = 0.5 sin(2000t30) with
vertical settings 0.5 V/cm and 0.2 V/cm for
CH-1
channel 1 and 2 respectively, time base

setting 0.2 ms/cm, screen height 8 cm,
screenwidth10cm,triggersourcechannel
1,triggerlevel0V,andslopenegative.
2. Theinputandoutputtoanamplifieraretwo
sinusoidal voltages V1 and V2 respectively.
Thesevoltagesareappliedtoanoscilloscope
indualtraceoperationasV1toCH1andV2
toCH2.TheverticalsettingsforCH1=20
Figureforsolvedexamples1.
mV/cm and CH2 = 0.5 V/cm, timebase

setting=1ms/cm.Assumeanuncertaintyof
0.5 mm in all distances measured. CH2 is
CH-2
CH-1
usedfortriggering.Determine:
Triggerlevelandtriggerslope,andphase
shift.DoesV1leadsorlagsV2?
Theperiodandfrequencyofthesignals.
Values of voltages V1 and V2 and their

uncertainties.
Assume that the output is applied to a

resistor1k10%.DeterminetheRMS
Figureforsolvedexamples2.

valueofthepowerdeliveredtotheresistoranditsuncertainty.
Answer
Triggerlevelis0.75V;triggerslope(+),V1lagsV2.T=6.2cmandd=2.3cmleadingto=2x2.3/6.2=
2.33rad=133.5
TheperiodT=6.2msandfrequencyf=161Hz.
V1=(2.40.05)x20x103=(481)mV(peak);andV2=(3.60.05)x0.5=(1.80.025)V(peak).
2
2
2
V peak
V peak
VRMS
2
Assume peak value of the voltage is used. Then,
P=
; VRMS =
; P=
R
2
2R
P V
P
= = 2 ;
V
R
V
(
V2
P
P
= 2 = ;
R
2R
R
( P ) 2 = (
P 2
P
) ( V ) 2 + ( ) 2 ( R ) 2 leading
R
V
to
P 2
V 2
R
) = 4(
) + ( ) 2 = 0.0108 anduncertaintyinP=10.4%.So,P=1.62mW10.4%.
R
P
V
V2
V1
Figuresforsolvedexamples3.
3. TwosinusoidalvoltagesareappliedtoanoscilloscopeindualtraceoperationandXYmodeof
operation as shown in the figures. The sensitivities are 0.1 V/cm and 0.5 V/cm for V1 and V2
respectively.Thetimebasesensitivityis1ms/cm.ThetriggersourceisV1.IntheXYmode,V1is
appliedtoXinputandV2isappliedtotheYinput.Usingbothplots,calculate
Peaktopeakvaluesforbothsignals
V1pp=5cmx0.1V/cm=0.5Vpp;V2pp=7.6cmx0.5V/cm=3.8Vpp
Thefrequencyandtimeperiodofbothsignals

T1=3.1cmx1ms/cm=3.1ms,T2=4.15ms;f1=1/T1=323Hz,f2=241Hz
Theratiooffrequencies.f1/f2=4/3asobtainedfromthetangentsinXYmode
GeneralQuestions
1. Draw a diagram showing all major blocks of the oscilloscope, and shortly describe what does
eachdo.Showtheinputandoutputsignalsinblocksrelatedtothetimebasecircuitry.
2. Foracathoderaytube:
a. What are the major components? What are the factors effecting the brightness of the
trace?
b. Referring to AppendixB: The accelerating voltage is 2,000 V, the length of deflection
platesis4cmandseparationbetweenplatesis1cm.
c. Whatisthevelocityoftheelectronasitentersthedeflectionplates?
d. Howmuchisthemaximumdeflectionanglepossible?
e. Whatistheminimumdistancerequiredbetweenthecenteroftheplatesandthescreen
ifthemaximumdeflectiononthescreenis4cm?
f.
Howmuchisthevoltageisrequiredacrosstwodeflectionplatestofullscaledeflection?
g. Whatisthedeflectionsensitivity?Whatisthedeflectionfactor?
3. The oscilloscope has a screen size of 8 cm vertically and 10 cm horizontally. Sketch the scope
waveformsforv1(t)=1.5sin(300t),v2(t)=0.5sin(300t30)onagraphpaper.Availablevertical
settings(V/cm):0.01,0.02,0.05,0.1,0.2,0.5,1,2,5,and10;horizontalsettings(s/cm):0.001,
0.002, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1. Select vertical and horizontal settings to obtain
minimum possible measurement errors for the amplitude and time readings. Indicate your
selections.Assumetriggersourceischannel1,triggerlevelis0V,andtriggerslopeisnegative.
4. Foranoscilloscope:
a. Whataretheparametersaffectedbythefollowingknobs
i. Intensity
ii. Volts/cm
iii. Time/cm
iv. Triggerlevel
v. Focus?
b. Whatarethefunctionsoftheverticaldeflectionsystem?
c. Howdoyouobtainamultitracedisplayusingasingleelectrongun?
5. AnoscilloscopeisusedforthemeasurementofphaseshiftbetweentwosignalsV1andV2of
thesamefrequency.Thefollowingresultswereobtained:
a. Fortheellipsemethod[=sin1(y0/ym)],y0=(3.50.05)cm,ym=(50.05)cm

b. Forthedualtracemethod[=2d/Drad];d=(10.05)cm,D=(80.05)cm.
Inbothcasesdeterminethephaseshiftanditsuncertainty.Cananyoneofthemethods(a)or(b)
beusedtodetermineifV1leadsorlagsV2?
6. The input and output to an
amplifier
are
two
sinusoidal
V2
voltages V1 and V2 respectively.

These voltages are applied to an
oscilloscope
in
dualtrace
V1
operation as V1 to CH1 and V2 to

CH2.TheverticalsettingsforCH
1 = 20 mV/cm and CH2 = 0.5
V/cm, timebase setting = 1
ms/cm. Assume an uncertainty of
0.5 mm in all distances
measured. CH2 is used for
Figurep6.
triggering.Determine:
a. Trigger level and trigger
slope,andphaseshift.DoesV1leadsorlagsV2?
b. Theperiodandfrequencyofthesignals.
c. ValuesofvoltagesV1andV2andtheiruncertainties.
d. Determinethegainoftheamplifier(G=V2/V1)anditsuncertainty.
7. Now the timebase is switched
offandtheoscilloscopeissetto
XY mode of operation. V1 is
connected to the X input with
sensitivity 20 mV/cm, and V2 is
connected to the Y input with
sensitivity 0.5 V/cm. Draw the
resulting ellipse to the space at
the right. Mark carefully the
values of distances Ym, Y0, Xm,
andX0.
8. Drawtheblockdiagramrelated
to the trigger and timebase
Figurep7.

circuitry of the oscilloscope including all input/output and control connections. Describe the
function of each block shortly. Show the input and output signals that would appear in the
blocks.
9. Fortheoscilloscope,explain:
a. Functionsoftheintensitycontrolandthefocusadjustments;
b. GenerationofthesweepsignalthatdrivesthexdeflectionplatesoftheCRTinadigital
storageoscilloscope(DSO).
c. Explainhowtoobtainadualtracedisplayusingasingleelectrongun;
d. TheinputandoutputtoanamplifieraretwosinusoidalvoltagesV1andV2respectively.
ThesevoltagesareappliedtoanoscilloscopeindualtraceoperationasV1toCH1andV2
to CH2. The vertical settings for CH1 = 20 mV/cm and CH2 = 0.5 V/cm, timebase
setting = 2 ms/cm. Assume an uncertainty of 0.5 mm in all distances measured.
Determine:
i. Valueofvoltages(witherrors)ifthepeakverticaldeflectionsonthescreenare
3.5cmand2.8cmforCH1andCH2respectively;
ii. Thegainoftheamplifieranditsuncertainty(G=V2/V1)
iii. Thefrequencyofthesignalwithpercentileerrorifonesignalperiodis6.2cm.
10. Foranoscilloscope:
a. What are the major components of a cathode ray tube (CRT)? What are the factors
effectingthebrightnessofthetrace?Explainconversionofvoltageintodisplacementin
theCRT.Whatisthedeflectionsensitivity?
b. For the digital storage oscilloscope, explain the function of sample and hold circuit by
showingtypicalinputandoutputsignals.
c. The triangular voltage waveform shown is applied to the oscilloscope in trigger mode.
Triggerlevelis0andslope.Timebasesetting=0.5ms/div.andverticalsetting=0.2
V/div.1div.=1cm.DrawthewaveformcarefullytotheCROscreengiven.
d. Asinusoidalvoltagewaveformwithfrequency1.0kHzisappliedtotheXinputandother
sinusoidalvoltagewaveformswithunknownfrequenciesareappliedtotheYinputone
byone.Followingstablefiguresareobtained.
0.6V
V(t)
12
15
t(ms)
-0.6V
Figurep10c.
Determinethefrequencyforeachcase.
11. ComputethephaseshiftsbetweenXandYfor(b),(c)and(d)andwritethemdownbelowthe
figure.
(a) f =
kHz
(b) f =
=
kHz
(c) f =
=
kHz
(d) f =
=
kHz
Figurep11.
12. Inthesketchshown,theverticalsettingsaregivenas0.2V/divand0.5V/divforCH1andCH2
CH-2
CH-1
Figurep12.

respectively.Thetimebasesettingis1ms/div.CH2isusedfortriggering.Theuncertaintyis
0.5mminalldistancesmeasured.Makenecessarymeasurementsandfillintheblankspaces:
a. PeaktopeakamplitudeforCH1:__________V;%error=_______%
b. PeaktopeakamplitudeforCH2:_________V;%error=_______%
c. Triggerlevel:____Vandslope:__
d. FrequencyofthesignalinCH1:_____kHzwith%error=_______%
e. Thephaseshiftis:_____degreeswith%error=_______%CH___istheleadingone.
SketchtheXYplotforthewaveformsdisplayed.UseCH1fortheXinputandCH2for
theYinput.
13. Two sinusoidal voltages are applied to an oscilloscope in dualtrace operation. The vertical
settingsare10mV/cmand0.5V/cmforCH1andCH2respectively.Thetimebasesettingis10
CH-2
CH-1
Figurep13.
ms/cm.ThetriggersourceisCH2.Forthedualtraceshown,find
a. ThepeaktopeakvaluesforvoltagesinCH1andCH2
b. Thetimeperiodandfrequencyofbothsignals.
c. Thetriggerlevelandtriggerslope.
d. ThephaseshiftbetweenV1(CH1)andV2(CH2).DoesV1leadsorlagsV2?
14. NowtheoscilloscopeisswitchedtoXYmodeofoperation.V1isconnectedtotheXinputwith
setting10mV/cm,andV2isconnectedtotheYinputwithsetting0.5V/cm.Drawtheresulting
ellipse,andcalculate
a. DistancesYm,Y0,Xm,andX0.
b. PhaseshiftbetweensignalinXandsignalinY.
c. PeaktopeakvaluesofvoltageforV1andV2

15. Using the XY plot given, calculate the required parameters and write down the corresponding
Figurep15.
valuesintothefillintheblankspacesprovided.Thesettingsforbothchannelsis1V/div.
MaximumvalueofthesignalinX:____V
MaximumvalueofthesignalinY:____V
ThephaseshiftbetweenXandY:_____degrees.
16. Sketchthesweepmodedisplayforfigurep15thatyouwouldseeontheoscilloscopescreenifX
isappliedtoCH1andYisappliedtoCH2.Assumethefrequencyis1kHz,timebasesettingis
0.2ms/div.TriggersourceisCH1with0levelandpositiveslope.
17. Explainthefollowingtermsrelatedtothedigitalstorageoscilloscope:
a. Sampling;
b. Quantization
c. Controllogic
d. Digitaltoanalogconverter.
18. ForthefollowingRCcircuit
a. Determinethetimeconstantofthecircuit
b. Draw the input and output waveforms for a
square wave input with magnitude 1 V and
10 k
0.1F
Vm
Vs
frequency
i. 100Hz
ii. 1kHz
iii. 10kHz
c. Drawtheinputandoutputwaveformsforvs(t)=5cos(2000t).
19. Set the circuit in the previous problem and experimentally verify the correctness of your
solutionsanddeterminethetimeconstantofthecircuit.
Sources of Electrical Energy / 253
SOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY
LINEARREGULATEDPOWERSUPPLIES
Definitions
ACLineComponentsforAnUnregulatedPowerSupply
Rectifiers
SmoothingFilters
Linear(Dissipative)Regulators
ProtectionofCircuitsinCaseofRegulatorFailure
SWITCHREGULATED(SWITCHING)POWERSUPPLY
LinearVersusSwitching
GeneralLayoutoftheSwitchingPowerSupply
RectifiersandFiltersofaSwitchingPowerSupply
SwitchingRegulatorConfigurations
OverallLookIntoAdvantagesandDisadvantagesofSwitchingSupplies
SummaryofKeyFormulasthatHelpinSolvingPowerSupplyProblem
BATTERIES
CategoriesandTypes
BatteryCapacity
CareandMaintenanceofBatteries
ELECTRICALSAFETY
ScopeandPurposeofElectricalSafety
WhatIstheElectricalShock?
HowtheElectricalShockOccurs?
HowtoPreventElectricalShocks?
OfficeElectricalSafety
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1. Expresstheneedforapowersourceanddefineapowersupply.
2. Explainthepowersupplytermssuchasripplefactorandloadregulation.
3. Statepowersupplytypes.
4. Drawtheblockdiagramrepresentationofalinearregulatedpowersupply.
5. DiscusstheneedforAClinecomponentsforanunregulatedpowersupplyandbrieflyexplainthe
functionofeachcomponent.
6. Describerectifierdiodesandbridgesandselectthepropertypeforagivenapplication.
7. Describetypesofsmoothingfiltersandcomputetherequirementsforagivenapplication.
8. Discusstheneedforaregulator.
9. Explain development of linear (dissipative )regulators and select an IC regulator for a given
application.
10. Explaindevicesusedforprotectionofcircuitsincaseofregulatorfailure.
11. Compareandcontrastlinearandswitchingtypepowersupplies.
12. Describethegenerallayoutandprincipleofoperationofswitchingpowersupplies.
13. Describerectifiersandfiltersofaswitchingpowersupply.
14. Statevariousswitchingregulatorconfigurations.
15. Discussbrieflyadvantagesanddisadvantagesofswitchingsupplies.
16. Usekeyformulasavailableinsolvingpowersupplyproblems.
17. Illustrateprinciplesofoperationofbatteries.
18. Differentiatebetweenprimaryandsecondarybatteries.
19. Listcategoriesandtypesofcommonlyusedbatteries.
20. Expressthebatterycapacity.
21. Describetechniquesforcareandmaintenanceofbatteries.
22. Definethescopeandpurposeofelectricalsafety.
23. Definetheelectricalshockanddescribehowitoccurs.
24. Discussmethodsforpreventingtheelectricalshock.
25. Describe faults that commonly occur in offices and electrical safety measures to prevent the
electricshock.
LINEARREGULATEDPOWERSUPPLIES
Definitions
Apowersupplyisadevicethatsupplieselectricalenergytooneormoreelectricloads.Aregulated
power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled
valueisheldnearlyconstantdespitevariationsineitherloadcurrentorthevoltagesuppliedbythe
power supply's energy source. The power supply obtains the energy that it supplies to its load, as
wellasanyenergyitconsumeswhileperformingthattask,fromanenergysource.Dependingonits
design,apowersupplymayobtainenergyfrom:
Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies
thatconvertAClinevoltagetoDCvoltageasinthecaseofthelaboratorypowersupply.
Energystoragedevicessuchasbatteriesandfuelcells.
Electromechanicalsystemssuchasgeneratorsandalternators.
Solarpower.
Apowersupplymaybeimplementedasadiscrete,standalonedeviceorasanintegraldevice
that is hardwired to its load. In the latter case, for example, low voltage DC power supplies are
commonly integrated with their loads in devices such as computers and household electronics.
Whatever the type and application might be, constraints that commonly affect power supplies
include:
Theamountofvoltageandcurrenttheycansupply.
How long they can supply energy without needing some kind of refueling or recharging
(appliestopowersuppliesthatemployportableenergysources).
Howstabletheiroutputvoltageorcurrentisundervaryingloadconditions.
Whethertheyprovidecontinuousorpulsedenergy.
The laboratory power supply converts alternating current to DC current to meet the power
requirements of solidstate electronic circuits as illustrated in Figure 6.1. DC voltages from 3 to 24
voltsareusedwith5volts,6voltsand12voltsbeingmostpopular.Theidealpowersupplycan
provide the output DC current from 0 ampere (no load) to the maximum (full load) without any
change in the output voltage. The closeness of a practical power supply is determined by two
parametersastheripplefactor(r)andloadregulation.
ripplefactor(r) =
Effective (rms) value of alternating component of the wave

Average (dc) value of the wave

Alternating
Current
Im
Im
Id
Direct
Current
t
/2
/2
-Im
-Im
Figure6.1Powersupplyconvertsalternatingcurrent(AC)todirectcurrent(DC)
Load regulation (%) =
V ML - V FL
100 = R0 x 100
V
RL
where VML and VFL represent the output voltage for minimal load (or with open circuit) and full
(maximal)loadrespectively. VO isthenominal(reference)outputvoltageanditisgenerallytakenas
VFL.
There are other factors like the efficiency, power dissipation, cost, complexity, weight etc.
relatedtothepowersupplyperformance.Twoofthemarethe inputregulationthatrepresentsthe
capabilityofthepowersupplytoadjustitsoutputundervaryinginputconditionsandtheefficiency
().
Input regulation (% / V I N ) =
V O
x 100
V I N V O
V x
Efficiency ( ) = POUT = O I L
PI N V I N x I I N
whereVOisthechangethattakesplaceattheoutputvoltageinresponsetothechangeattheinput
voltage(VIN).
PowerSupplyTypes
Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into linear and switching power
supplies.Thelinearsupplyisusuallyarelativelysimpledesign,butitbecomesincreasinglybulkyand
heavyforhighcurrentequipmentduetotheneedforlargemainsfrequencytransformersandheat
sinkedelectronicregulationcircuitry.Linearvoltageregulatorsproduceregulatedoutputvoltageby
means of an active voltage divider that consumes energy, thus making efficiency low. A switched
modesupplyofthesameratingasalinearsupplywillbesmaller,isusuallymoreefficient,butwillbe

morecomplex.Powersuppliesusedwithsmallelectronicequipment,eitherembeddedorprovided
externally utilize linear regulation schemes while those used in computers, printers and other
electronicequipmentthatrequirelargecurrentsuseswitchingregulationstrategies.
GeneralOutlineofaLinearPowerSupply
The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the load and on
variationsintheACsupplyvoltage.Forcriticalelectronicsapplicationsalinearregulatormaybeused
to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized against fluctuations in input voltage and load. The
regulator also greatly reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct current. Linear regulators
oftenprovidecurrentlimiting,protectingthepowersupplyandattachedcircuitfromovercurrent.
Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop test equipment,
allowingtheoutputvoltagetobeadjustedoverarange.Forexample,abenchpowersupplyusedby
circuitdesignersmaybeadjustableupto30voltsandupto5amperesoutput.Somecanbedriven
byanexternalsignal,forexample,forapplicationsrequiringapulsedoutput.
Figure6.2showsageneralblockdiagramofalinearregulatedpowersupply.TheDCvoltage
AC line
components
Step-down
transformer
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
DC
AC
Input
Figure6.2Blockdiagramofalinearregulatedpowersupply
isobtainedfromtheline(mains)voltage.Thefirststepistodropthelinevoltagedowntothelevel
needed.Thisiscarriedoutbyastepdowntransformer.Then,conversionofACtoDCtakesplaceat
the stage of rectifier. The filter reduces the ripple factor and the regulator diminishes the ripple
factorandimprovestheregulation.Eachblockwillbepresentedproceedingsectionsbelow.
ACLineComponentsforAnUnregulatedPowerSupply
The portion of the power supply that contains AC line components (optional for linear power
supplies, but compulsory for switching supplies), input stepdown transformer (in linear power
supplies),rectifierandfilter.Theoutputcontainsrippleandvarieswiththeloadandinputvariations.
Hence,itisanunregulatedDCvoltage.
Figure6.3Anunregulatedpowersupplywithtransientsuppressorsandlinefilters
Figure6.3showsaschematicdiagramofanunregulatedsupplywithAClinecomponents.They
include:
1. Theinputsocketandwiring,
2. Afuse,
3. Atransientsuppressor,
4. AnAClinefilter,
5. Apoweron/offswitch,
6. AnRCsnubber.
Someofthecomponentsareoptionalbuthighlyrecommended.
InputSocketandWiring
It is always essential to use a threewire connection (cord) with ground (green) connected to the
instrument case. Transformer insulation may fail leading to accidental connection of one side of
powerlinetothecase.Withgroundedcase,thefuseblowsandprotectstheuser.Theattachments
ofthegroundwiretothecasemustbedonebya"strainrelief"wiring.Allwiringgoingtothemains
supplymustbeproperlyinsulatedpossiblywithheatshrinkingtubing.Awiringconventionmustbe
observed(blackforhot,whiteforneutralandgreenforground).
Fuse
A fuse is a piece of wire, often in a casing that improves its electrical characteristics. If too much
currentflows,thewirebecomeshotandmelts.Thiseffectivelydisconnectsthepowersupplyfrom
itsload,and theequipmentstopsworkinguntil theproblem thatcausedthe overloadisidentified
andthefuseisreplaced.Therearevarioustypesoffusesusedinpowersupplies.
fastblowfusescutthepowerasquickastheycan
slowblowfusestoleratemoreshorttermoverload
wirelinkfusesarejustanopenpieceofwire,andhavepooreroverloadcharacteristicsthan
glassandceramicfuses.
Somepowersuppliesuseaverythinwirelinksolderedinplaceasafuse.
Thefuseisanessentialcomponentwitheverypieceofelectronicequipment.A"slowblow"
type is preferred in the powerline circuit, due to large current transient at the turnon. It is
recommendedtouseafuseatleast50%largerthanthenominalloadcurrent.Fusesblowoutmore
frequentlyduetofatigueiftheyareusednearthereratedcurrents.
LineFilterandTransient(Surge)Suppressor
Line filters prevent possible radiation of radio frequency interference from the instrument via the
powerline.Atthesametime,filteroutincominginterferencethatmaybepresentonthepowerline.
Spikes as large as 1 kV to 5 kV are occasionally present at most power lines with smaller ones
appearingmorefrequently.Alinefilterisreasonablyeffectiveinreducingsuchaninterference.
A transient (surge) suppressor is a device that conducts when its terminal voltage is
exceeded.Itbehavesasabidirectionalhighpowerzeneranditcanshortouthundredsofamperesof
harmful currents in form of spikes. It must be selected to have a turnon voltage larger than the
largest input voltage we nominally have. For example, the peak value of 127 Vrms line voltage is
around180volts.Asthelinevoltagefluctuatesaroundthenominalvalueby20%,thisvoltagewill
riseto216volts.Hence,adevicewithahighervoltagemustbeselected.
TheSnubber
A snubber is a device used to suppress ("snub") voltage transients in electrical systems, pressure
transientsinfluidsystems,orexcessforceorrapidmovementinmechanicalsystems.Snubbersare
frequentlyusedinelectricalsystemswithaninductiveloadwherethesuddeninterruptionofcurrent
flow often leads to a sharp rise in voltage across the
device creating the interruption. This sharp rise in
voltageisatransientandcandamageandleadtofailure
of the controlling device. A spark is likely to be
generated (arcing), which can cause electromagnetic
interferenceinothercircuits.Thesnubberpreventsthis
undesired voltage by conducting transient current
aroundthedevice.
Figure6.4ExamplesofRCSnubbers
Figure6.4illustratesafewofcommerciallyavailablesnubbers.Asimplesnubberusesasmall
resistor(R)inserieswithasmallcapacitor(C).Thiscombinationcanbeusedtosuppresstherapid
rise in voltage across a thyristor, preventing the erroneous turnon of the thyristor; it does this by
limiting the rate of rise in voltage (dV/dt) across the thyristor to a value which will not trigger it.
Snubbers are also often used to prevent arcing across the contacts of relays and switches and the
electricalinterferenceandwelding/stickingofthecontactsthatcanoccur.Anappropriatelydesigned
RC snubber can be used with either DC or AC loads. This sort of snubber is commonly used with
inductive loads such as electric motors. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously,soadecreasingtransientcurrentwillflowthroughitforasmallfractionofasecond,
allowingthevoltageacrosstheswitchtoincreasemoreslowlywhentheswitchisopened.Whilethe
values can be optimized for the application, a 100 ohm noninductive resistor in series with a 100
nanofarad, or larger, capacitor of appropriate voltage rating is usually effective. Determination of
voltageratingcanbedifficultowingtothenatureoftransientwaveforms;theactualratingcanbe
determined only by measuring temperature rise of the capacitor. This type of snubber is often
manufacturedasasinglecomponent.
Aseriescombinationof100ohmsand0.1F(1kV)capacitorisusefulinpreventingthelarge
inductivetransientthatthetransformerwouldotherwiseproduceatturnoffasindicatedinFigure
6.3. The snubber can be placed across the primary of the transformer or across the power on/off
switch.
TheIndicatorLamp
Insomeoldpowersupplydesigns,apilotlightusinganeonlampanddroppingresistorappearsat
theinputsectionaftertheswitch.Mostnewdesignshowever,utilizealightemittingdiode(led)that
runsfromtheregulatedvoltageasshowninFigure6.3.
TheTransformer
ThetransformerhasbeendiscussedinChapter2.Ithastwofunctionsinapowersupplyas:
Steppingdownthelinevoltagetolevelsrequiredinelectronics;
Isolating the important parts of the electronic circuitry from the lines, hence providing
electricalsafety.
Thetransformermustbeselectedtogiveusthevoltageandcurrentneededatworstcase.
Forfindingthevoltage,
Add the minimum required unregulated output voltage, ripple voltage, diodes forward
voltagedrop(s).
Then, multiply the total with 0.707 (since the transformer's output voltage is expressed in
rms)and V transformer =
V unregulated + V ripple + V diodes

2
This voltage must be supplied when the input has its lowest value. The efficiency of a
transformerfeedingabridgerectifierandcapacitivefilterisaround0.81.
Divideitbytheexpectedefficiencyofthetransformer().
Thecurrentthatissuppliedbythesecondaryofthetransformerdependsuponthetypeoffilter
used.Withcapacitivefilters,currentflowsforaveryshortdurationoftheperiod.Hence,thecurrent
canbetakenas0.7oftheloadcurrent(IL)foraninductivefilter,and1.8of ILforacapacitivefilter
followingabridgerectifier.
Rectifiers
Diodes
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
directioninwhichthecurrentcanflowasindicatedinFigure6.5.Thereis
asmallvoltageacrossaconductingdiode,itiscalledtheforwardvoltage
drop and is about 0.7 V for all normal diodes which are made from
silicon.Theforwardvoltagedropofadiodeisalmostconstantwhatever
the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep
Figure6.5Circuitsymboland
characteristic (currentvoltage graph) as shown in Figure 6.6. When a
examplesofdiodes
reversevoltageisappliedaperfectdiodedoesnotconduct,butallreal
diodesleakaverytinycurrentofafewAorless.This
can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very
much smaller than the current flowing in the forward
direction.However,alldiodeshaveamaximumreverse
voltage(usually50Vormore)andifthisisexceededthe
diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse
direction,thisiscalledbreakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types:
Signaldiodeswhichpasssmallcurrentsof100mAorless
Figure6.6Forwardcurrentvoltagecharacteristic
ofasilicondiode
and rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In

additiontherearelightemittingdiodes(LEDs)andZener
diodes.

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for
anodeand korforcathode(yes,itreallyisk,notc,forcathode!).Thecathodeismarkedbyaline
paintedonthebody.Diodesarelabeledwiththeircodeinsmallprintthatmaybedifficulttoread
withbareeye(youmayneedamagnifyingglasstoreadthisonsmallsignaldiodes!)Youcanusea
multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in one
directionbutnottheother.
RectifierDiodes
Ordinarysignaldiodes(like1N4148)aredesignedforhighspeed,lowleakageandlowcapacitance.
Theycanhandlecurrentsuptoabout100mAwithbreakdownvoltagesrarelyexceeding100volts.
Rectifierdiodesareusedinpowersuppliestoconvertalternatingcurrent(AC)todirectcurrent(DC),
a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current must
pass through the diode. All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward
voltage drop of 0.7 V. Forlarge current applications, the diode drop can be taken as 1.2 volt for a
singlediode(2.4voltsforabridgerectifier).Rectifierdiodesandbridgestheycansustaincurrentsup
to1to25ampswithsurgecurrentsevenmuchgreater.Theirbreakdownvoltagesrangesfrom100
volts to 1000 volts. Their leakage is relatively high and
junction capacitors are large making them unsuitable for
Table6.1 Commonlyusedrectifierdiodes
Diode
Maximum
Current
diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage
1N4001
1A
Maximum
Reverse
Voltage
50V
circuitswithacurrentoflessthan1A.
1N4002
1A
100V
1N4007
1A
1000V
1N5401
3A
100V
1N5408
3A
1000V
signal operations. Table 6.1 shows maximum current and

maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier
Therearefourfactorsthatmustbeconsideredin
selection:
Average rectified forward current (IF) (averaged

overafullcycleofoperation).Forfamous1N400xseriesitis1ampere.
Surge current (ISFM) is the maximum (peak) safe current for a given number of cycles. For
1N400xseriesitisabout30A.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV), VRM is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied across
thediodebeforetheonsetoftheavalanchebreakdown.Valuesvaryfrom50volts(1N4001)
toamaximumof1000volts(1N4007).
Forwardvoltagedrop(VF)istheDCvoltagedropacrosstheforwardbiaseddiodewhilethe
specifiedforwardcurrentIFisflowingthrough.For1N400x,VF1.1voltatIF=1A.

There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridgerectifieristhemostimportantanditproducesfullwavevaryingDC.Afullwaverectifiercan
alsobemadefromjusttwodiodesifacentretaptransformerisused,butthismethodisrarelyused
nowthatdiodesarecheaper.Asinglediodecanbeusedasarectifierbutitonlyusesthepositive(+)
partsoftheACwavetoproducehalfwavevaryingDC.
Three configurations are used with the rectifiers as the halfwave rectifier, full wave rectifiers
withacentertappedtransformerandwithabridgerectifier.
VmSint
127 Vrms
60 Hz
Vm
D1
RL
/2
Pulsating DC
-Vm
Figure6.7Halfwaverectifiedpowersupply
HalfWaveRectifier
ItisthesimplestformasillustratedinFigure6.7.Adiodeisusedtoclipthenegativehalfoftheinput
waveform.Itishardtosmooththissufficientlywelltosupplyelectroniccircuitsunlesstheyrequirea
verysmallcurrentsothesmoothingcapacitordoesnotsignificantlydischargeduringthegaps.
Vo=VmVdwithVd1volt.Vdc=(VmVd)/,Vrms=(VmVd)/2
yieldingaripplefactor(r)=1.21
FullWaveRectifiers
They utilize both half of the input waveform. A centertapped transformer provides the ground
referencefortheoutputasshowninFigure6.8.
D1
Vm
RL
/2
D2
2?
-Vm
Figure6.8Afullwaverectifiedpowersupplywithacentertappedtransformer
Vo=VmVdwithVd 1volt.Vdc=2*(VmVd)/,Vrms=(VmVd)/2yieldingamuchreduced
ripplefactorthatisr=0.483
Figure6.9Thebridgerectifieranditsoutputwaveform
Analternativeandmostlyusedformisthebridgerectifierthatusesfourdiodesbutdoesnot
require a center tapped transformer. Figure 6.9 illustrates the bridge rectifier and its output
waveform.
Figure6.10Variousbridgerectifiersthatareusedinpractice
It can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages
containingthefourdiodesrequiredasshowninFigure6.10.Itiscalledafullwaverectifierbecauseit
uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). The output voltage is two diode drops
belowtheinputvoltage.Restoftheparametersarethesameasabove.Bridgerectifiersareratedby

themaximumcurrenttheycanpassandthemaximumreversevoltagetheycanwithstand(thismust
be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages).
Figure6.11illustratesthefullwaverectifiedpowersupplywithabridgerectifier.
D1
Vm
D1
D4
D2
D3
RL
D4
/2
D2
D3
2
Pulsating DC
-Vm
Figure6.11Fullwaverectifiedpowerssupplywithabridgerectifier
SmoothingFilters
SmoothingbyCapacitiveFilters
Smoothing is mostly performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supplytoactasareservoir,supplyingcurrenttotheoutputwhenthevaryingDCvoltagefromthe
rectifier is falling. It uses the principle that the voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously. Hence, the capacitor behaves as an open circuit to DC and short circuit to AC
componentsoftherectifiedsignal.Figure6.12showstheunsmoothedvaryingDC(dottedline)and
thesmoothedDC(solidline).ThecapacitorchargesquicklynearthepeakofthevaryingDC,andthen
dischargesasitsuppliescurrenttotheoutput.
Figure6.12Outputsmoothingusinganelectrolyticfiltercapacitor
ThesmoothingsignificantlyincreasestheaverageDCvoltagetoalmostthepeakvalue(1.4
RMS value diode voltage drops). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to the peak value of about
8.4VRMS,withsmoothingthisincreasestoalmostthepeakvaluegiving6.4VsmoothDC(2Vislost
inthebridgerectifier).

Smoothingisnotperfectduetothecapacitorvoltagefallingalittleasitdischarges,givinga
smallripplevoltage.Formanycircuitsaripplewhichis10%ofthesupplyvoltageissatisfactoryand
theequationbelowgivestherequiredvalueforthesmoothingcapacitor.
10%
Where
C=smoothingcapacitanceinfarads(F)
Io=outputcurrentfromthesupplyinamps(A)
Vs=supplyvoltageinvolts(V),thisisthepeakvalueoftheunsmoothedDC
f=frequencyoftheACsupplyinhertz(Hz),50Hz
Capacitorcanbereducedby20%ifthefrequencyis60Hzinsteadof50Hz.Alargercapacitorwill
givelessripple.ThecapacitorvaluemustbedoubledwhensmoothinghalfwaveDC.
Figure6.13showsthecircuitdiagram
and output waveform for a capacitive filter.

HereViistherectifiedinput,Voisthefiltered
output,RListheeffectiveloadresistanceTis
theperiodoftheAcinput,T1isthe"off"and
T2isthe"on"timeoftherectifierdiodes.As
the input voltage increases the capacitor
charges to the maximum value of the input
Figure6.13Outputwaveformofacapacitivefilter
voltageastherectifierdiodeturnson.Asthe
input voltage starts decreasing, the voltage across the capacitor becomes greater than that of the
output of the transformer. Hence, the rectifier diode turns off. The capacitor discharges slowly
throughtheeffectiveloadresistance.Inthesecondhalfcycle,astheinputvoltagebecomeslarger
thanthevoltageacrossthecapacitor,thediodeturnsonandchargesthecapacitortothemaximum
voltage.Theloadcausesthecapacitortodischarge.
Ifweassumethattheloadcurrentstaysconstant,theripplevoltage(peaktovariationatthe
top of the waveform) can be approximately from the charge lost by the capacitor as IL=C*Vr/T1
yieldingVr=IL*T1/C.
ThecapacitorrecoversthechargelostinT2asthediodesconduct.IfT2ismuchsmallerthan
T1 (RLC T), than T1 T = 1/f. Hence we get Vr=IL/fC for half wave and Vr=IL/2fC for full wave

rectification. The ripple factor and the DC output voltage can be estimated by r=2400/RLC and
Vdc=(Vi4200Idc/C)whereCisinFandfrequencyis60Hz.
Large electrolytic capacitors are used to obtain acceptably low ripple voltage. We can
decrease the ripple voltage by increasing the value of the capacitor. However, this will cause a
decrease in charging time T2 and necessitates larger currents to flow through the rectifier diodes.
Eventually,rectifierdiodesandthetransformerwillbeafflictedbyincreasedI2Rheating.
The value of the capacitor is chosen according to the ripple voltage we can tolerate. In
connectingelectrolyticcapacitors,attentionmustbepaidtothepolarity.ThemaximumDCvoltage
that the capacitor can withstand is mentioned as the working DC (WVDC). Capacitors have large
tolerances(about20%).Hence,theWVDCvaluemustbetakensafelyabovethemaximumvoltage
thatcanappearacrossthecapacitor(50%morethanthemaximumvoltageisagoodchoice).Large
electrolyticcapacitorshaveappreciableseriesinductivecomponentsduetothickleadsandwound
platestoincreasethecapacitancetovolumeratio.Thus,itmaynotbehaveasaneffectivecapacitive
elementforhighfrequencyspikes.Thisisusuallycorrectedbyaddingasmallparallelcapacitor.
Duringcharginginterval,thecurrenttothecapacitorislimitedbyconductionresistanceof
thediodeandwireresistanceofthetransformer.Asmallseriesresistanceisaddedsometimes.This
willcauseasmalldropattheoutputvoltage,butimprovestheripplefactorconsiderably.Itwilllimit
theforwardcurrent;henceextendthelifeofdiodesandtransformer.
The charged capacitor retains some charge even after the supply switched off. This might
damagesomecircuitcomponents.A(bleeder)resistor(around1k,0.25or0.5W)connectedacross
dischargesthecapacitorinafewseconds.Ifaledindicatorisconnected,thenthereisnoneedfor
sucharesistor.
InductiveFilters
Inductive filters have better control of the ripple for large load
currents. The inductor behaves as a short circuit for the DC
component. Hence, when 2fL RL the DC value of the output is
approximately 2Vi/andtheripplefactor r 0.118RL/fLwhere RL is
+
Vi
L
RL
Vo
-
theeffectiveloadresistance,fisthefrequencyoftherippleandLis
theinductance(inHenry).Figure6.14showsasymbolicdiagramof
Figure6.14Inductivefilter
aninductivefilter.
Withtheinductivefilterlargecurrentspikesdonothamperthetransformerandrectifieras
thatoccurincapacitivefilters.

LSectionandSectionFilters
CombinationofcapacitiveandinductiveelementsispossibleinformofLsectionandsectionfilters
asshowninFigure6.15.FortheLsectionfiltertheripplefactorisindependentoftheloadanditis
approximately0.83/LC.TheDCvalueoftheoutputisthesameasthatoftheinductivefilter.
Vi
RL
Vo
Vi
Vo
C1
C2
RL
-
- section
L - section
Figure6.15Landsectionfilters
ForasectionfiltertheDCvalueisthesameasthatofthecapacitivefilter.Theripplefactor
isinverselyproportionaltotheproduct C1C2LRL.Table2showscomparisonoffourfiltertypesfor60
Hzripplevoltage.
Table6.2Comparisonoffourpassivesmoothingfilters
Typeoffilter
Inductive
Capacitive
Lsection
section
Ripple
RL/1600L
2400/(RLC)
0.83/(LC)
3300/(C1RLC2L)
DCoutputvolt
0.636Vm
Vm4200Idc/C
0.636Vm
Vm4200Idc/C
Linear(Dissipative)Regulators
NeedforaRegulator
The output of unregulated supply contains an AC component that may cause interference to the
Amplitude
Light load
+
Vi
Rg
RL
Heavy load
Vo
Amplitude
Increasing line voltage
Decreasing line voltage
Regulated output voltage

Time
Figure6.16Functionoftheregulatorastheunregulatedinputvoltagefluctuates
Time

electronic circuits. The average value of the voltage fluctuates as the load and/or the input line
voltage changes as shown in Figure 6.16. The regulator behaves as a series variable resistor that
changesinaccordancewiththeloadcurrent,keepingtheoutputvoltageconstant.
Many integrated circuits are developed to replace the discrete regulator circuits. Basic
discretecircuitswillbeshowntoillustratetheprinciplefollowedbyanexampleoftheICregulator.A
simplified diagram and output waveform of a regulated power supply is shown in Figure 6.17. The
regulatedDCoutputisverysmoothwithnoripple.Itissuitableforallelectroniccircuits.
Figure6.17Simplifieddiagramofaregulatedpowersupply
TheZenerDiodeBasedDiscreteRegulators
(Thissectionisbriefedmainlyfromhttp://www.electronicstutorials.ws/diode/diode_7.html)
The DC output voltage from the half or fullwave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the
DC voltage. The load value changes causes the
average output voltage to vary as well. The
function of a regulator is to provide a constant
outputvoltagetoaloadconnectedinparallelwith
it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or
the variation in the load current. Zener diodes
can be used to produce a stabilized voltage
Figure6.18Azenerdiodebasedvoltageregulator
output with low ripple under these varying load

currentconditions.Bypassingasmallcurrentthroughthediodefromavoltagesource,viaasuitable
current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage
dropofVout.Hence,byconnectingasimplezenerstabilizercircuitasshowninFigure6.18acrossthe
outputoftherectifier,amorestableoutputvoltagecanbeproduced.
Theresistor, RSisconnectedinserieswiththezenerdiodetolimitthecurrentflowthrough
thediodewiththevoltagesource, VSbeingconnectedacrossthecombination.Thestabilizedoutput
voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode. The zener diode is connected with its cathode

terminalconnectedtothepositiverailoftheDCsupplysoitisreversebiasedandwillbeoperatingin
its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the
circuit.Withnoloadconnectedtothecircuit,theloadcurrentwillbezero,(IL=0),andallthecircuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small
value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance RL is
connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care
mustbetakenwhenselectingtheappropriatevalueofseriesresistancesothatthezenersmaximum
powerratingisnotexceededunderthisnoloadorhighimpedancecondition.Theloadisconnected
in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the same as the zener voltage,
(VR=VZ).Thereisaminimumzenercurrentforwhichthestabilizationofthevoltageiseffectiveand
thezenercurrentmuststayabovethisvalueoperatingunderloadwithinitsbreakdownregionatall
times.Theupperlimitofcurrentisofcoursedependentupon thepowerratingofthe device.The
supplyvoltageVSmustbegreaterthanVZ.
Example:Designazenerdiodestabilizedpowersupplythatwillprovideanoutputvoltage5Vatan
outputcurrentof60mA.
Stepsinthedesign:
Vz=4.7V(nearestvalueavailable)
Vs=8V(itmustbeafewvoltsgreaterthanVz)
Imax=66mA(outputcurrentplus10%)
Pz>4.7V66mA=310mW,choosePz=400mW
R=(8V4.7V)/66mA=0.05k=50,chooseR=47
ResistorpowerratingP>(8V4.7V)66mA=218mW,chooseP=0.5W
Thesimplevoltageregulatorbasedonthezenerdiodecanbeusediftheloadcurrentislowand
load is stable. General purpose voltage regulators can be designed inserting a commonbase
transistorinserieswithloadandusingthezenerdiodeasavoltagereference.Thetransistorbehaves
as the variable resistor. There are several configurations available in the literature for such
applications.However,zenerdiodesareverynoisyespeciallyoperatedaroundtheavalancheregion
(for zener diodes with Vz>6 volts). The voltage drop across the zener varies with the input voltage
causingslightvariationoftheoutputvoltage.Thezenerdiode,likeallsilicondevices,iseffectedby
the temperature that causes a drift in the zener voltage. This can be compensated by complicated
circuits.

LinearRegulatorICs
Problems of discrete regulators are solved by integrated circuit
type linear regulators. There are many ICs with different rating
available in the market. The most famous of them is the 7800
series three terminal positive voltage regulator shown in Figure
6.19.Inputpinisconnectedtotheunregulatedsupplyvoltageof
thefilters.Theoutputpindeliverstheregulatedvoltage.Current
rating depends upon the package used. The plastic package can
giveupto1Aandthemetalpackagecansafelysupplyupto3A.
forlargercurrents,acurrentboostingtransistorcanbeused.The
centralpin(thecaseinthemetalone)isconnectedtogroundfor
a fixed supply. This pin may be connected to ground through a
zenerdiodetoincreasetheoutputvoltage.Foravariableoutput
voltage,thegroundingterminalmaybetiedtothecentralpinof
a potentiometer that is connected between the output and the
ground. However, there are adjustable regulator ICs and they
should be preferred instead for applications requiring variable
outputvoltages.
Figure6.19ICregulators
7900seriesregulatorICsarethecomplementaryof7800
seriestoobtainnegativeregulatedvoltages.7800and7900seriesareavailablewitheightdifferent
outputvoltages;5,6,8,9,12,15,18and24volts.Theoutputvoltageappearsasthesuffix(i.e.7806
for the 6volt regulator). The input voltage is limited to 35 volts for 7805 to 7818 and 40 volts for
7812.
The minimumvoltage dropacrosstheregulatorisabout2volts.Hence,theinputmust be
guaranteedtobeatleast2voltsabovetherequiredoutputvoltage.Aninputandoutputcapacitor
(value 0.22 to 1 F) might be needed under certain conditions like the regulator is away from the
filtersandelectroniccircuitspoweredareawayfromtheregulator.
ProtectionofCircuitsinCaseofRegulatorFailure
BuiltInProtection
7800 series regulators have builtin short circuit and over temperature protection. The chip shuts
downratherthanblowingouttopreventthedamagetothecircuitry.However,ifaboosttransistor
is driven by the chip to increase the current capability, then the transistor will see the full input

voltageacrosswithoutanylimitationistheoutputcurrent.Hence,anadditionalovercurrent(short
circuit)protectionbecomesnecessary.
TheOverVoltageCrowbar
Theregulatorcircuitmaynothavetheprotectionasabove.Oracurrentboostingtransistormaybe
used.Then,iftheregulatorfailsandbecomesshortcircuit,lettingthefullunregulatedinputvoltage
appearing across the load, damaging sensitive electronic
components.Aquickblowfusemaybeusedattheoutputof
the regulator to protect the circuits in case of excessive
current.However,"thesiliconfuse"mayblowfaster.
An overvoltage crowbars shown in Figure 6.20 may
+5V
1N52328
5V6, 5%
2N4441
68 0.1F
beaddedtoprovidethesufficientprotection.A+5Vsupplyis
shownasanexampleinthefigure.TTLlogiccircuitsrequire+5
V supply and they cannot tolerate more than +7 V without
Figure6.20Overvoltagecrowbar
damage. The crowbar shown lets the thyristor (silicon

controlledrectifierSCR)toturnonasthevoltagegoesover
6.5Vcausingthefusetoblowduetoexcessivecurrentdrawn.
SWITCHREGULATED(SWITCHING)POWERSUPPLY
LinearVersusSwitching
Thelinearregulatordiscussedabovereliesonreceivingapowermuchhigherthanrequiredfromthe
source and dissipating some of it to keep the output voltage fixed immaterial of the current,
provideditstayswithinthelimits.Itischeaptoinstall,butexpansiveinlongrun.Itismainlyusedfor
low power electronic devices either as a builtin unit or as a standalone unit. It best suits to
applicationswheretheoutputpowervariesconsiderably,likeinlaboratorypowersupplies.
Switching regulator chops the unregulated DC input voltage and provides the constant
voltagerequiredattheoutputbyadjustingthechunksdependinguponthedemandfromtheload.It
usesaninductor(choke)asanenergystorageelement.Regulationisnotasgoodasthethatofthe
linear type, but the efficiency is high. Expansive to install, but cheaper to run. It best suits to
applicationsrequiringhighpowerandrelativelyconstantpower.

The switching power supply relies on the switching
regulator
iL
Imax
that
is
symbolically shown
in
Imin
Figure
Basically
ton
it
P2
S1
IL
C1
VIN
RL
is
consists of a power
source
tT
t=0
6.21.
L1
P1
VIN,
duty
Figure6.21 Elementarydiagramforaswitching
powersupply
cycle switch S1 and

anLCfiltertoprovideconstantoutputvoltageacrosstheloadRL.
S1
Pos1
Figure 6.22 shows typical current and switching waveforms.
ton
The switching transistor chops the DC input in such a way that it

deliversconstantvoltsecondenergypulsestotheintegrator.Inthis
Pos2
respect, the switching regulator is a powercontrolled device and
tT
opposed to the linear regulator that is a currentcontrolled device.
Figure6.22Waveforms
Theintegratorpartoftheregulator(theLCfilter)smoothesoutthe
pulsating DC. An inductor along with a capacitor stores sufficient electrical energy during the
transistoronperiodtodelivertoaregulatedoutputvoltagetheloadduringtheoffperiod.
GeneralLayoutoftheSwitchingPowerSupply
SENSE SIGNAL
INPUT
RECTIFIER
INPUT
FILTER
RF
CIRCUIT
OUTPUT
RECTIFIER
OUTPUT
FILTER
DC
AC
Input
INPUT CIRCUIT
HIGH
FREQUENCY
TRANSFORMER
OUTPUT CIRCUIT
Figure6.23Functionalblockdiagramofaswitchingpowersupply
Figure6.23showsblockdiagramofacompleteswitchingpowersupply.Ithas:
InputrectifierandfilterthatgeneratesanunregulatedDCfromthepowerlinesdirectly.At
somelowpowerregulators,aninputstepdowntransformermightbeused.Theinputfilter
servesthreepurposes:
o
Tosmoothoutspikesandhighfrequencytransientswithlargepeakvaluesandsmall
voltsecondintegrals.

o
To eliminate input ripple at the line frequency (50 Hz, 60 Hz or 400 Hz depending
upon the application) for a halfwave rectified input and double the line frequency
forafullwaverectifiedinput.
ToattenuateACcomponentsproducedbytransistorswitching.
Atransistorswitchthatoperatesathighfrequency(between20kHzand1MHz)chopsthe
inputDC.
Ahighfrequencytransformerstepsdownthechoppedsignaltothedesiredlevel.
The output rectifier converts the signal from the transformer into unregulated DC and the
outputfiltersmoothesouttheoutput.
Thetransformerandoutputrectifierarenotnecessaryiftheinputvoltageisatthesamelevelas
therequiredoutputvoltage.Theoutputissensedandusedtocontroltheswitching(on)timeofthe
transistor.
RectifiersandFiltersofaSwitchingPowerSupply
TheInputRectifier
It is similar to those used in the linear power supply. However, the input in this case is the line
voltage directly. Thus, great care must be taken in handling the input components due to large
voltageinvolved.
The bridge rectifier is used in almost all applications. It develops its own ground reference
and isolates the rest from the AC line. In choosing the proper elements, the peak inverse voltage
mustbeatleast50%largerthanthemaximumpeakvoltageattheinput,andtheforwardcurrent
mustbe2to5timestheaveragecurrentrequired.
A small resistor or a thermistor connected between the bridge and the filter capacitor
reducessurgecurrentsthatexistduetohighfrequencyswitchingatpeaklinevoltage.
OutputRectifiers
Allthreerectifierconfigurationsdiscussedforthelinearregulatedsupplies,halfwave(Figure6.24),
fullwavewithacentertappedtransformer(Figure6.25)andfullwavewithabridgerectifier(Figure
6.26)areused.

Thehalfwaveisthesimplestformbutnotveryeffective.Afullwaverectifiereitherwitha
Alternating
signal
Pulsating
DC output
Chopped
DC input
Rectifier diodes
Step-down
transformer
Figure6.24Thefullwavewithbridgerectifiertypeoutputrectifier
center tappedtransformer or with a bridge rectifier is mostly used. Figure 6.24 illustrates the full
wavewithbridgerectifierversion.
Highfrequencyrectifiersareneeded.Theyrepresentlargestsinglesourceofgeneratedheat
inapowersupply.Schottkyrectifiersandfastrecoverydiodesareused.Schottkyrectifiersarebased
on a metaltosilicon junction called the Schottky barrier and they are the faster of the two types.
They have small junction capacitances leading to smaller recovery times. Fastrecovery diodes are
also divided into several categories and they approach to the Schottky diodes in terms of the
recoverytimes.
Filters
Theyaresimilartothoseusedinlinearregulatorsareutilizedbothfortheinputandoutput.Input
filtersinvolvecapacitorsbetween1000and2200F(sometimesupto5000F).Outputfiltersmay
havecapacitanceupto470F.WorkingDCvoltagerating(WVDC)oftheinputfiltercapacitorsmust
beabout150%ofthepeakvoltagethatmayappearattheoutputoftheinputrectifier.
Capacitorshavebeendesignedtohavehighercapacitancetovolumeratio,smallequivalent
series resistance (ESR) and series inductance for more effective operation at high frequencies.
Aluminumelectrolyticcapacitorsareusedattheinputfiltering.Itispreferabletoplaceatantalumor
otherlowvaluecapacitorwithmuchsmallerESRinparallel.Thissecondcapacitorisgenerallyplaced
closetothecollectoroftheswitchingtransistor.Multilayerceramiccapacitorsareusedforoutput

filteringathighfrequencies.Electrolyticcapacitorscanalsobeusedifthefrequencyofoperationis
low.Highfrequencyoperationrequiressmallercapacitorsize.
ElementsoftheRFRegulator/SwitchingNetwork
TheheartofeveryswitchingregulatoristheRFregulatornetworkshowninFigure6.25.Itchopsthe
DC voltage from the input filter at 20 kHz or higher (up to 1 MHz is considered in recent designs).
PulseWidthModulation(PWM)showninthefigureismostlyusedtodrivetheswitchingtransistor
for chopping. Pulse width varies according to the load (closedloop control system). Basic compo
nentsofthesysteminvolvestheswitchingelement,highfrequencystepdowntransformer,output
rectifierandfilterdiscussedabove,andsenseamplifierandmodulator.
TheSwitchingElement
Power MOSFETs are mostly preferred over bipolar junction transistors. Power MOSFETs have the
followingmajoradvantages:
CanbedrivendirectlybycontrolICswithoutaneedforadrivecircuitry.
HIGH-FREQUENCY
TRANS FORMER
S WITCHING
COMPONENTS
UNREGULATED
S TEP
DOWN
DC
OUTPUT
RECTIFIER
AND FILTER
NETWORK
REGULATED
DC
MODULATED
S WITCHING PULS ES
ERROR
AMPLIFIER
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
CONTROL
PULS E-WIDTH
MODULATING
CIRCUIT
REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
Figure6.25 Blockdiagramoftheswitchingnetwork
They don't store charge during saturation. Hence, they have very low transition time that
allowsthemtoworkathighswitchingfrequencies.
Theydon'thavedestructivesecondarybreakdownreducingoreveneliminatingtheneedfor
aspeedlimitingsnubbernetwork.
However,theyhavesomedisadvantagesas:
Largeonresistance(45versus0.1inbipolar).
Sensitivitytoreversevoltagespikesand,
largediesize.
Inrecentyears,bipolartransistorshavebeendevelopedthatcanswitchamperesofcurrentsin2s
orlessandwithstandvoltageover1000volts.
TheHighFrequencyTransformer
Atransformerisusedtoconverthighvoltage,choppedDCintoalowervoltagesecondaryACsignal.
Itmustoperateattheswitchingfrequencyof20kHzorhigher.Althoughitusesthesameprincipleof
magneticcouplingasthetransformeroperatingatlinefrequency(50Hz,60Hzor400Hzdepending
upontheplaceofapplication),ordinarytransformerwillnotworkathighfrequencies.
For switching supply applications toroidal transformers in which turns of wires wrapped
aroundtoroidalcoilsareusedinmediumtohighpowerlevels,wheretheyarecosteffective.Atlow
power levels, ferrite Ecores are commonly used. Many ferrite materials work well at 100 kHz, but
theyfailathigherfrequencies.Specialcorematerialsaredevelopedforhighfrequencyoperations.
Athighfrequencies,proximityandskineffectsinmagneticwindingsbecomedominantthatlimitthe
amount of copper that can be used. Litz wire (twisted bundle of fine wires), foil, and printed
conductorsareusedtoreducelosses.
TheRegulator
TherearethreebasictypesofregulatorsastheFerroresonantsupply,pulsefrequencymodulation,
andpulsewidthmodulation.
The Ferro resonant supply is the simplest and most reliable one. It is composed of a Ferro
resonant transformer, a resonating capacitor, and a rectifier and an output filter. No electronic
regulationcircuitryisinvolvedandtheregulationisachievedwithinthetransformercorethrougha
magnetic process. It is used in many industrial and commercial devices like microwave oven, but
rarelyappearsinelectronicapplications.
The pulse frequency modulation reduces the dutycycle by manipulating the interval
betweenpulses,notthewidthofthepulses.Itrespondsmorecloselychangesintheload.Thus,the
efficiency rises. It is very effective with high frequencies and light loads. Although the lower

operating frequency is used, the longer pulse intervals causes filtering problems. The pulse width
modulation(PWM)isthewidelyusedapproach.ThereareICsmanufacturedforthispurpose.
SwitchingRegulatorConfigurations
There are three basic configurations
from which all others are driven as
PWM
CONTROLLER
VC
the buck (stepdown) converter, the

boost (stepup) converter, and the
buckboost (stepdown / stepup or
S1
L1
inverting) converter. Only the buck

(stepdown)
converter
summarized
below.
readers
are
referred
will
be
VIN
C1
iL
Vout
CR1
RL
Interested
to
the
references for details of the buck
Figure6.26Thebuck(stepdown)converter
converter and other switching

regulators.
IPK
Figure 6.26 shows the basic buck
iL
convertertopology.Thecircuitinterruptsthe
line and provides a variable pulse width
S! CLOSED
OPEN
Tc
t1
0
Inductor current waveform
rectangular wave to simple averaging filter

L1C1 such that the applied voltage is either
Vinor0.
When S1 is closed, the diode CR1 is
ic
IPK - ILOAD
ILOAD
off(reversedbiased)andwhenS1opens,the
current through L1 forces the diode to turn
on. Figure 6.27 demonstrates typical
Q+
Q-
Tc
t1
0
Capacitor current waveform
Figure6.27Inductorandcapacitorwaveform
inductor and capacitor current waveforms.

ThecurrentiLatanygiventime(t)is
I=(VinVout)*t/L1yieldingIpk=(VinVout)*ton/L1.
ThedutycycleoftheconverterisD=ton/T=ton/(ton+toff)
TheoutputvoltageVoutcanbeexpressedintermsoftheinputvoltageVinanddutycycleDas
=VinD.
Vout

L1C1 combination behaves as a lowpass filter. For the output to remain constant, the net
charge delivered to the filter capacitor must be zero. This means, the charge delivered to the
capacitorfromtheinductormustbedissipatedintheload.Thechargedevelopedintheinductoris
fixed (constant on time) and the time required to dissipate it must vary according to the load
conditions.
The figure shows the discontinuous operation, since the inductor current becomes 0 in
certainperiodofthecycle.Astheloadcontinuouslyincreased,aDCidlecurrentwillpassthroughthe
inductorandthisiscalledthecontinuousmodeofoperation.Inthismode,ILneverequals0andt1=0.
Theinputcurrentcanbefoundas
Iin=(Iout*Vout)/(*Vin)
whereistheefficiencyoftheregulator.Theminimumachievableripplevoltage
Vripple(min)=IPK*(ESR)
whereESRistheseriesequivalentresistanceofthefiltercapacitor.(Ipk=(VinVout)*ton/L1
ThebuckconverteristhebasisformanytypesoftransformercoupledDC/DCconverters.
OverallLookIntoAdvantagesandDisadvantagesofSwitchingSupplies
SomeoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofswitchingcircuitsaresummarizedinTable3.Theyare
far from ideal and present many problems. However, as the problems are identified correctly, it is
possibletominimizetheireffects.
RFinterference
Most of the advantages stated in the table are due to the presence of the switching transistor.
However,inordertoachievethatadvantage,theinputDC(unregulated)ischoppedatafrequency
above20kHz.Somecurrentdesignsoperatecloseto500kHzandinnearfuture,upto1MHzwillbe
available.Hence,theoperatingfrequencyfallswithintheRF(radiofrequency)spectrum.Asaresult
each conductor in the highfrequency portion of the supply behaves as an antenna that transmits
thosefrequenciestoratherlongdistances.Thiscausesinterferencetopowersuppliesowncircuitry,
neighboringsensitiveelectronicinstrumentsandcircuits.
TherearemanytechniquesnowavailabletoeliminatetheeffectsoftheRFnoiseincluding:
Carefulgroundingandshieldingofswitchingcomponentsandoutercase.
Usingwellshieldedinterconnectingcableswiththeshieldbeingthecommongroundtothe
supplycircuit.
Using electronic filtering components, such as capacitors and inductors in the design to
suppresstheRFemission.
Changingphysicalorientationandpositionofcomponentsinthesupply,aswellaslocation
ofthesupplyitself.
SystemDynamics
Compared to its linear counterparts, the ability of a switching supply to adjust the output voltage
continuallyundervaryingloadingconditionsisnotasgood.Itisessentialtohaveaminimumloadto
operate and it does not work under no load conditions. It is also slow in responding to transient
changesattheoutput(load).
Table6.3Comparisonoflinearandswitchingmodepowersupplies
Parameter
Efficiency
RFnoise
Transformers
Ripple
Regulation
Power/WeightRatio
TemperatureRise
Reliability
LinearSupply
30to50%
Usuallynegligible
Switchingsupply
60to80%
Canbeproblemunlessshielded
Smaller, lighter. highfrequency

Requiresbulky60Hzmagnetics
magnetic
1to5mVpeaktopeak
10to40mVpeaktopeak
0.05to0.1%(VFullLoad)
0.3to1%(VFullLoad)
14Watts/kg(average)
7Watts/kg(average)
50to100Caboveambient
20to40Caboveambient
Runs much hotter and can Cooler operation improves the

reliability
degradereliability

SupplyServicePrecautions
BeCarefulofHighVoltage
Use extreme caution in taking measurements. Always unplug supply and allow sufficient time for
largeelectrolyticcapacitorstodischarge.Itisalsogoodpracticetodischargethemmanually.
WatchOutForShielding
Replaceandresolderanyshieldingandresecureallgroundsbeforeoperatingtheservicedsupply.
ReplacementParts
Useonlyexactreplacementparts.Otherwise,theswitchingfrequencymayshiftcausinganincreased
RF interference. Use the same type of components. For example if you should replace a tantalum
capacitor,replaceitwithtantalumofthesamevalue,notwithanaluminumelectrolyticcapacitor.
Unless proper tools and instruments are available do not attempt to play with calibration
adjustments. An improper adjustment may degrade the supply just as much as the use of an
impropercomponent.
SummaryofKeyFormulasthatHelpinSolvingPowerSupplyProblem
V x
Efficiency ( ) = POUT = O I L
P I N V I N x I I N ;
Load regulation (%) =
Input regulation (% / V I N ) =
V O
x 100
V I N V O
;
V ML - V FL
100 = R0 x 100
V
RL
10%
,Vsisthepeakvalueoftheinput
TheripplefactorandtheDCoutputvoltagecanbeestimatedbyr=2400/RLCandVdc=(Vi4200Idc/C)
whereCisinFandfrequencyis60Hz.
BATTERIES
Figure6.28Junctionsofdissimilarmaterialsandjunctionpotentials
Dissimilarmaterialscanbebroughttogetherthroughajunctionasshown
inFigure6.28andapotentialdifferenceisestablishedacrossthisjunction.
Thesolidtosolidjunctioniscalledthethermocouplethatwillbediscussed
in a special section. The solid to liquid junction appears in biopotential
electrodes.Anothersimilarjunctiontomeasurethepotentialasillustrated
in Figure 6.29 . Hence, the solid to liquid junction potential is called the
halfcell potential. Liquid to liquid junction is established by having two
Figure6.29Electrochemical
cells
aqueous ionic solutions of different concentrations separated by an ion

selectivesemipermiablemembrane.
Batteries are power sources for all portable electronic devices and electrical devices in
remote areas. They are highly engineered electrochemical cells that convert chemical energy to
electricalenergyusingthreemajormaterials:theanode(negativeelectrode),thecathode(positive
electrode) , and the electrolyte. How these materials get picked for the job depends on how well
they give up or attract electrons, something that must happen for an electric current to be
generated. The anode is often a metal, the cathode is a metallic oxide and the electrolyte is the
electricityconductor.Thebatteryisoneormoreelectrochemicalcellsthatconvertschemicalenergy
directlytoelectricalenergy.
Thecellisthesmallestunitbasedonchemicalreactions.Thecellvoltagedependsuponthe
electrode materials, electrolyte and its concentration and temperature. The current that can be
supplieddependsupontheinternalresistanceofthecell.Somecellsusetwohalfcellswithdifferent
electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the
electrolytesasshowninFigure6.30.Thevoltagecanbeincreasedbyaddingcellsinseriesandthe
currentcapacitycanbeincreasedbyaddingcellsinparallel.Batteriesarethemultiplecellentities.

Theelectricaldrivingforceor
acrosstheterminalsof
acellisknownastheterminalvoltage(difference)andismeasured
in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor
dischargingiscalledtheopencircuitvoltageandequalstheemfof
thecell.Becauseofinternalresistance,theterminalvoltageofacell
that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the opencircuit
voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds
the opencircuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal
Figure6.30Twohalfcellswithtwo
resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage until
electrolytes
exhausted,thendroppingtozero.Ifsuchacellmaintained1.5volts
andstoredachargeofonecoulombthenoncompletedischargeitwouldperform1.5jouleofwork.
In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also
decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting
graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangementemployed.
CategoriesandTypes
Therearetwotypesofbatteries:primarybatteries(disposablebatteries),whicharedesignedtobe
usedonceanddiscarded,andsecondarybatteries(rechargeablebatteries),whicharedesignedtobe
recharged and used multiple times. Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality)
transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted,
energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. Secondary batteries can be
recharged;thatis,theycanhavetheirchemicalreactionsreversedbysupplyingelectricalenergyto
thecell,restoringtheiroriginalcomposition.
PrimaryBatteries
Primarybatteriescanproducecurrentimmediatelyonassembly.Disposablebatteriesareintended
to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low
currentdrain,areonlyusedintermittently,orareusedwellawayfromanalternativepowersource,
such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently
available.Disposableprimarycellscannotbereliablyrecharged,sincethechemicalreactionsarenot
easilyreversibleandactivematerialsmaynotreturntotheiroriginalforms.Batterymanufacturers
recommendagainstattemptingtorechargeprimarycells.
Common types of disposable batteries include zinccarbon LeClanche, zinc chloride (heavy
duty), zinc air, alkaline, mercury oxide, silver oxide and lithium batteries. Generally, these have

higherenergydensitiesthanrechargeablebatteries,butdisposablebatteriesdonotfarewellunder
highdrainapplicationswithloadsunder75.
Commonly available sizes are shown in
PP3
Figure 6. 31 and descriptions of alkaline types are

listed in Table 6.4. In addition, miniature cells are
AA
used to power devices such as hearing aids and

wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby
AAA
power for telephone exchanges or computer data

centers. Mostly used primary batteries are the
Figure6.31Commonlyavailablesizesofbatteries
carbon zinc (or zinc chloride heavy duty) and

alkaline types. The alkaline batteries have several
advantagesoverthezincbasedonesas:
Betterdischargeratecapability
Lowerandmorestableinternalresistance
Betterlowtemperatureperformance
Betterservicemaintenance
Higherenergydensity
MoreeconomicalthanCarbonZincintermsofcostperhourofuseonhighcurrentdrains
Slopingdischargecurve
Relativelyinsensitivetochangesinthedischargerateordutycycle
Available in voltages ranging from 1.5 to 12.0 and in a variety of shapes
andsizes(commonlyavailableoneareshowninFigure6.31).
TheanatomyofthealkalinebatteryisillustratedinFigure6.32.Itcontains:
PositivePip:Aformedprotrusioninthebottomofthebatterycanwhich
identifiesitasthepositiveterminal.
Steel Can: Nickelplated steel which is formed into a container to hold
chemicals;servesasthepositivecollector.
Outer Jacket: A plastic sleeve which contains decorative printing
identifyingthecelltypeandsize.
Figure6.32Anatomy
ofanalkalinebattery
Separator: Porous nonwoven fibrous material which separates
electrodes;holdselectrolytebetweenelectrodes.
Electrolyte:Asolutionofpotassiumhydroxideinwaterwhichcarriestheioniccurrentinside
thebattery.
Cathode:Manganesedioxideandgraphitewhichtakeupelectronsfromtheexternalcircuits.
Anode:Powderedzincmetalwhichservesasthesourceofelectrons.
AnodeCollector:Tinplatedbrasswhichservesasapathfortheelectronsfromtheanodeto
theexternalcircuit.
Seal/Vent:Moldedplasticdiscwhichholdsinternalcomponentsinsidethecellandreleases
internalpressurewhenbatteryisabused.
Table6.4Informationforcommonlyavailablealkalinebatteries
Name Size
Capacity* Voltage ANSI/

(mAh)
(nom.) NEDA
X22
9V
595
X91
AA
2850
1.5
15A
X92 AAA
1150
1.5
X93
8350
X95
18000
IEC
1604A 6LR61
Weight
Diam.
Height
Length
Width
(g) (maxmm) (maxmm) (maxmm) (maxmm)
45.6
N/A
48.5
26.5
17.5
LR6
23
14.5
50.5
N/A
N/A
24A
LR03
11.5
10.5
44.5
N/A
N/A
1.5
14A
LR14
66.2
26.2
50
N/A
N/A
1.5
13A
LR20
141.9
34.2
61.5
N/A
N/A
SecondaryBatteries
Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which
reversesthechemicalreactionsthatoccurduringitsuse.Theymustbechargedbeforeuse;theyare
usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Devices to supply the appropriate
currentarecalledchargersorrechargers.
Theoldestformofrechargeablebatteryistheleadacidbatterythatcontainsaliquidinan
unsealed container. However it is required that the battery be kept upright and the area be well
ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during
overcharging. The leadacid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can
supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use
common where a large capacity (over approximately 10AH) is required or where the weight and
easeofhandlingarenotconcerns.
A common form of the leadacid battery is the modern car battery, which can generally
deliverapeakcurrentof450amperes.Animprovedtypeofliquidelectrolytebatteryisthesealed
valveregulatedleadacid(VRLA)battery,popularintheautomotiveindustryasareplacementforthe
leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the
chanceofleakageandextendingshelflife.VRLAbatterieshavetheelectrolyteimmobilized,usually

by way of a semisolid electrolyte (called the gel cell) or absorbing the electrolyte in a special
fiberglassmatting(calledtheabsorbedglassmatAGM).
Otherportablerechargeablebatteriesincludeseveral"drycell"types,whicharesealedunits
andarethereforeusefulinappliancessuchasmobilephonesandlaptopcomputers.Cellsofthistype
(in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelzinc (NiZn),
nickelmetalhydride(NiMH)andlithiumion(Liion)cells.Byfar,Liionhasthehighestshareofthe
dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its
higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, twoway radios, and medical equipment.
NiZnisanewtechnologythatisnotyetwellestablishedcommercially.
BatteryCapacity
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactionsofitselectrodesandelectrolyte.Alkalineandcarbonzinccellshavedifferentchemistries
but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different
chemistries,butapproximatelythesameNominalcellvoltage(emf)of1.2voltsatfullcharge1.4V
forafreshcellatimmediateturnon.Ontheotherhandthehighelectrochemicalpotentialchanges
inthereactionsoflithiumcompoundsgivelithiumcellsemfsof3voltsormore.
Becauseofthechemicalreactionswithinthecells,thecapacityofabatterydependsonthe
dischargeconditionssuchasthemagnitudeofthecurrent(whichmayvarywithtime),theallowable
terminal voltage of the battery, temperature and other factors. The available capacity of a battery
dependsupontherateatwhichitisdischarged.Ifabatteryisdischargedatarelativelyhighrate,the
availablecapacitywillbelowerthanexpected.Thebatterycapacitythatbatterymanufacturersprint
onabattery isusuallytheproduct
of 20 hours multiplied by the
maximum constant current that a
new battery can supply for 20
hours at 68 F (20 C), down to a
predetermined terminal voltage
percell.Abatteryratedat100AH
Figure6.33Loadcharacteristicsofabattery
will deliver 5 A over a 20 hour

period at room temperature.
However, if it is instead discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower apparent capacity. A typical load
characteristicisshowninFigure6.33.

DefinitionsofDifferentDrainConditions
Thedrainconditionsforabatterycanberoughlydefinedasheavy,moderateandlightdrain.
Heavydrainisdefinedascurrentthatwoulddischargethebatterywithinonedayatroom
temperature.
Moderate drain is defined as a current that would discharge the battery in approximately
oneweekatroomtemperature.
Lightdrainisdefinedasacurrentthatwoulddischargethebatteryafteronemonthormore
atroomtemperature.
LifeofPrimaryBatteries
Evenifnevertakenoutoftheoriginalpackage,disposable(or"primary")batteriescanlose8to20
percent of their original charge
every year at a temperature of
about2030C.Thisisknownas
the "self discharge" rate and is
due to noncurrentproducing
"side" chemical reactions, which
occur within the cell even if no
load is applied to it. The rate of
Figure6.34Effectoftemperatureonbatteryperformance
the side reactions is reduced if

thebatteriesarestoredatlowtemperature,althoughsomebatteriescanbedamagedbyfreezing.
High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance as illustrated in Figure 6.34. This will
affecttheinitialvoltageofthebattery.ForanAAalkalinebatterythisinitialvoltageisapproximately
normallydistributedaround1.6volts.Analkalinebatterycanbeuseddownto0.9V.
The performance of a
batteryandeventuallythebattery
voltage depends upon the load
and temperature is shown in
Figure 6.35. The figure illustrates
the battery voltage at 50%
discharged state against the load
Figure6.35Effectofloadresistanceonoperationvoltageat50%discharged
atvariousoperatingtemperatures.
At increased temperature, the

voltageishigherunderthesameloadingconditions.Theeffectoftemperatureisnotapparentunder
lowloadconditions.
LifeSpanofSecondaryBatteries
Oldchemistryrechargeablebatteriesselfdischargemorerapidlythandisposablealkalinebatteries,
especiallynickelbasedbatteries;afreshlychargedNiCdloses10%ofitschargeinthefirst24hours,
and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, NiMH newer chemistry and
modernlithiumdesignshavereducedtheselfdischargeratetoarelativelylowlevel(butstillpoorer
than for primary batteries). Most nickelbased batteries are partially discharged when purchased,
andmustbechargedbeforefirstuse.NewerNiMHbatteriesarereadytobeusedwhenpurchased,
andhaveonly15%dischargeinayear.
Although rechargeable batteries have their energy content restored by charging, some
deterioration occurs on each charge/discharge cycle. Lowcapacity nickel metal hydride (NiMH)
batteries (17002000 mAH) can be charged for about 1000 cycles, whereas high capacity NiMH
batteries(above2500mAH)canbechargedforabout500cycles.Nickelcadmium(NiCd)batteries
can sustain 1,000 charge discharge cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases
beyondusablevalues.Theyareunusablewhenthecapacitydropsbelow80%ofitsnominalvalue.
Theamounttimebatterylastsisafunctionofdischargetime.Normallyafastcharge,ratherthana
slowovernightcharge,willshortenbatterylifespan.However,iftheovernightchargerisnot"smart"
andcannotdetectwhenthebatteryisfullycharged,thenoverchargingislikely,whichalsodamages
the battery. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or
becauseactivematerialfallsofftheelectrodes.
NiCd batteries suffer the drawback that they should be fully discharged before recharge.
Without full discharge, crystals may build up on the electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface
area and increasing internal resistance. This decreases battery capacity and causes the "memory
effect".Theseelectrodecrystalscanalsopenetratetheelectrolyteseparator,therebycausingshorts.
NiMH,althoughsimilarinchemistry,doesnotsufferfrommemoryeffecttoquitethisextent.When
abatteryreachestheendofitslifetime,itwillnotsuddenlyloseallofitscapacity;rather,itscapacity
willgraduallydecrease.
Theleadacidcellisthemostcommonformofstoragebattery.Thepositiveelectrodeislead
peroxide;spongyleadisthenegativeelectrode.Bothareinadilutesolutionofsulfuricacidasthe
electrolyte.Thevoltageoutputisapproximately2.1V.

Leadacid batteries are used for mobile (e.g. ambulance) and some highpower portable
applications.Themainbenefitoftheleadacidbatteryisitslowcost,easyavailabilityandreliability.
Themaindrawbacksareitslargesizeandweightforagivencapacityandvoltage.Nominalvoltage
for automobile applications is 13.6 V DC. Many radio communication sets are also designed to
operatefrom13.6VDC(alsocalled12V).6,24,28and32Voltbatteriesarealsoavailable.Leadacid
batteriesshouldneverbedischargedtobelow20%oftheirfullcapacity,becauseinternalresistance
willcauseheatanddamagewhentheyarerecharged.
The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery is
approximated(overacertainrangeofcurrentvalues)byPeukert'slaw:
where
QPisthecapacitywhendischargedatarateof1amp.
Iisthecurrentdrawnfrombattery(A).
tistheamountoftime(inhours)thatabatterycansustain.
kisaconstantaround1.3.
For low values of I internal selfdischarge must be included. Terminal voltage can be
increased by connecting in series, while the current availability can be increased by connecting
batteriesinparallel.
Automotiveleadacidrechargeablebatterieshaveamuchharderlife.Becauseofvibration,
shock,heat,cold,andsulfationoftheirleadplates,fewautomotivebatterieslastbeyondsixyearsof
regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to provide as much current as
possibleinareasonablysmallpackage.Ingeneral,thethicker theplates,thelongerthe lifeofthe
battery. Typically they are only drained a small amount before recharge. Care should be taken to
avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since each charge and discharge cycle causes active
materialtobeshedfromtheplates.
BatteryTesting
The open circuit voltage (OCV) yields a rough estimate of the freshness of the battery and can be
usedtodeterminetheamountofservicelifeofabattery.However,theclosedcircuitvoltage(CCV)is
abettermeasure.Thisisaccomplishedbyputtingthebatteryunderloadforonetotwosecondsand

measuring the CCV. If the battery voltage is greater than or equal to 1.1 volts, the battery has
approximately20%serviceleft.Theloadisdeterminedbythesizeandtypeofbattery.Inthecaseof
asinglecylindrical1.5voltAlkalineorCarbonZincbattery,theloadwouldbeapproximately8ohms.
Otherwise,anOCVreadingof1.5voltsorgreaterforasinglecylindrical1.5voltAlkalineorCarbon
Zincbatteryindicatesessentiallyanundischargedbatteryoronethathasbeendischargedlessthan
10%.
CareandMaintenanceofBatteries
BatteryChargingProtocols
Chargingcurrentthatislessthan5%oftheAHratingofthebatterywillnotbeeffective.Hence,the
charging current I > AH/20. It is safe to use I = AH/10. A battery can charge up to 140% of the
capacity;i.e.wecancharge14hoursat I=0.1*AH.DonotusechargingcurrentoverAH/10unless
specificallyinstructedbythebatterymanufacturer.Abatterylosesenergyfrommerelysittingandit
willbekeptalivebyatricklechargeatrateAH/50<I<AH/30.
Periodiccharginganddischargingofbatteriesisessential.Abatteryorcellshallbecharged
fullyanddischargedfullywitharesistorthatdrawsacurrentofAH/10for8to9hoursformulticell
batteriesand10hoursforasinglecell.Then,itmustberechargedattheAH/10ratefor14to16
hours.Polarityreversalcanoccurinmulticellbatteriesandthebatteryshalldischargeonly10to20
%ofcapacity.Anotherproblemwiththebatteriesisthedendritegrowthespeciallyafterleavingit
discharged for a long time. These batteries can be
revitalizedbytemporarilyconnectingthemtoafully
charged battery as illustrated in Figure 6.36. By
pressing the pushbutton or a spring loaded switch,
thehighcurrentinthecircuitvaporizestheinternal
dendrites that shorts the plates together. We must
Figure6.36Aflashrevitilizationcircuitforbatteries
becarefulofexplosion!Andusesafetygoggles.We
can'trelyonrevitalizedonesandwemustreplacethemassoonaspossible.Tochargealeadacid
battery, connect it to a dc voltage equal to approximately 2.5 V per cell. Connecting the positive
terminalofthebatterytothepositivesideofthechargingsourceandthenegativeterminaltothe
negativesideresultsinchargingcurrentthroughthebattery.
A battery doesnt allow deep discharge after repeated shallow discharges; i.e. if it is
discharged up to 80 % of full capacity repeatedly, it appears as if it is fully discharged when 80 %

point is reached. In case of a premature failure, the battery can be reformed by repeatedly fully
chargingfollowedbyimmediatelydeepdischargingit.
Explosion
Abatteryexplosionmaybecausedbythemisuseormalfunctionofabattery,suchasattemptingto
recharge a primary (nonrechargeable) battery, or short circuiting a battery. With car batteries,
explosionsaremostlikelytooccurwhenashortcircuitgeneratesverylargecurrents.Inaddition,car
batteriesliberatehydrogenwhentheyareovercharged(becauseofelectrolysisofthewaterinthe
electrolyte). Normally the amount of overcharging is very small, as is the amount of explosive gas
developed,andthegasdissipatesquickly.However,when"jumping"acarbattery,thehighcurrent
cancausetherapidreleaseoflargevolumesofhydrogen,whichcanbeignitedbyanearbyspark(for
example,whenremovingthejumpercables).
Whenabatteryisrechargedatanexcessiverate,anexplosivegasmixtureofhydrogenand
oxygenmay beproduced fasterthanitcanescapefromwithin thewallsofthebattery,leading to
pressurebuildupandthepossibilityofthebatterycasebursting.Inextremecases,thebatteryacid
may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury. Overchargingthat is,
attemptingtochargeabatterybeyonditselectricalcapacitycanalsoleadtoabatteryexplosion,
leakage,orirreversibledamagetothebattery.Itmayalsocausedamagetothechargerordevicein
whichtheoverchargedbatteryislaterused.Additionally,disposingofabatteryinfiremaycausean
explosionassteambuildsupwithinthesealedcaseofthebattery.
Leakage
Figure 6.36 shows a leaking alkaline battery. Many battery
chemicalsarecorrosive,poisonous,orboth.Ifleakageoccurs,
either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals
released may be dangerous. For example, disposable
batteriesoftenuseazinc"can"asbothareactantandasthe
Figure6.36Aleakedalkalinebattery
containertoholdtheotherreagents.Ifthiskindofbatteryis
runallthewaydown,orifitisrechargedafterrunningdown
toofar,thereagentscanemergethroughthecardboardandplasticthatformtheremainderofthe
container. The active chemical leakage can then damage the equipment that the batteries were
inserted into. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the
batteriesfromdevicesthatwillnotbeusedforextendedperiodsoftime.

EnvironmentalConcern
The widespread use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as toxic metal
pollution.Batterymanufacturingconsumesresourcesandofteninvolveshazardouschemicals.Used
batteries also contribute to electronic waste. Some areas now have battery recycling services
availabletorecoversomeofthematerialsfromusedbatteries.Batteriesmaybeharmfulorfatalif
swallowed. Recycling or proper disposal prevents dangerous elements (such as lead, mercury, and
cadmium) found in some types of batteries from entering the environment. In the United States,
Americanspurchasenearlythreebillionbatteriesannually,andabout179,000tonsofthoseendup
inlandfillsacrossthecountry.
ELECTRICALSAFETY
ScopeandPurposeofElectricalSafety
Today,manissurroundedbyelectricaland
electronic equipment. Some of them
simple, some of them complicated, some
considered
essential,
and
some
convenience,theyareallintendedtoserve
us. At times, however, we observe that
they harm us. One of the ways that
electrical equipment could cause physical
harmistheelectricalshock(Figure6.37).
Electrical safety is containment or
Figure6.37Theelectricshock
limitationofhazards:
Electricshocktothepatients,employees,andvisitorsinformof
o
Macroshock
(both
contacts are external to

thebody)
o
Microshock (one of the

contact is inside of the
body)
Explosions that may result from

electrical contact sparks that
ignitevarietyofexplosivegases,
such as ether, or cyclopropane
Figure6.38Firecausedbyelectricity
anesthetics.
Fire(Figure6.38)
Damagetoequipmentandbuildings
Hazards can be minimized but not eliminated. It is not static phenomena; rather it is a
dynamic and continuous course of action involving hazard detection and correction. The scope of
electrical safety includes any electrically operated equipment used in laboratories and public
utilizationareasoftheDepartment.Safetyisprovidedviapowerdistributionandequipmentdesign.
Preventive maintenance procedures involving frequent equipment inspections and safety checks,

uncoveringearlydegradationofpartsandreplacementsareneededforsafeoperationofequipment
inthelaboratoriesoftheDepartment.Educationandtrainingofthelabengineersandstudentsare
essentialingredientsofthesafetymeasures.
WhatIstheElectricalShock?
Electrical shock is defined as the undesirable biological damaging effect of an electrical current
passingthroughthebody.Electricalcurrentcouldaffectthebodyinthreebasicways:
1. Resistiveheating,
2. Electricalstimulationofnervesandmuscles,and
3. Electrochemicalburns(especiallyforDCcurrent).
Asaresultitcauses:
Uncontrollablemusclecontractionorunconsciousness,
Ventricularfibrillation
Injurytotissues
Electricalburns
Chemicalburns(fordccurrents)
Muscular paralysis, injuries, pain and

fatigue
Breakingthebonesandtendons
Secondary(side)effectsasfallingofthe
ladderorspillinghotoiletc.
Electrical current flows through the body

Figure6.39Directcontactwithpowerlines
dueto:
Direct contact with power lines

(Figure6.39)
Power line leakage in equipment to

chassis(Figure6.40)
Leakage to the body from diagnostic

andtherapeuticequipment
Uncontrolled electricity in the body

duringmedicalpractices
Defibrillatorcurrents
Figure6.40Powerlineleakage
Electrosurgicalcurrents
Diathermycurrents
Theseverityoftheseeffectsdependson:
Pointofcontactandthedensity,
Frequency,and
Duration
current
of
the
passing
throughthebody.
Figure6.41illustrates
the physiological effect of
electricity. A current level
below 0.5 milliampere at 60
Hz frequency will not be felt
even if the person grips the
conductor. However, as low
as 0.2 milliampere may be
sensed if the conductor
makesapointcontact.Atlow
Figure6.41Rangesforthephysiologicaleffectofelectricity
levels, it gives a tingling

sensation and the victim can run away from further dangers of the electricity. As a rough guide, a
current more than 10 milliamperes at 60 Hz frequency, for a duration of a few tenths of a second
enteringthebodyfromonearmandleavingfromtheotherarmorfromthelegcouldbelethal.Yet,
atcurrentlevelslowerthan10milliamperes,anywherefromjustatinglingsensationtoinvoluntary
muscle contractions could result depending on the individual, raising the possibility of secondary
physicalinjuries,suchasfallingfromaladder.
Atcurrentlevelsprogressivelyhigherthan10milliamperes,respiratoryparalysis,ventricular
fibrillation, and burns result as illustrated in Figure 6.41. The figure represents estimated values
given for each effect in a 70kg male for 13 seconds exposure to 60 Hz current applied to copper
graspedbyhands.Amongthese,theventricularfibrillation,acertainfailureoftheheart,isthemajor
cause of death due to electric shock. The sensitivity of the individual varies. Women are more
susceptiblethanthemen.Thereisstatisticalvariationinthelevelcurrenttocausecertaineffects.

Theamountofcurrentrequiredtocauseadangerouselectricshockincreasesatfrequencies
belowabout10Hz,andaboveabout1000Hz.Thismeansthatthe50and60Hzfrequencyusedfor
the mains supply is among the most dangerous, although technically and economically the most
appropriate.
Ifthedurationofthecurrentpassingthroughthebodyislessthanabout0.1second,even
higherlevelsofcurrentwillnotdoanyharm.Thebiologicaleffectsofelectricitydependdirectlyon
the amount of current passing through the body, but not directly on the potential difference
(voltage)appliedtothebody.
The voltage, being the force pushing the current though any circuit determines how much
current would pass in relation to the total electrical resistance in the circuit. (Ohm's law: Current
=Voltage/Resistance.)Sincethetotalresistanceisverydifficulttopredictinatypicalelectricalshock
situation,safetystandardsforelectricalshockareexpresseddirectlyintermsofcurrentlevels,rather
than their voltage equivalents. However, it could be stated that voltages less than about 30 volts
(rms)wouldnotusuallybeabletocausedangerousamountsofcurrentpassthroughthebodyunder
most
macro
shock
conditions.
How the Electrical
ShockOccurs?
Anelectriccurrentcould
flow through the body
unintentionallyinoneof
the
two
situations
explainedbelow.
Figure6.42Illustrationofmacroshockandmicroshock(cardiacshock)
MacroshockHazard
Ifanundesirableelectriccurrententersandleavesthebodythroughcontactsonalimbsuchasthe
hand,arm,orfoot,thisiscalledamacroshockhazard,asshowninFigure6.42.Inthiscasethepath
ofthecurrentisquitewideasitpassesthroughthechestwheretheheartislocated.Onlyasmall
partofthetotalcurrentaffectstheheart.Thereforethehazardisless.Thedangerouscurrentlevelof
10milliamperesstatedaboveisforamacroshockhazard.
Microshock(CardiacShock)Hazard
Ifinanywayanelectriccurrentpassesthroughthebodywithadirectelectricalcontactontheheart,
thisiscalledamicroshockorcardiacshockhazard.Sinceallofthecurrentwouldpassthroughthe

heart,thehazardismuchmoreinthesensethatevenverysmallcurrentscoulddamagetheheart.
Thedangerouslevelofcurrentdirectlyappliedtotheheartcouldbeaslowas10microamperes.The
microshockhazardisnormallylimitedtomedicaladministrationofelectricallyoperatedequipment
onpatients.
The prevention of the abovementioned electric shock hazards share many common and
somespecifictechniques,assummarizedbelow.
HowtoPreventElectricalShocks?
At present, the potential causes of electric shock are well understood and comprehensive safety
measures have been standardized. In many countries, these standards are obligatory and they are
strictly enforced in the manufacturing and operation of all electrical equipment. However, even if
rare, equipment not conforming to such safety standards might be available in the market. Also,
properly manufactured equipment might lose its safety after some use or abuse. Therefore, the
educatedbuyerortheuserofelectricalequipmentshouldhaveanideaoftheessentialtechniques
ofpreventingtheelectricshockhazardbothasbuiltinfeaturesofequipmentandinthecourseofits
utilization.
Electricalsafetyorprotectionfromelectricshockscanbeachievedatthreelevels,namely
1. Atthepowerdistributionlevel,
2. Attheequipmentdesignlevel,and
3. Attheutilizationlevel.
Electrical
Safety
in
Power
Distribution
The present state of the electrical
engineering science dealing with the
distribution of electrical power
dictates that one of the wires
carrying the mains power be
grounded (earthed) as illustrated in
Figure 6.43. This grounding or
earthingisdonebeforeitreachesthe
utilization point, usually at the
transformer feeding a building. The
Figure 6.43Distributionofelectricalpower

groundedwireiscalledthe"neutral".Theotherwiresarecalled"phase",or"line",or"live",or"hot".
The requirement of grounding one of the power wires brings together the possibility that
evenifapersontouchesjustasinglewire,hecouldgetanelectricshock.Ifhetouchestheneutral
wire,itisliketouchingground(almost)andnothingwillhappen.Butifhehappenstotouchoneof
thephasewires,rightfullycalledliveorhot,thecircuitwillbecompletedthroughhisfeettouching
theground!Obviously,asillustratedinFigure6.42,ifbothaphaseandneutralwire,ortwophase
wiresarecontactedbytwohands,anelectricalcurrentwillpassthroughthebodyevenifthefeet
are completely isolated from
theground.
The following safety
measures are called in the
distribution of electrical power
inbuildings.
Figure 6.44 shows a
simplified
electrical
power
distribution in the US. Circuit

Figure6.44Simplifiedelectricalpowerdistributionfor115V/60Hz
breakers
and
switches
to
interrupt power, or to turn

equipmentonandoffshouldbeplacedonthe"hot"wire(phase),butnotontheneutralwire.Ifa
neutral wire going to equipment is interrupted, the equipment will not work, although the phase
wire will still carry the dangerous mains voltage
withrespecttotheearth.
From the power distribution point of
view, it is permissible to isolate the two mains
wires from the ground in limited areas. This
techniqueiscalledthe"isolatedpowersystem",
andutilizedinwetareasandinoperatingrooms
Figure6.45Utilizationofisolationtransformer
of hospitals. The transformer employed in this

system(Figure6.45)iscalledanisolationtransformer.Itssecondarywindingiselectricallyinsulated
fromtheprimary,andhassomeotherspecialconstructionfeatures."Autotransformers"commonly
availableinthemarketdonothaveaninsulatedsecondaryandtheycannotbeusedforthispurpose.

If
electrical
an
undesirable
connection
occurs
betweenthephasewireandthe
chassis of equipment, anybody
touchingthechassiswillhavean
electrical current going through
hisbodytotheground.Insucha
situation, instead of all of the
Figure6.46GroundFaultCircuitInterrupter(GFCI)
current leaving the phase wire

passingthroughtheneutral,someisdiverted totheground. Thisiscalledagroundfaultorearth
leakage. This condition can be detected by monitoring the difference between the currents in the
phase and neutral wires. They will be equal unless there is a ground fault. Simple and low cost
devices are available in the market to
continuouslymeasurethedifferenceand
if a significant difference occurs, break
thecircuitimmediately.Theseprotection
devices, called Ground Fault Circuit
Interrupters (GFCI), or Earth Leakage
Circuit Breakers (ELCB) are highly
recommendedfordomesticuse,andthey
areamustinthedistributionofanywet
area or outdoor installations (Figure
6.46). GFCI's are also available as an
adaptertoexistingwalloutlets.
As detailed below, any exposed
conducting
surface
of
Figure6.47Acompletebranchcircuit
electrical
equipmentshouldbeconnectedtothegroundinordertodischargeanycurrentleakingtoit.Forthis
purpose,alocalgroundingelectrodesystemisrequiredtobeestablishedforeachinstallation(i.e.,
building)asillustratedinFigure6.47.Thisistheresponsibilityoftheownerofthebuilding,notthe
power company. In many countries the owner will be obliged to provide a grounding system in
accordancewiththeapplicablestandards.Thegroundelectrodeconnectionshouldbebroughttothe
centraldistributionboardforthebuilding,andfromthereonthegroundwirewillbecarriedalong
withthepowerlinesinthedistributionsysteminside.Inthisway,chassisgroundingisconveniently

done by the use of a threeway plug and socket pair. A direct connection to a metal water pipe
buriedunderthegroundcouldservethepurposeofgroundingifcertainconditionsaresatisfied.
Theuseoftheneutralwireastheonlywayofgroundingequipmentisneverpermissible.Any
failure of the neutral connection within
the building could cause the phase
voltage to appear on the chassis of
equipment resulting in unexpected
electrical shock accidents as illustrated
inFigure6.48.
We have to be careful in using
the water pipe as a grounding point in
Jeddah, since the pipe does not go to
theground;ratheritgoestothetankin
the roof. Such a case will electrify the
whole building in case of a serious
leakage.
Electrical
Safety
in
Equipment
Design
Any metallic or otherwise conducting
surfaceexposedonelectricalequipment
should be connected to the ground in
Figure6.48Ungroundedandgroundedchassis
order to discharge any current leaking

toit.
Figure 6.48 (a) shows equipment with ungrounded chassis. The equipment works without
anyproblemsincethegroundingofchassisisnotessentialfornormaloperationofit.However,a
persontouchingthechassisdrainsalltheleakagecurrenttogroundthroughhisbody.
Figure6.48(b)illustrateshowsafetyisprovidedviathechassisgrounding.Highcurrentflows
through the circuit breaker in case of any serious fault developing in the equipment. This leads to
tripping of the circuit breaker and interruption of the power to the equipment. Continuity of the
safetygroundwireandreceptaclemustbetestedperiodically.
This important safety requirement is relieved only if given equipment does not have any
exposedmetallicsurfaces,orsuchsurfacesareinsulatedfromthecurrentcarryingconductorsbya

doublelayerofinsulationasillustratedinFigure6.49.Suchequipmentiscalled"doubleinsulated".
However,sincewaterenteringthistypeofequipmentcouldprovidealeakagepathtotheoutside,
Double insulated electric motor
Double insulated system

Figure6.49Doubleinsulatedsystemandanelectricmotor
theycannotbeemployedinwetareasandoutdoorapplicationssafely.
Whenever the power requirements of equipment permit, it should be designed to operate
fromalowenoughvoltagetolimitthecurrent,whichcouldpassinanaccident.Avoltagelevelbelow
30 volts (rms) could be considered safe in many applications. The low voltage should be obtained
frombatteries,orfromanisolationtypetransformerfeedingfromthemains.
An isolation transformer has its secondary winding electrically insulated from the primary
and some other special construction features. "Autotransformers" commonly available in the
marketdonothaveaninsulatedsecondaryandtheycannotbeusedforthispurpose.
If equipment has signal connections to outside, such as existing in audio and video
equipment, these should be electrically isolated from the mains voltage. This requirement can be
satisfied in most applications by utilizing an isolating power transformer feeding all the circuits in
equipment. In medical applications where direct body connections are required, special isolation
techniquesareutilizedtolimitthecurrent,whichcouldflowevenattheworstcases.
ElectricalSafetyinUtilization
Thefirstobligationofthebuyeranduserofelectricalequipmentistomakesurethatitisconforming
totheelectricalsafetyguidelinesstatedabove.Ifanysignificantdeviationsfromthesearesuspected,
Eithertheequipmentshouldberejectedor
Aspecialistinthefieldshouldbeconsulted.

Itshouldbemadesurethattheelectricalpowerdistributionsystemathandissatisfyingthesafety
requirements. If equipment has a grounded, threeterminal plug, it should not be "adapted" to a
mainsoutlet,whichdoesnothaveagroundingterminal.
Afuseinthepowerdistributioncircuitorinsideequipmentnotonlyprotectsagainstpossible
fire or extensive damage to the equipment, but also provides a line of defense against electrical
shocks.Incaseashortcircuitprovidesacurrentpathfromaphasewiretothegroundedchassisin
equipment,theexcessiveamountofcurrentdrawnwilltripthefuseandimmediatelyremovepower
from the equipment. If a fuse is overrated or simply replaced by a thick wire this protection
obviouslyfails.
OfficeElectricalSafety
Electricityisessentialtotheoperationsofamodernautomatedofficeasasourceofpower.Electrical
equipmentusedinanofficeispotentiallyhazardousandcancauseseriousshockandburninjuriesif
improperlyusedormaintained.
Electricitytravelsthroughelectricalconductors,whichmaybeintheformofwiresorpartsof
the human body. Most metals and moist skin offer very little resistance to the flow of electrical
currentandcaneasilyconductelectricity.Othersubstancessuchasdrywood,porcelain,orpottery
offerahighresistanceandcanbeusedtopreventtheflowofelectricalcurrent.Ifapartofthebody
comes in contact with the electrical circuit, a shock will occur. The electrical current will enter the
bodyatonepointandleaveatanother.Thepassageofelectricitythroughthebodycancausegreat
pain, burns, destruction of tissue, nerves, and muscles and even death. Factors influencing the
effects of electrical shock include the type of current, voltage, resistance, amperage, pathway
throughbody,andthedurationofcontact.Thelongerthecurrentflowsthroughthebody,themore
serious the injury. Injuries are less severe when the current does not pass through or near nerve
centers and vital organs. Electrical accidents usually occur as a result of faulty or defective
equipment,unsafeinstallation,ormisuseofequipmentonthepartofofficeworkers.
Typesofelectricalhazardsfoundinanofficeenvironmentincludethefollowingparagraphs.
UngroundedEquipment
Grounding is a method of protecting employees from electric shock. By grounding an electrical
system,alowresistancepathtoearththroughagroundconnectionisintentionallycreated.When
properlydone,thispathofferssufficientlylowresistanceandhassufficientcurrentcarryingcapacity
to prevent the buildup of hazardous voltages. Most fixed equipment such as large, stationary
machinesmustbegrounded.Cordandplugconnectedequipmentmustbegroundedifitislocatedin

hazardousorwetlocations,ifoperatedatmorethan150voltstoground,orifitisofacertaintype
of equipment (such as refrigerators and air conditioners). Smaller office equipment, such as
typewritersandcoffeepots,wouldgenerallynotfallintothesecategoriesandthereforewouldnot
havetobegrounded.Howevermuchofthenewerofficeequipmentismanufacturedwithgrounded
plugsasaprecaution(threeprongplugs).Insuchcases,theequipmentshouldbeusedinaccordance
withthemanufacturersinstructions.Inanycase,neverremovethethird(grounding)prongfromany
threeprongpieceofequipment.
OverloadedOutlets
Insufficientoroverloadingofelectricaloutletsshouldbeavoided.Asufficientnumberofoutletswill
eliminatetheneedforextensioncords.Overloadingelectricalcircuitsandextensioncordscanresult
inafire.Floormountedoutletsshouldbecarefullyplacedtopreventtrippinghazards.
Unsafe/NonApprovedEquipment
Theuseofpoorlymaintainedorunsafe,poorquality,nonapproved(bynationaltestinglaboratory)
coffee makers, radios, lamps, etc. (often provided by or used by employees) should be discarded.
Such appliances can develop electrical shorts creating fire and/or shock hazards. Equipment and
cordsshouldbeinspectedregularly,andaqualifiedindividualshouldmakerepairs.
Defective,FrayedorImproperlyInstalledCordsforElectricallyOperatedOfficeEquipment
Some common lethal
electrical hazards are
shown in Figure 6.50.
When the outer jacket
of a cord is damaged,
thecordmaynolonger
be waterresistant. The
insulation can absorb
Cheater plug
(adapter)
moisture, which may

then result in a short
circuit
or
Figure6.50Commonlethalelectricalhazards
excessive
currentleakagetoground.Ifwiresareexposed,theymaycauseashocktoaworkerwhocontacts
them. These cords should be replaced. Electric cords should be examined on a routine basis for
frayingandexposedwiring.

ImproperPlacementofCords
Acordshouldnotbepulledordraggedovernails,hooks,orothersharpobjectsthatmaycausecuts
in the insulation. In addition, cords should never be placed on radiators, steam pipes, walls, and
windows. Particular attention should be placed on connections behind furniture, since files and
bookcasesmaybepushedtightlyagainstelectricoutlets,severelybendingthecordattheplug.
ElectricalCordsacrossWalkwaysandWorkAreas
Anadequatenumberofoutletsocketsshouldbeprovided.Extensioncordsshouldonlybeusedin
situations where fixed wiring is not feasible. However, if it is necessary to use an extension cord,
never run it across walkways or aisles due to the potential tripping hazard. If you must run a cord
acrossawalkway,eithertapeitdownorpurchaseacordrunner.
LivePartsUnguarded
Wallreceptaclesshouldbedesignedandinstalledsothatnocurrentcarryingpartswillbeexposed,
andoutletplatesshouldbekepttighttoeliminatethepossibilityofshock.
PullingofPlugstoShutOffPower
Switchestoturnonandoffequipmentshouldbeprovided,eitherintheequipmentorinthecords,
sothatitisnotnecessarytopulltheplugstoshutoffthepower.Toremoveaplugfromanoutlet,
takeafirmgriponandpulltheplugitself.Neverpullaplugoutbythecord.
Workingon"LiveEquipment"
Disconnectelectricalmachinesbeforecleaning,adjusting,orapplyingflammablesolutions.Ifaguard
is removed to clean or repair parts, replace it before testing the equipment and returning the
machinetoservice.
BlockingElectricalPanelDoors
Ifanelectricalmalfunctionshouldoccur,thepaneldoor,andanythingelseinfrontofthedoorwill
become very hot. Electrical panel doors should always be kept closed, to prevent "electrical
flashover"intheeventofanelectricalmalfunction.
PROBLEMSONSOURCESOFELECTRICALENERGY
ReviewQuestions
1. Whatisapowersupply?
2. WhydoyouneedaDCpowersupply?
3. Whatarethecriticalfactorseffectingthechoiceofapowersupply?
4. Howalaboratorypowersupplydiffersfromaninstrumentpowersupply?
5. Whatistheripplefactor?
6. Whataretheloadandinputregulations?
7. Whatistheefficiencyofapowersupply?
8. Whataretheindispensiblecomponentsofapowersupply?
9. WhataretheAClinecomponentsofapowersupply?
10. Whatisafuse?
11. Whattypeofafuseispreferredinpowersupplies?
12. Whatisthemeaningofthevoltageratingofafuse?
13. Whatisafeasiblelink?
14. Whatisthetransientsuppressorandwhyitisusedattheinputsectionofapowersupply?
15. Whatisthefunctionofthelinefilterinpowersupplies?
16. What is the snubber, what is its function and in what position you expect to see it in a power
supply?
17. Whatarethecomponentsofasnubberandwhataretheirimportantproperties?
18. Whatisspecialaboutthetransformerusedinpowersupplies?
19. Whatisthefunctionoftherectifierdiodeinapowersupply?
20. Whatarethedifferencesbetweenrectifierdiodesandothertypesofdiodesthatyouknow?
21. Howcanyoutestadiodeusingamultimeter?
22. Whyhalfwaverectifiersarenotcommonlyusedalthoughtheyareverysimple?
23. What is the peak inverse voltage of a rectifier diode and how it is used in selecting rectifier
diodes?
24. Whydoyouneedsmoothinginpowersupplies?
25. Whatarethecircuitmodalitiesusedforsmoothinginpowersupplies?
26. Howcanyouchooseasmoothingcapacitorforagivenpowersupplyapplication?
27. Whatisthe"bleeding"resistor,whereandwhyitisused?
28. Why a small nonelectrolytic capacitor is connected in parallel with the electrolytic smoothing
capacitorinpowersupplies?
29. Whydoyouneedforavoltageregulatorinpowersuppliesthatareusedinelectronics?

30. Whatisazenerdiodeandhowitdiffersfromanordinaryrectifierdiode?
31. Whataretheadvantagesofintegratedcircuitregulatorsoverthediscreteones?
32. Whatisacrowbarandhowitisusedinprotectingpowersupplies?
33. Whatisaswitchedregulatorandhowitdiffersfromthelinearregulator?
34. Whatarethemajoradvantagesofswitchingregulatorsoverthelinearones?
35. Whatarethemajordisadvantages/limitationsofswitchingpowersupplies?
36. Whatisthefunctionofthehighfrequencyswitchinswitchingregulators?
37. What are the similarities and differences between the input and output rectifiers used in
switchingpowersupplies?
38. What are the similarities and differences between the input filter capacitors and output filter
capacitors?
39. Whatisthefunctionofthepulsewidthmodulator(PWM)inregulatingtheoutputvoltage?
40. WhywehaveproblemofRFinterferenceinswitchingsuppliesandhowitcanbeeliminated?
41. Whatelementcontributesmosttotheweightofthepowersupplyandwhytheswitchingsupply
ismuchlighterthanitslinearcounterparts?
42. Whatisabatteryandwhatisitsfunctioninelectronics?
43. Whataretheanodeandcathodeasreferredtoabattery?
44. Whatistheprincipleofoperationofbatteries?
45. Whatisaprimarybatteryandwhatarethecommonlyavailableones?
46. Whataretheadvantagesofalkalinebatteries?
47. Whatisasecondarybatteryandhowitdiffersfromtheprimarybattery?
48. Whatarethemeaningsof"adrycell"and"awetcell"?
49. Howisthebatterycapacityexpressed?
50. Whatisthemeaningof"shelflife"forabattery?
51. Whatarethefactorsthataffectthelifeofabattery?
52. Whatarethecommonlyusedbatterychargingprotocolsforsecondarybatteries?
53. Whatisthetricklecharge?
54. Whydoesthebatteryleak?
55. Whymaythebatteryexplode?
56. Whatiselectricityandelectricshock?
57. Whatiselectricalsafety?
58. Whatisthescopeofelectricalsafety?
59. Whythebirdscansitonelectricalconductorsandyetdonotgetelectricalshock?
60. Whataretheelectricalhazardsthatmightbefacedinaregularofficeenvironment?
61. Whataretheelectricalhazardsthatmightbefacedinamedicalenvironment?

62. Whythepatientswithelectrodesaremoresusceptibletoelectricalshock?
63. Whataretheimportantlevelsof60Hzelectricalcurrentforanaverageindividual?
64. Whatarethemacroshockandmicroshockhazards?
65. Whatisthesafetygroundandhowitcanpreventtheelectricshock?
66. WhythewaterpipecannotbeusedforgroundingindomiciliaryenvironmentinJeddah?
67. Whatisanisolatedpowersystem?
68. What is a ground fault circuit interrupter and how it can be used for a threephase power
system?
69. Whatarethewaysofprotectionagainstelectricalshockbymeansofequipmentdesign?
70. Whycanadoubleinsulatedoperatesafelywithoutagroundconnection?
ExercisesonPowerSupplies
1. Definethefollowingtermsrelatedtothepowersupplies:
a. Ripplefactor
b. Loadregulation
c. Inputregulation
d. Efficiency
2. Drawtheblockdiagramofalinearregulatedpowersupplyanddescribethemajorfunctioneach
blockbriefly.
3. Explain the function of the fuse in power supplies. What type of a fuse is preferred in power
supplies?
4. Explainshortlythefunctionofatransformerinapowersupplywithasimplecircuitsymboland
input/outputwaveforms.
5. Whatarethecriticalfactorsinselectingthetransformerforapowersupply?
6. Definetheefficiencyofthetransformerinapowersupply.
7. Discusshowtoselectatransformerforagivenpowersupplyapplicationwithanexample.
8. Discussthefunctionoftherectifierdiodeandthedifferencebetweenrectifierdiodesandother
typesofdiodesthatyouknow.
9. Discuss the reasons for halfwave rectifiers not being commonly used although they are very
simple.
10. Describehowtotestadiodeusingamultimeter.
11. Definetheforwardcurrent(IF),surgecurrent(ISFM),forwarddiodevoltage(VD)andpeakinverse
voltage(PIV)forarectifierdiodewithasimplesketch.
12. Mathematicallydeterminetheaverageandeffectivevaluesandtheripplefactorforhalfwave
andfullwaverectifiedvoltages.

13. Discussthedeterminationofthepeakinversevoltagesinselectingrectifierdiodes.
14. Discussthenecessityforsmoothingandcircuitmodalitiesusedforthispurpose.
15. Calculatethesmoothingcapacitorrequiredforasupplywithoutputvoltage12V,current0.5A,
frequencyofthemain'ssupply60Hzandripplefactor10%.
16. Calculatetheapproximatecharginganddischargingtimesatsteadystateforthecapacitorinthe
previousquestion.Determinetheapproximatevalueoftheaveragechargingcurrentatsteady
state.
17.
Figure shows the equivalent
circuit of a smoothing capacitor. Define

eachcomponentinthecircuitanddiscuss
how they affect the performance of the
capacitorinapowersupply.
18. Explainthereasonforheavingasmallnonelectrolyticcapacitoracrossthesmoothingcapacitor.
19. Discus the reason for adding a small resistance between the output of the rectifier and
smoothingcapacitor.
20. Discusshowtochooseasmoothingcapacitorforagivenpowersupplyapplication.
21. Whatisthe"bleeding"resistor,whereandwhyitisused?
22. Anunregulatedpowersupplyhas2200Faluminumelectrolyticsmoothingcapacitorinparallel
with0.1Fpolystyrenecapacitor.Thenominalvalueoftheoutputvoltageis10Vfortheoutput
currentof0.5Aandmain'svoltage220Vat60Hz.
a. Calculate the DC component of the output voltage and the ripple voltage for the load
currentof0.1A.
b. Repeat(a)fortheloadcurrentof1A.
c. Calculate the output voltage and ripple for the output current 500 mA as the main's
voltagedroppingto200V.
d. Repeat(c)forthemain'svoltagerisingto240V.
23. Generateacomparisontableanddiscusstheeffectofloadcurrentandinputvoltagevariations
ontheperformanceofthepowersupply.
24. Discusstheneedforavoltageregulatorinpowersuppliesthatareusedinelectronics.
25. Designazenerdioderegulatedpowersupplyassumingthat:
Therequiredoutputvoltageis5V
Theoutputcurrentisbetween0and100mA
Transformerusedis220V/6V.

a. Using commercial components, select the rectifier, smoothing capacitor and limiting
resistor.
26. Search for 5 IC voltage regulators from component catalogs and/or web and make a table of
comparisonfortheircharacteristics.
27. Designalinearregulateddualpowersupplythatwouldprovide1Aloadcurrentat6Vfroma
mains supply of 220 V / 60 Hz. Use practical values for the components and justify your
selections.
28. Explainthefunctionofthehighfrequencyswitchinswitchingregulators.
29. Drawthefunctionalblockdiagramofaswitchingpowersupplyandexplainthesimilaritiesand
differencesbetweenaregulartransformerusedinordinarypowersuppliesandhighfrequency
transformerusedinswitchingpowersupplies.
30. Explainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentheinputandoutputrectifiersusedinswitching
powersupplies.
31. Explain the similarities and differences between the input filter capacitors and output filter
capacitors.
32. Explainthefunctionofthepulsewidthmodulator(PWM)inregulatingtheoutputvoltage.
33.
The circuit shown is driven off by a 12 V DC supply. The
inductoris10mHandtheresistoris100.Theswitchworksat1
kHzwith40%dutycycle(i.e.itis"on"for0.4msand"off"for0.6
ms in a 1 ms cycle). Determine and draw the waveform of the
voltage across the resistor. What happens if the frequency of the
switchgoesto10kHz?Whathappensiftheswitchworksat100kHz?(Assumethatthediodeis
ideal,i.e.itworksasanelectronicswitch).
34. Thecurrentina10resistoris5*sin(314t)A
a. Drawthewaveformofthecurrent
b. Defineandcalculatethefollowingvaluesforthecurrent:
i. Peak
ii. Peaktopeak
iii. Average
iv. RootMeanSquare(RMS)
c. Calculatethevalueofthepowerdissipatedbytheresistor
d. HowmuchwouldbethecurrentifitwouldbeDCtogeneratethesamepoweronthe
resistor?

35. For a transformer in a power supply, the required average output voltage is 10 V, the ripple
voltage is 1 V and the voltage drop across the rectifier is 2 V and the required output current
(average)is1A.Theefficiency()ofthetransformeris0.8.Calculate:
a. therequiredoutputvoltageofthetransformer
b. theinputcurrentofthetransformeriftheinputvoltageis220V
c. theoutputpowerdeliveredbythepowersupply
d. thepowerlossbythetransformer.
36. AseriesRLcircuithasR=0.1kandL=10mH.ThecircuitisexcitedbyVi=5+10sin(1000t)V
a. Drawthecircuitdiagram
b. CalculatethevoltagesacrossRandL.
ExercisesonBatteries
1. Whichoneofthefollowingcellisnotaprimarycell?
a. Carbonzinc
b. Alkaline
c. Zincchloride
d. Leadacid
2. ThedcoutputofaCsizealkalinecellis
a. 1.2V
b. 1.5V
c. 2.1V
d. About3V
3. Whichofthefollowingcellisasecondarycell?
a. Silveroxide
b. Leadacid
c. Nickelcadmium
d. Bothbandc
4. Whathappenstotheinternalresistance,ri,ofavoltaiccellasthecelldeteriorates?
a. Itincreases
b. Itdecreases
c. Itstaysthesame
d. Itusuallydisappears

5. Theoutputvoltageofaleadacidcellis
a. 1.35V
b. 1.5V
c. 2.1V
d. About12V
6. Cellsareconnectedinseriesto
a. Increasethecurrentcapacity
b. Increasetheoutputvoltage
c. Decreasethevoltageoutput
d. Decreasetheinternalresistance
7. Cellsareconnectedinparallelto
a. Increasethecurrentcapacity
b. Increasetheoutputvoltage
c. Decreasetheoutputvoltage
d. Decreasethecurrentscapacity
8. FiveDsizealkalinecellsinserieshaveacombinedvoltageof
a. 1.5V
b. 5.0V
c. 7.5V
d. 11.0V
9. Abatteryhasnoloadvoltageof9V.It'sterminalvoltagedropsto8.25Vwhenaloadcurrentof
200mAisdrawnfromthebattery.Theinternalresistanceriequals
a. 0.375
b. 3.75
c. 41.25
d. 4.5
10. Themaindifferencebetweentheprimaryandsecondarycellisthat
a. Aprimarycellcanberechargedandasecondarycellcannot
b. Asecondarycellcanberechargedandaprimarycellcannot
c. Aprimarycellhasanunlimitedshelflifeandasecondarycelldoesnot
d. Aprimarycellproduceadcvoltageandsecondarycellproduceacvoltage
11. Whichoneofthefollowingbatterieshasacellvoltageof1.2V?
a. Leadacid
b. Zincchloride
c. Nickelcadmium

d. Lithium
12. Fivenickelcadmiumcellsinserieshaveacombinedvoltageof
a. 5.0V
b. 6.0V
c. 7.5V
d. 11.0V
13. What type of battery or cell would likely be used to power this
portabledrill?
a. Amercuryoxidebuttonbattery
b. Aleadstoragebattery
c. Anickelcadmiumbattery
d. Ahydrogenoxygenfuelcell
14. This type of alkaline cell is commonly used to power flashlights and
othersimilarobjects.Whichistheanodeofthecell?
a. Carbonrod
b. PasteofKOH,MnO2
c. Zinccan
d. Water
GeneralQuestionsonBatteries
1. Many highend cell phones are equipped with lithium ion batteries. Use the resources of the
Webtofindoutmoreaboutthistypeofbatterybysearchingfor"lithiumbatterychemistry."
2. Arelithiumbasedbatteriesbetterthannickelmetalhydrideones?UsetheWebtofinddetails
aboutthesetwotypesofbatteries.Then,writeabriefsummaryofyourfindingsandgiveyour
conclusionastowhichbatterywouldbemoresuitableforuseinanelectricvehicle.
3. Whyisthisbatterysuitedforuseinportabledevices?
4. Whatmaterialsformtheanodeandthecathodeofalithiumionbattery?
5. Whatisthevoltageofalithiumionbattery?
6. What other types of batteries are used in cell phones? What are their advantages and
disadvantagescomparedtolithiumionbatteries?
7. Drawthecircuitdiagramofabatterychargerthathas15Voutputandusedtwochargetwo12V
leadacidbatteriessimultaneously.
8. HowmuchistheenergyinJoulestoredinDsizealkalinebattery?
9. Makeawebsearchandfindoutthetypeofcellthatistypicallyusedinwatches,hearingaids,
cameras,etc.Explainthereasonforitspreferenceoverothers.

10. Howlongitwilltaketochargeaflat(noinitialcharge)1.8AHbatteryfromaconstantcurrent
sourcethatsupplies200mAintothebatteryduringcharging.
ExercisesonElectricalSafety
MultipleChoiceQuestionsA
MultipleChoice:Inthefollowinggroupofquestionsselectthestatements,whicharecorrect(there
maybemorethanonecorrectstatementineachproblem).
1. Physiologicaleffectofelectricitydepend:
a. Solelyonthevoltageappliedtothebodysinceitisthehighenoughvoltagewhichbreaks
downtheskininsulationandcausesanelectricshock;
b. Onthecurrentwhichpassesthroughthebody;
c. On both voltage and the total impedance of the circuit since these determine the
current.
2. Thedangerouslevelsofelectricshockdepend:
a. Onlyonthetotalamountofcurrentpassingthroughthebody;
b. Onthecurrentdensityacrosscriticalorgans.
3. Inthefollowingstatements,theelectricalcurrentmentionedpassestwohandsofanadultmale
forabout1second:
a. Theminimumcurrentperceivablebythemostsensitivepersonisabout0.5mA;
b. Themostfortunatepersoncantakehishandsoffthehotconductorsatcurrentlevelsup
to100mA;
c. Respiratoryparalysiscanoccuratcurrentlevels<20mA;
d. Themostdangerousformofelectricshockhazard,ventricularfibrillationoccursbetween
about50mAand5Amperes;
e. Currents>6Adoesnotusuallycausefibrillationoranyknowndamagetotheheart,butit
maycauserespiratoryparalysis.
4. Themostdangerousfrequencyforelectricshockis:
a. Lowfrequencies(approximately10Hzto100Hz);
b. Zerofrequency(directcurrent);
c. Highfrequencies.
5. InJeddah,thepowerdistributiontononindustrialdistrictsisby:
a. Onlyasinglelineconductorat220Vplusaneutral;
b. Twolineconductorsplusaneutral,thatistwophases180degreesapart;

c. Threephasesystem,linetoneutralvoltagebeing127Voltsandlinetolinevoltage220
Volts.
6. Theprecautionsthatcanbetakenagainstthemacroshockelectrichazardsare:
a. DrivenrightlegcircuitforECGequipment;
b. Doubleinsulationoftheequipment;
c. Opticalisolationoftheamplifiercircuits;
d. Propergroundingoftheequipmentcases;
e. Isolationtransformersforthepowerdistribution.
7. Theprecautionsagainstthemicroshockhazardcouldbe:
a. Running individual grounding conductors form each equipment to a central ground
terminalineverypatientroom;
b. Batteryoperated,doubleinsulatedequipment;
c. Isolationtransformersforthepowerdistribution;
d. Isolation transformers for supplying power to OPAMP circuits and for output
connections.
8. In armtoarm passage of 60 Hz current, levels above 6 Amps. generally does not cause
ventricularfibrillationbecause:
a. Current is well distributed throughout the chest leaving negligible amount through the
heart;
b. Itstimulatesthewholeheart;
c. Patientdiesassoonasitisapplied;
d. 60Hzdoesnotstimulatetheactivecells.
9. AccordingtotheU.S.NFPAstandards,theleakagecurrentlimitsforelectricalappliancesare:
a. Forappliancesnotintendedtocontactpatients,chassisleakage=100mA;
b. For appliances likely to contact patients, chassis leakage = 100mA and patient lead
(electrode)leakage=10mA;
c. For appliances with "isolated" patient leads, chassis leakage = not applicable, patient
lead=10mA.
10. Groundfaultcircuitinterrupterdevicesareusuallyusedinthe:
a. Operatingroom;
b. EEGlaboratories;
c. Hemodialysisward.
11. Anequipotentialgroundsystem:
a. Consistsofaseparateadditionalgroundwireconnectionsfromeachequipmentchassis
andmetalsurfacetoacentralgroundterminal;

b. Consistsofaseparategroundwireconnectingthemetalsurfacesofeachequipmentto
eachotherincascadeorder(oneafteranother);
c. Reducesdifferentialpotentialsbetweensurfacestozero;
d. Usedinoperatingrooms,ICUandCCU.
MultipleChoiceQuestionsB
FillintheBlankSpacesinthefollowinggroupofquestions.
1. Inpowersystems,theblackwireis________________,thewhitewireis______________,and
thegreenwireis_______________.
2. The maximum differential voltage between metal surfaces in critical care areas is
______________mV.
3. Specialized hospital electrical safety test equipment measures ___________ resistance,
_______________polarity,____________springtensionand_______________current.
4. Leakagecurrentcanbereducedbyaddinga_________wirefromequipmentmetalchassistoa
common_____________terminal.
5. Leakage current standards are _________ microamper or less for critical care areas,
______________microamperorlessforpatientcareareas,and_____________microamperor
lessforpublicareasofthehospital.
GeneralQuestions
SolvetheFollowingProblemsinDetail.
1. The patient's right hand touches the bedrail, which is coupled to 220V rms above ground
through 1600pF leakage capacitor of the driving electric motor. The left hand of the patient
touches the metal base of a lamp, which is grounded. A salinefilled catheter (R=20K) for
measuringbloodpressureisconnectedtothepatient'sheart.Someofthepressuretransducer
straingagewiringisgrounded,andthetransducerissomewhatisolatedelectrically.However,
thereis100pFcapacitancebetweenthegroundandthesaline.Assumetheskinresistanceofthe
patientis100K.
a. Drawacompleteequivalentcircuitindicatingthepathsofleakagecurrentsthroughthe
patient'sbody;
b. Computethermscurrentthroughthepatient'sheartfortheabovesituation;
c. Isthereamicroshockormacroshockhazard,why?
2. Drawthecircuitdiagramforagroundfaultcircuitinterrupterforathreephasepowersystem.
3. Statethewaysofprotectionagainstelectricalshockbymeansofequipmentdesign.
4. Definesafety.

5. Listtypesofhazardsthatmightbefacedinamedicalenvironment.
6. Define each hazard you have and list at least three types for each category. Discuss ways of
protectionforeachtype.
7. Defineelectricity.
8. Defineelectricalshock.
9. Definethescopeofelectricalsafety.
10. Drawasymbolicelectricaldiagramthatindicatesthepatientandconditionsofelectricalshock.
11. Explainwhythepatientswithelectrodesaremoresusceptibletoelectricalshock.
12. Explaintheresponseofthehumanbodytoelectricalcurrentat60Hz.Whataretheimportant
levelsforanaverageindividual?
13. Explainthemacroshockandmicroshockhazards.
REFERENCES
ReferencesonPowerSupplies
HnatekER,Designofsolidstatepowersupplies,VanNostrandReinhold,NewYork,2nded,1989.
BigelowSJ,"Allaboutswitchingpowersupplies",ElectronicsNow,pp.4047,August1997.
LuchiLR,"Powersupplyregulation",ElectronicsNow,pp.6976,December1994.
http://www.electronicstutorials.ws/diode/diode_7.html(lastvisitedinMarch2011)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchedmode_power_supply(lastvisitedinMarch2011)
ReferencesonBatteries
Wikipediasourcesonbatteries
Shultz,Grob'sIntroductiontoElectronics,McGrawHill,2007
Carr,J.J.andBrown,J.M.IntroductiontoBiomedicalEquipmentTechnology,3rded.Prentice
Hall,1997.
Temperature Measurement / 317
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT
BASICPRINCIPLES
DefinitionofTemperature
TemperatureScale
ReferenceTemperatures
TEMPERATUREMEASURINGDEVICES
Thermocouples
ResistanceTemperatureDevices
RadiationDetectors(InfraredSensors)
IntegratedCircuit(I.C.)Sensors
BimetallicDevices
FluidExpansionDevices
Chemical(ChangeofState)Sensors
ComparisonofPracticalTemperatureMeasurementDevices
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMOCOUPLES
EmpiricalLawsofThermocouples
MeasuringThermocoupleVoltagewithaDigitalVoltmeter(DVM)
TheReferenceJunction
ReferenceCircuit:ExternalReferenceJunctionNoIceBath
ExternalReferenceJunctionNoIceBath
WhyThermocoupleisUsed?
ExamplesforThermocoupleandTemperatureMeasurement
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMISTORS
ThermistorLinearization
ThermistorThermometry
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1. Definetemperature.
2. Describetemperaturescales.
3. Interpretreferencetemperatures.
4. Listtemperaturemeasuringdevices.
5. Explainprinciplesofthermocouples.
6. Describeresistancetemperaturedevices.
7. Describetheprinciplesandapplicationsofradiationdetectors(infraredsensors).
8. Explaintheprinciplesandapplicationsofintegratedcircuit(I.C.)sensors.
9. Describetheprinciplesandapplicationsofbimetallicdevicesintemperaturesensing.
10. Explaintheprinciplesandapplicationsoffluidexpansiondevicesandchemical(changeofstate)
sensors.
11. Comparepracticaltemperaturemeasurementdevices.
12. Illustratetheprincipleoftemperaturemeasurementusingthermocouples.
13. Statetheempiricallawsofthermocouples.
14. Describehowtomeasurethethermocouplevoltageusingadigitalvoltmeter(DVM).
15. Discusstheimportanceofthereferencejunction.
16. Describethereferencecircuitthatreplacesthefunctionofthereferencejunction.
17. Describe the software compensation technique that replaces the function of the reference
junction.
18. Discussthereasonsforcommonlyusingthermocouplesintemperaturemeasurement.
19. Explaintheprincipleofoperationofthermistors.
20. Describethethermistorlinearizationtechniques.
21. Explainthethermistorthermometry.
BASICPRINCIPLES
DefinitionofTemperature
Temperature is an expression for the kinetic energy of vibrating atoms and molecules of a matter.
Thisenergycanbemeasuredbyvarioussecondaryphenomena,e.g.,changeofvolumeorpressure,
electricalresistance,electromagneticforce,electronsurfacecharge,oremissionofelectromagnetic
radiation.Manyengineeringapplicationsrequiredirectmeasurementofthetemperature.Synthetic
fuelresearch,solarenergyconversionandnewenginedevelopmentareafewofthesedisciplines.All
industries place new emphasis on energy efficiency. Hence, the fundamental measurement of
temperature assumes new importance. Temperature also effects measurement of most physical
variablesanditmustbemeasuredforcompensationpurposesaswell.
TemperatureScale
ThemostfrequentlyusedtemperaturescalesareCelsiusandFahrenheit,whichdividethedifference
betweenthefreezingandboilingpointsofwaterinto100and180,respectively.
C=(5/9)(F32),andF=(9/5)C+32
The thermodynamic scale begins at absolute zero, or 0 Kelvin, the point at which all atoms cease
vibratingandnokineticenergyisdissipated.
0K=273.15C=459.67F
The official Kelvin scale does not carry a degree sign. The units are expressed in kelvins, not
degreesKelvin.
ReferenceTemperatures
Wecannotbuildatemperaturedivideraswecanavoltagedivider,norcanweaddtemperaturesas
wewouldaddlengthstomeasuredistance.Wemustrelyupontemperaturesestablishedbyphysical
phenomena, which are easily observed and consistent in nature. The International Temperature
Scale(ITS)isbasedonsuchphenomena.Revisedin1990,itestablishesseventeenfixedpointsand
correspondingtemperatures.Referencetemperaturesincludethetriplepoints(thetemperatureand
pressureatwhichsolid,liquid,andgasphasesofagivensubstanceareallpresentsimultaneouslyin
varyingamounts)ofseveralimportantengineeringsubstances.Examples:
Triplepointofwater=0.01C,
Triplepointofhydrogen=259.3467C,and
Freezingpointofsilver=961.78C.

Sincewehaveonlythesefixedtemperaturestouseasareference,wemustuseinstrumentsto
interpolate between them. But accurately interpolating between these temperatures can require
somefairlyexotictransducers,manyofwhicharetoocomplicatedorexpensivetouseinapractical
situation.
TEMPERATUREMEASURINGDEVICES
Temperature can be measured via a diverse array of sensors. All of them infer temperature by
sensingsomechangeinaphysicalcharacteristicofthedevice.Thetypeswithwhichanengineeris
likelytocomeintocontactare:
Thermocouples,
Resistancetemperaturedevices(RTDsandthermistors),
Infraredradiators,
I.C.sensors,
Bimetallicdevices,
Liquidexpansiondevices,and
Changeofstatedevices
In the chemical process industries, the most commonly used temperature sensors are
thermocouples,resistivedevicesandinfrareddevices.
Thermocouples
Thermocouplesconsistessentiallyoftwostripsorwiresmadeofdifferentmetalsandjoinedatone
end.Anelectromotiveforce(e.m.f)isinducedbetweentheotherendswhosevalueisrelatedtothe
temperature ofthejunction.Astemperaturegoes up,thisoutpute.m.fofthethermocouplerises,
though not necessarily linearly. Output voltages for some popular thermocouples are plotted as a
functionoftemperatureinFigure7.1.Itisthemostversatiletemperaturetransducer.

80
Type of Metals
E
60
Millivolts
K
J
40
20
+
E Chromel vs Constantan
J Iron vs Constantan
K Chromel vs Alumel
R Platinum vs Platinum
13% Rhodium
S Platinum vs Platinum
10% Rhodium
T Copper vs Constantan
0
500
1000 1500
2000
Temperature, C
Figure7.1Typicalthermocouplecharacteristics
ResistanceTemperatureDevices
Resistance temperature devices capitalize on the fact that the electrical resistance of a material
changesasitstemperaturechanges;
R=R0[1+(TT0)]
Where R0istheresistanceat T=T0and isthetemperaturecoefficientofthedevice.Twokeytypes

arethemetallicdevices(commonlyreferredtoasRTDs),andthermistors.
RTDs
Astheirnameindicates,RTDsrelyonresistancechangeinametal,withtheresistancerisingmoreor
lesslinearlywithtemperature.ThemostcommonRTDsaremadeofeitherplatinum,nickel,ornickel
alloys.Theeconomicalnickelderivativewiresareusedoveralimitedtemperaturerange.Theyare
quite nonlinear and tend to drift with time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious
choice.AtypicalRTDconsistsofafineplatinumwirewrappedaroundamandrelandcoveredwitha
protectivecoating(alsoabbreviatedPRTD).Itisthemoststabletemperaturetransducer.
In the newest construction technique, a platinum or metalglass slurry film is deposited or
screened onto a small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a lasertrimming system, and sealed to
formthefilmRTD.Itofferssubstantialreductioninassemblytimeandhasthefurtheradvantageof
increased resistance for a given size. Due to the manufacturing technology, the device size itself is
small,whichmeansitcanrespondquicklytostepchangesintemperature.FilmRTDsarelessstable
thantheirwirewoundcounterparts,buttheyaremorepopularbecauseoftheiradvantagesinsize,
productioncostandruggedness.

Thermistors
R T (k)
10
LiketheRTD,thethermistorisalsoatemperaturesensitive
resistor. It is based on the resistance change in a ceramic
NTC
semiconductor; the resistance drops nonlinearly with
PTC
temperature rise. There are two types as the positive

temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative temperature
0.1
0
Temperature, C
coefficient (NTC) as illustrated in Figure 7.2. Although

100
Figure7.2IllustrationofNTCandPTC
typethermistors
positive temperature coefficient units are available, most

thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (TC);
that is, their resistance decreases with increasing
temperature. The negative TC can be as large as several
percentperdegreeC,allowingthethermistorcircuittodetectminutechangesintemperature,which
could not be observed with an RTD, or thermocouple circuit. The PTC type is used mainly in
thermostat type applications in which the electrical power applied to an electrical element, like a
motor,isinterruptedasthetemperature(ofitswinding)goesaboveapresetvalue.
The thermistor is the most sensitive temperature
VT or RT
transducer.Ofthethreemajorcategoriesofsensorsshown
Thermistor
in Figure 7.3, the thermistor exhibits by far the largest

RTD
parameter change with temperature. The price we pay for

thisincreasedsensitivityislossoflinearity.Thethermistoris
Thermocouple
Temperature, C
Figure7.3Threetemperaturemeasuring
an extremely nonlinear device, which is highly dependent

upon process parameters. Consequently, manufacturers
have not standardized thermistor curves to the extent that
RTDandthermocouplecurveshavebeenstandardized.
devicestogether
The resistancetemperature relationship of a NTC type

thermistor is negative and highly nonlinear. This poses a serious problem for engineers who must
design their own circuitry. However, using thermistors in matched pairs, in such a way that the
nonlinearitiesoffseteachother,caneasethedifficulty.Furthermore,vendorsofferpanelmetersand
controllersthatcompensateinternallyforthermistorslackoflinearity.
TheSelfHeatingProblem
Otherimportantproblemthateffectsthethermistorandallotherresistancetemperaturedevicesis
theselfheating.Thecurrentpassingthroughthedevicecausesconversionoftheelectricalenergyto
heatatarate
100
P=I2Rt
0 slope
Heat generated is dissipated to the

environment.
10
of
dissipation
is
proportional to the difference between the
- slope
Voltage, V
Rate
1.0
case temperature of the thermistor and the

+ slope
ambient temperature. The equilibrium is
0.1
0.10
1.0
10.0
100.0
Current, mA
Figure7.4Selfheatinginthermistors
reachedastherateofdissipationbalancesthe
rate of generation. An increase in the case
temperature causes a decrease in the
resistance of the thermistor. The voltage
acrossthethermistorisV=IRt
The VI characteristic of a typical thermistor is shown in Figure 7.4. The device is used as a
temperaturetransducerinthe+sloperegionwheretheselfheatingisnegligible.
RadiationDetectors(InfraredSensors)
Infrared (IR) sensors are noncontacting devices that infer temperature by measuring the thermal
radiation emitted by the surface of a material as illustrated in Figure 7.5. Electromagnetic energy
radiates from all matters regardless of their
temperatures. In many process situations, the
energy is in the infrared region. As the
temperature goes up, the amount of infrared
radiation and its average frequency go up.
Different materials radiate at different levels of
efficiency. This efficiency is quantified as
emissivity, a decimal number or percentage
rangingbetween0and1or0%and100%.
Mostorganicmaterials,includingskin,are
very efficient, frequently exhibiting emissivity of
0.95. Most polished metals, on the other hand,
tend to be inefficient radiators at room
temperature, with emissivity or efficiency often
Figure7.5AnIRtypetemperaturemeasuringdevice
20% or less. To function properly, an infrared

measurement device must take into account the

emissivityofthesurfacebeingmeasured.Thiscanoftenbelookedupinareferencetable.However,
we have to bear in mind that tables cannot account for localized conditions such as oxidation and
surface roughness. A sometimes practical way to measure temperature with an infrared technique
whentheemissivitylevelisnotknownistoforcetheemissivitytoaknownlevel,bycoveringthe
surfacewithmaskingtape(emissivityof95%)orahighlyemissivepaint.
Someofthesensorinputsmaywellconsistofenergythatisnotemittedbytheequipmentor
material whose surface is being targeted. Instead, there may be some rays being reflected by that
surfacefromotherequipmentormaterialsreachingthesensor.
Emissivity pertains to energy radiating from a surface, whereas reflection pertains to
energyreflectedfromanothersource.Emissivityofanopaquematerialisaninverseindicatorofits
reflectivitysubstancesthataregoodemittersdonotreflectmuchincidentenergy,andthusdonot
posemuchofaproblemtothesensorindeterminingsurfacetemperatures.Conversely,whenone
measures a target surface with only, say, 20% emissivity, much of the energy reaching the sensor
mightbeduetoreflectionfrom,e.g.,anearbyfurnaceatsomeothertemperature.Inshort,wehave
tobewaryofhot,spuriousreflectedtargets.Aninfrareddeviceislikeacamera,andthuscoversa
certainfieldofview.Itmight,forinstance,beabletoseea1degreevisualconeora100degree
cone.
IntegratedCircuit(I.C.)Sensors
An innovation in thermometry is
1 A/K
To DVM
Current sensor
10 mV/K
1 M
To DVM
the integrated circuit temperature

transducers shown in Figure 7.6.
These are available in both voltage
Voltage sensor
and currentoutput configurations.

Both supply an output that is
Figure7.6ICtemperaturesensors
linearly proportional to absolute
temperature.Typicalvaluesare1A/Kand10mV/K.
Someintegratedsensorsevenrepresenttemperatureinadigitaloutputformatthatcanbe
read directly by a microprocessor. Except that they offer a very linear output with temperature,
theseICsensorsshareallthedisadvantagesofthermistors.Theyaresemiconductordevicesandthus
havealimitedtemperaturerange.The sameproblemsofselfheatingandfragilityare evidentand
theyrequireanexternalpowersource.

These devices provide a convenient way to produce an easytoread output that is
proportionaltotemperature.Suchaneedarisesinthermocouplereferencejunctionhardware,and
infactthesedevicesareincreasinglyusedforthermocouplecompensation.
BimetallicDevices
Bimetallic devices take advantage of the difference in rate of
Metal A
thermal expansion between different metals. Strips of two metals

arebondedtogetherasillustratedinFigure7.7.Whenheated,one
sidewillexpandmorethantheother,andtheresultingbendingis
Metal B
Figure7.7Abimetallic
temperaturesensor
translated into a temperature reading by mechanical linkage to a

pointer. These devices are portable and they do not require a
power supply, but they are usually not as accurate as
thermocouplesorRTDsandtheydonotreadilylendthemselvesto
temperaturerecording.
FluidExpansionDevices
Typified by the household thermometer illustrated in Figure 7.8, fluidexpansion devices generally
comeintwomainclassifications:
Safety bulb
Themercurytype,and
Theorganicliquidtype.
50
Capillary tube
Versionsemployinggasinsteadofliquidarealsoavailable.
Stem
Mercuryisconsideredanenvironmentalhazard,sothereare
regulations governing the shipment of devices that contain it. Fluid
expansion sensors do not require electric power, do not pose
explosionhazards,andarestableevenafterrepeatedcycling.Onthe
other hand, they do not generate data that are easily recorded or
0
Temperature
sensing bulb
Figure7.8Amercury
thermometer
transmitted,andtheycannotmakespotorpointmeasurements.
Chemical(ChangeofState)Sensors
Changeofstate temperature sensors consist of labels, pellets, crayons, lacquers or liquid crystals
whoseappearancechangeswhenacertaintemperatureisreached.Theyareused,forinstance,with
steamtrapswhenatrapexceedsacertaintemperature,awhitedotonasensorlabelattachedto
thetrapwillturnblack.Responsetimetypicallytakesminutes,sothesedevicesoftendonotrespond
totransienttemperaturechanges,andaccuracyislowerthanothertypesofsensors.Furthermore,
the change in state is irreversible, except in the case of liquidcrystal displays. Even so, changeof

state sensors can be handy when one needs confirmation that the temperature of a piece of
equipmentoramaterialhasnotexceededacertainlevel,forinstancefortechnicalorlegalreasons,
duringproductshipment
ComparisonofPracticalTemperatureMeasurementDevices
The four most common temperature transducers are thermocouples, resistancetemperature
detectors (RTDs), thermistors, and integrated circuit sensors. Their characteristics are shown and
advantagesanddisadvantagesaretabulatedinFigure7.9.
RTD
Self powered
Simple
Rugged
Inexpensive
Wide variety of
physical forms
Wide temperature
range
Resistance
Voltage
Disadvantages
Advantages
Temperature
Non-linear
Low voltage
Reference required
Least stable
Least sensitive
Temperature
I.C. Sensor
Resistance
Thermistor
Voltage or current
Thermocouple
Most stable
Most accurate
More linear than
thermocouple
Expensive
Slow
Current source
required
Small resistance
change
Four-wire
measurement
Temperature
High output
Fast
Two-wire ohmic
measurement
Non-linear
Limited
temperature range
Fragile
Current source
required
Self-heating
Temperature
Most linear
Highest output
Inexpensive
T < 250C
Power supply
required
Self-heating
Limited
configurations
Figure7.9Comparisonoffourtemperaturemeasurementdevices
V or I
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMOCOUPLES
Metal A
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined
Metal A
at both ends and one of the ends is heated, there is a

continuouscurrentwhichflowsinthe thermoelectric circuit
Metal B
asshowninFigure7.10.ThisiscalledtheSeebeckeffect.
Figure7.10Thethermoelectriccircuit
If this circuit is broken at the center as shown in

Figure 7.11, the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck
+
V AB
-
Metal A
voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the

composition of the two metals. All dissimilar metals exhibit this
Metal B
effect. For small changes in temperature the Seebeck voltage is
V AB = Seebeck voltage
linearly proportional to temperature: VAB = T, where , the
Figure7.11TheSeebeckvoltage
Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality. (For real

world thermocouples, is not constant but varies with
temperature.)Ifavoltageisapplied,thentherewillbetemperature
change at the junction. This is called the Peltier effect and can be used for heating and cooling
(refrigeration).
There is second effect that generates voltage and it is the temperature gradient along a
singleconductorasillustratedinFigure7.12.Thenete.m.f.
25C
100C
200C
duetothiseffectisproportionaltothedifferencebetween
300C
the squares of the absolute junction temperatures. In this
400C
case,thethermocouplevoltageisactuallygeneratedbythe
500C
section of wire that contains a temperature gradient, and

not necessarily by the junction. For example, if we have a
thermalprobelocatedinamoltenmetalbath,therewillbe
tworegionsthatarevirtuallyisothermalandonethathasa
600C Metal Bath
largegradient.
In Figure 7.12, the thermocouple junction will not
Figure7.12Temperaturegradientalong
produceanypartoftheoutputvoltage.Theshadedsection
thewires
willbetheoneproducingvirtuallytheentirethermocouple
output voltage. If, due to aging or annealing, the output of
this thermocouple had been found to be drifting, replacing only the thermocouple junction would

notsolvetheproblem.Wewouldhavetoreplacetheentireshadedsection,sinceitisthesourceof
thethermocouplevoltage.
TheoutputvoltageVofasimplethermocouple(withareferencetemperatureT0=0C=32F)is:
V = AT +
1
1
BT 2 + CT 3
2
3
volts,
whereTisthetemperatureofthemeasuringjunctioninC,A,B,andCareconstantsthatdepend
uponthethermocouplematerial.Thesensitivity
S=
V
= A + BT + CT 2
T
volt/C
EmpiricalLawsofThermocouples
The laws governing the operation of the thermocouple are obtained experimentally. They are
exemplifiedbelowandareusefulinunderstandinganddiagnosingthermocouplecircuits.Examples
belowassumethemeasurementwiresarehomogeneous;thatis,freeofdefectsandimpurities.The
isothermalblockisanelectricalinsulator,butagoodheatconductor.
+
V
-
T
C
T1
Cu
T1
LawofIntermediateMetals
Fe
Cu
Fe
Inserting
between
the
the
copper
lead
iron
and
constantan ( a metal alloy with
Isothermal Block
%60 copper and %40 nickel)
Figure7.13Lawofintermediatemetals
leadswillnotchangetheoutput
voltage V, regardless of the
temperatureofthecopperlead.ThevoltageVisthatofaFeCthermocoupleattemperatureT1as
+
V
-
C
T
Pt
Fe
Fe
T1
LawofInteriorTemperatures
Isothermal Block
Fe
TheoutputvoltageVwillbethat
ofaFeCcoupleattemperature
T, regardless of the external
heat source applied to either
measurement lead. This is
Figure7.14Lawofinsertedmetals
LawofInsertedMetals
+
V
-
The voltage V will be that of
Fe
Fe
T
T1
Fe-C
thermocouple
at
temperature T, provided both
ends of the platinum wire are
Isothermal Block
at the same temperature. The

two thermocouples created by
the platinum wire (Fe-Pt and
Figure7.15Lawofinsertedmetals
Pt -Fe) act in opposition as

shown in Figure 7.15.
MeasuringThermocoupleVoltagewithaDigitalVoltmeter(DVM)
We cant measure the Seebeck voltage directly because we must first connect a voltmeter to the
thermocouple, and the voltmeter leads, themselves, create a new thermoelectric circuit. Lets
connect a voltmeter across a copperconstantan (Type T) thermocouple and look at the voltage
output.
WewouldlikethevoltmetertoreadonlyV1,butbyconnectingthevoltmeterinanattempt
tomeasuretheoutputofJunctionJ1wehavecreatedtwomoremetallicjunctions:J2andJ3.SinceJ3
isacoppertocopperjunction,itgeneratesnothermale.m.f.(V3=0)butJ2isacoppertoconstantan
junctionwhichwilladdane.m.f.(V2)inoppositiontoV1.TheresultantvoltmeterreadingVwillbe
proportionaltothetemperaturedifferencebetweenJ1andJ2asillustratedinFigure7.16.Thisimplies
thatwecantfindthetemperatureatJ1unlesswefirstfindthetemperatureofJ2.
Equivalent circuits
J3
Internal
circuitry
Cu
+
V
-
HI
+
V1
-
LO
C
Cu
Voltmeter
+ V3 -
Cu
J3
+
V1
-
Cu
J2
J1
Cu
J1
+ V2 -
+ V2 -
Cu
V3 =0
+
V1
-
C
J2
Figure7.16ModelformeasuringthethermocouplevoltagewithaDVM
Cu
J2
J1

TheReferenceJunction
ExternalReferenceJunction
OnewaytodeterminethetemperatureJ2istophysicallyputthejunctionintoanicebath,forcingits
temperaturetobe0CandestablishingJ2astheReferenceJunctionasillustratedinFigure7.17.Since
bothvoltmeterterminaljunctionsarenowcoppercopper,theygeneratenothermale.m.f.andthe
readingVonthevoltmeterisproportionaltothetemperaturedifferencebetweenJ1andJ2.Nowthe
voltmeterreadingis:V=(V1V2)=(Tj1Tj2)
J3
Cu
Internal
circuitry
Cu
+
V
-
HI
Cu
LO
Cu + V 2
+
V1
-
J1
Cu
Voltmeter
+
V1
-
+
V
+ V2 Cu
J4
J1
J2
T = 0C
J2
Ice bath
Figure7.17Temperaturemeasurementusinganicebathtokeepthereferencejunction
IfwespecifyTj1indegreesCelsius:Tj1(C)+273.15=Tj1(K)
ThentheequationcanberewrittenandVbecomes:
V=V1V2= [(Tj1(C)+273.15)(Tj2(C)+273.15)]= (Tj1(C)Tj2(C))= (Tj1(C)0(C))yielding

V=Tj1(C)
We use this derivation to emphasize that the ice bath junction output V2 is not zero volts. It is a
functionofabsolutetemperature.
By adding the voltage of the ice point reference junction, we have now referenced the
readingVto 0C.Thismethodisveryaccuratebecausetheicepointtemperaturecanbe precisely
controlled.TheicepointisusedbytheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology(NIST)asthe
fundamental reference pointfortheirthermocoupletables,sowecannowlookattheNISTtables
anddirectlyconvertfromvoltageVtoTemperatureTj1(C).
TheIronConstantanCouple
The copperconstantan thermocouple shown is a unique example because the copper wire is the
samemetalasthevoltmeterterminals.

Lets use an ironconstantan (Type J) thermocouple instead of the copperconstantan (Type T) as
showninFigure7.18.Theironwireincreasesthenumberofdissimilarmetaljunctionsinthecircuit,
J3
Internal
circuitry
Cu
Fe
+
V
-
Fe
HI
LO
+ V2 -
+
V1
-
J1
Cu
Voltmeter
J4
Fe
J2
Ice bath
Figure7.18Temperaturemeasurementusinganironconstantancouple
asbothvoltmeterterminalsbecomeCuFethermocouplejunctions.
JunctionVoltageCancellation
V1=VifV3=V4,i.e.Tj3=Tj4
Internal
circuitry
Cu
+ V3 -
This circuit provides moderately accurate
J3
+
V
-
+
V1
-
and low terminals (J3 & J4) shown in Figure

7.19 act in opposition. If both front panel
Cu
Voltmeter
measurements as long as the voltmeter high
+V4 -
J4
Figure7.19Junctionvoltagecancellation
terminals are not at the same temperature,

there will be an error. For a more precise
measurement, the copper voltmeter leads
shouldbeextendedsothecoppertoironjunctionsaremadeonanisothermal(sametemperature)
block.
RemovingJunctionsfromtheDVMTerminals
TheisothermalblockisanelectricalinsulatorbutagoodheatconductoranditservestoholdJ3and
J4atthesametemperature.TheabsoluteblocktemperatureisunimportantbecausethetwoCuFe
junctions act in opposition. In this way, the junctions are removed from the DVM terminals as
ReferenceCircuit:ExternalReferenceJunctionNoIceBath
The circuitdescribedintheprevioussectionwillgiveusaccuratereadings,butitwouldbeniceto
eliminatetheicebathifpossible.

Isothermal Block
Cu
Internal
circuitry
Cu
J3
+
V
-
Fe
HI
Fe
LO
Tj1
TREF
Cu
Cu
Voltmeter
J4
J2
V = (Tj1 T REF)
Ice bath
Figure7.20RemovingjunctionsfromtheDVMterminals
EliminatingtheIceBathUsingIsothermalBlocks
LetsreplacetheicebathwithanotherisothermalblockasshowninFigure7.21.Thenewblockisat
ReferenceTemperatureTREF,andbecauseJ3andJ4arestillatthesametemperaturewecanagain
showthat:V=(T1TREF)
Internal
circuitry
Isothermal Blocks
Cu
Cu
+
V
-
Fe
J3
HI
Fe
LO
Cu
J REF
J4
Cu
Voltmeter
T j1
V = (Tj 1 T REF)
T REF
Figure7.21Eliminatingicebathusingisothermalblocks
This is still a rather inconvenient circuit because we have to connect two thermocouples. Lets
eliminatetheextraFewireinthenegative(LO)leadbycombiningtheCuFejunction(J4)andtheFe
Cjunction(JREF).
JoiningtheIsothermalBlocks
We can do this by first joining the two isothermal blocks as shown in Figure 7.22. We havent
Internal
circuitry
Cu
+
V
-
HI
Fe
J3
Fe
LO
Cu
Voltmeter
Isothermal Block at T REF
Cu
Cu
+VREF-
J4
Figure7.22Joiningisothermalblocks
J REF
Tj1

changedtheoutputvoltageV.Itisstill:V=(T1TREF)
Nowwecalluponthelawof
Metal A
Metal B
Metal C
Metal A
Metal C
intermediatemetalstoeliminatethe
extrajunctionasillustratedinFigure
7.23.Thisempiricallawstatesthata
Figure7.23Awayofusinglawofinsertedmetals
third metal (in this case, iron)

inserted between the two dissimilar
metals of a thermocouple junction will have no effect upon the output voltage as long as the two
junctionsformedbytheadditionalmetalareatthe
sametemperature.
Cu
Fe
Cu
Thisisausefulconclusion,asitcompletely
eliminatestheneedfortheiron(Fe)wireintheLO
Figure7.24EliminatingFejunction
leadasshowninFigure7.24.AgainV=(T1TREF)
whereistheSeebeckcoefficientforaFeCthermocouple.JunctionsJ3andJ4taketheplaceof
theicebath.Thesetwojunctionsarecombinedtobecomethereferencejunction.
ExternalReferenceJunctionNoIceBath
SoftwareCompensation
Now we can proceed to the next logical step: Directly measure the temperature of the isothermal
block(thereferencejunction)andusethatinformationtocomputetheunknowntemperature,Tj1as
Cu
Isothermal Block at T REF
Internal
circuitry
Cu
+
V
-
HI
LO
Tj1
J4
Cu
Voltmeter
Fe
J3
Cu
RT
Figure7.25Externalreferencejunctionwithouticebath
Athermistor,whoseresistanceRTisafunctionoftemperature,providesuswithawaytomeasure
the absolute temperature of the reference junction. Junctions J3 and J4 and the thermistor are all

assumedtobeatthesametemperature,duetothedesignoftheisothermalblock.Usingadigital
multimeter(DMM),wesimply:
MeasureRTtofindTREFandconvertTREFtoitsequivalentreferencejunctionvoltage,VREF
MeasureVandaddVREFtofindV1andconvertV1totemperatureTj1.
This procedure is known as software compensation because it relies upon software in the
instrument or a computer to compensate for the effect of the reference junction. The isothermal
terminal block temperature sensor can be any device, which has a characteristic proportional to
absolutetemperature;anRTD,athermistor,oranintegratedcircuitsensor.
HardwareCompensation
Rather than measuring the temperature of the reference junction and computing its equivalent
voltageaswedidwithsoftwarecompensation,wecouldinsertabatterytocanceltheoffsetvoltage
of the reference junction as illustrated in Figure 7.26. The combination of this hardware
compensationvoltageandthereferencejunctionvoltageisequaltothatofa0Cjunction.
F e
Fe
Cu
V
-
R t
C u
+
C u
-
V
-
Cu
Rt
Cu
+
Cu
Figure7.26Hardwarecompensationofthethermocouplejunction
Thecompensationvoltage, e,isafunctionofthetemperaturesensingresistor, RT.ThevoltageVis

now referenced to 0C, and may be read directly and converted to temperature by using the NIST
tables.
WhyThermocoupleisUsed?
EaseandReliabilityinApplication
Itseemslogicaltoask:Ifwealreadyhaveadevicethatwillmeasureabsolutetemperature(likean
RTD or thermistor), why do we even bother with a thermocouple that requires reference junction
compensation? The single most important answer to this question is that the thermistor, the RTD,
and the integrated circuit transducer are only useful over a certain temperature range.

Thermocouples, on the other hand, can be used over a range of temperatures, and optimized for
various atmospheres. They are much more rugged than thermistors, as evidenced by the fact that
thermocouples are often welded to a metal part or clamped under a screw. They can be
manufactured on the spot, either by soldering or welding. In short, thermocouples are the most
versatiletemperaturetransducersavailableandsincethemeasurementsystemperformstheentire
task of reference compensation and software voltagetotemperature conversion, using a
thermocouplebecomesaseasyasconnectingapairofwires.
MonitoringLargeNumberofDataPoints
Thermocouple measurement becomes especially convenient when we are required to monitor a
large number of data points. This is accomplished by using the isothermal reference junction for
more than one thermocouple element as shown in Figure 7.26. A relay scanner connects the
voltmeter to the various thermocouples in sequence. All of the voltmeter and scanner wires are
copper, independent of the type of thermocouple chosen. In fact, as long as we know what each
thermocoupleis,wecanmixthermocoupletypesonthesameisothermaljunctionblock(oftencalled
a zone box) and make the appropriate modifications in software. The junction block temperature
sensor,RTislocatedatthecenteroftheblocktominimizeerrorsduetothermalgradients.Software
compensation is the most versatile technique we have for measuring thermocouples. Many
thermocouplesareconnectedonthesameblock,copperleadsareusedthroughoutthescanner,and
thetechniqueisindependentofthetypesofthermocoupleschosen.Inaddition,whenusingadata
acquisitionsystemwithabuiltinzonebox,wesimplyconnectthethermocoupleaswewouldapair
of test leads. All of the conversions are performed by the instruments software. The one
disadvantageisthatitrequiresasmallamountofadditionaltimetocalculatethereferencejunction
temperature.Formaximumspeedwecanusehardwarecompensation.
SeriesandParallelConnectionofThermocouples
An arrangement of multiplejunction thermocouples is referred to as a thermopile. Increased
sensitivitymaybeachievedbyconnectinganumberofthermocouplesinseries,allofthemmeasure
thesametemperatureandusingthesamereferencejunction.Parallelcombinationsmaybeusedto
measureaveragetemperature.

ExamplesforThermocoupleandTemperatureMeasurement
Table7.1.Dataforcommonlyusedthermocouples
Temperature
C
184.4
300
5.284
8.30
7.52
5.51
250
7.747
6.71
4.96
128.9
200
4.111
6.40
5.76
4.29
150
3.380
4.68
3.52
73.3
100
2.559
3.94
3.49
2.65
50
1.654
2.22
1.70
17.78
0.670
1.02
0.89
0.68
50
0.389
0.50
0.40
37.78
100
1.517
2.77
1.94
1.52
0.221
150
2.711
3.41
2.66
0.401
93.33
200
3.967
5.87
4.91
3.82
0.595
250
5.280
6.42
4.97
0.800
148.9
300
6.647
9.71
7.94
6.09
1.017
350
8.064
9.48
7.20
1.242
204.4
400
9.525
13.75
11.03
8.31
1.474
450
11.030
12.57
9.43
1.712
260
500
12.575 17.95
14.12
10.57
1.956
600
15.773 22.25
17.18
12.86
2.458
371.1
700
19.100 26.65
20.26
15.18
2.977
800
31.09
23.32
17.53
3.506
537.8
1000
40.06
29.52
22.26
4.596
1200
49.04
36.01
26.98
5.726
815.6
1500
62.30
33.93
7.498
1700
70.90
38.43
8.732
1093
2000
44.91
10.662
250
54.92
13.991
1649
3000
17.292
emf(mV)withreferenceat0C

Example7.1
Find the voltage across the measuring

junctionandsensitivityatT1=260C
Isothermal Blocks
Cu
Fortheconfigurationshown:
Linear interpolation using the data
+
Vm
Cu
+V3 J3
C
-V2 +
T2
mV
Sensitivity
T1
J REF
J4
for J type thermocouple: V1 = 14.12
Fe
V1
+
before
260C
55.56V/C
Sensitivityafter260C=55.27V/C
Averageofthetwo=55.42V/C
FindthevoltageacrossJ3atT3=25C
FromthedataforTtypeV3=1.517mV
FindtheoutputvoltageforT2=0C
Vm=V1=14.12mV
AssumenowtheisothermalblocksarecombinedandkeptatT=25C.Findtheoutputvoltageinthis
conditionandsensitivityoftheoutputvoltagetoT2=TRef.
V2=1.94x25/37.78=1.284mV;Vm=V1+V2=12.836mV
Example7.2
Assumethatyoucanaddabatteryinserieswiththeloop
inthefollowingcircuit.
How much is the required voltage to have the output
Cu
+
Vm -VB+
Cu
Fe
J3
C
J4
voltage is V1 only at the reference junction is kept at 25

C?
Vm=V1V2+VB=V1Hence,VB=V2=1.2.84mV
T1
T REF
RT
RTisaresistancetypetemperaturesensor. RT = R0[1 + (T T0 )] whereR0=120atT=25C,=

4x104 /C. Design a temperature measurement setup around RT that produces an output voltage
equivalenttoVBandhasthesamesensitivitytotemperaturevariationsatthereferencejunctionas
theoutputvoltageinthepreviousproblem.So,thecircuitcanreplacethebattery.

WecanformaWheatstonebridgeandplaceRT=R4.ThesensitivityofVmtoT2is:
Vm
1.94
= 2 =
= 51.35 V / C
T2
37.78
.
The bridge output Vb must have this sensitivity. At the same time Vb T = 0C = 0V .
R4
Vb
R1
R4
R = Eb ( R + R ) 2
R3
T
4
1
4
;
Vb = Eb
and
( R1 + R4 ) ( R2 + R3 )
= R0 = 0.048 / C
T = 25 C
Vb Vb R4
Vb 51.35
Eb R1
=
= 51 .35
=
= 1.07 mV / =
T
R4 T
( R1 + R4 ) 2 .
yielding R4 0.048
LetthevalueofR40=R4atT=0C. Fromthe equationR40=118.8.Tobalance thebridgeR2R40=
R1R3. With R1 = R2 and R3 = R40 and taking Eb = 5 volts, the above equations can be solved
simultaneouslyandyield
R1=R2=4430.
Example7.3
Athermopileisformedasshowninthefigure.
TC
-1.517 mV +
The thermocouples are all of the same copper (Cu)
Cu
constantan(C)(TypeT).Theisothermalblockiskeptat
the reference temperature T0 = 0C. The e.m.f. EcuC
Cu
TA
TB = 121.1C
(T,T0) (mV) versus temperature (T) of copper

constantan thermocouple is given in the table. The
+ ET -
output voltage ET= 2.05 mV Calculate the e.m.f. for

junctions (B) and (C); temperature of junction (A) and
Cu
Cu
Isothermal
Block
Figureforexample7.3
(C).
Table7.2Dataforexample7.3
T(C)
128.9
73.3
17.78
37.78
93.33
148.9
204.4
260
E(mV)
4.111
2.559
0.670
1.517
3.967
6.647
9.525
12.575
VB=0V(CuCujunction);VA=1.517mV;VC=ETVA=2.05+1.517=3.567mV

TA = 37.78 C (from the table). TC can be found
VC(mV)
throughinterpolationasfollows:
3.967
Twoknownpointsaroundtheunknowntemperature
3.567
aremarkedonagraphaalinearrelationisexpected
inbetween.Then,fromthesimilaritiesoftriangles;
T(C)
1.517
37.78
TC 37 .78
3.567 1.517
=
93 .33 37 .78 3.967 1.517
TC
93.33
Figureforinterpolationinexample7.3.
yieldsTC=84.26C
Example7.4
M1
Itisrequiredtomeasuretemperatureintherange50200Cby
meansofathermocouplehavingasensitivityof50V/C1.5%.
+
V
-
+
V1
-
The reference temperature T0 = 0 0.1 C. The available

millivoltmeterhasuncertaintyof40V.Findthetemperature
+ V2 M1
M2
J2
anditsuncertaintyforanoutputof2.5mVand10mV.
V=V1V2=(T1T2);T2=T0=00.1Cand=50V/C
1.5%.
ForV=2.5mV; T =
T=
ForV=10mV;
2.5 x10 3
= 50C;and
50 x10 6
10 x10 3
=
50 x10 6 200C
Afterrearrangingthevoltageequation:
T =
+ T0
T
1 T
V
=
= 2
and T = 1
yielding V ;
T0
V=40V;T0=0.1Cand=1.5x50/100(V/C)=0.75V/C.
Theuncertaintyequation: (T )
T
T
T
2
2
(T0 )2 yields
=
(V ) +
( ) +
V

T0
2
T=1.1C=2.2%forV=2.5mV;andT=3.11C=1.55%forV=10mV
J1
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMISTORS
An individual NTC type thermistor curve shown in Figure 7.2 can be very closely approximated
throughuseoftheSteinhartHartequation:
1
= A + B (ln R ) + C (ln R ) 3
T
where;T=Kelvins,R=Resistanceofthethermistor,andA,B,C=curvefittingconstants
A,B,andCarefoundbyselectingthreedatapointsonthepublisheddatacurveandsolving
the three simultaneous equations. When the data points are chosen to span no more than 100C
withinthenominalcenterofthethermistorstemperaturerange,thisequationapproachesarather
remarkable0.02Ccurvefit.
Somewhat faster computer execution time is achieved through a simpler equation:
T =
1
C
(ln R ) A
whereA,B,andCareagainfoundbyselectingthree(R,T)datapointsandsolvingthethreeresultant
simultaneousequations.Thisequationmustbeappliedoveranarrowertemperaturerangeinorder
toapproachtheaccuracyoftheSteinhartHartequation.
Thermistors are usually designated in accordance with their resistance at 25 C. The most
commonoftheseratingsis2252ohms;amongtheothersare5,000and10,000ohms.Ifnotspecified
to the contrary, most instruments will accept the 2252 type of thermistor. The resistance of the
thermistor (RT) at a temperature T (K) can also be expressed in terms of its resistance R0 at a
referencetemperatureT0(K)as:
RT = R0e
T0 T
TT0
whereisthematerialconstantforthermistor,inkelvins(K).
Thetemperaturecoefficientcanbefoundbydifferentiatingtheaboveequationas,
1
RT
dRT
= 2
T
dT
anditindicatesthatistemperaturedependantanddecreaseswithincreasingtemperature.

ThermistorLinearization
It is difficult to design a linearreading thermometer due to the inherent nonlinearity of the
GT
RP
RT,m
GS
Conductance G
Resistance R
RT
GT,m
Tm
Tm
Temperature ,C
Temperature, C
Figure7.27Thermistorlinearizationbyshuntandseriesconnectedresistors
resistanceversustemperature characteristics of thermistors. Approximate linearization can be

achievedoveralimitedtemperaturerangebyaddingseriesorparallelresistorstothethermistoras
illustrated in Figure 7.27. Both characteristics can be approximated to straight lines around their
turning (inflection) points at T=Tm. The shunt (parallel) compensation is used if the network is fed
from a constant current source and the voltage across is measured. The series combination is the
choicewhenavoltageisappliedtothenetworkandthecurrentpassingthroughisusedtoindicate
thetemperature.
Linearity of the temperature indication is achieved if the inflection point is set to the mid
rangeofthemeasurement.Formedicalapplications,therangeusedisfrom32Cto42Cingeneral.
The resolution however, is 0.1C. Then, 37C is taken as the midrange. The inflection point of any
curvecanbefoundbytakingitssecondderivativeandequatingittozero.Hence,differentiatingthe
equationsfortheequivalentresistancestwiceandequatingthemtozero,wecancalculateproper
valuesofshuntand/orseriesresistors.Thisyields
2TM
RP = RT , M
+ 2TM
whereRT,MistheresistanceofthethermistoratthemidscaletemperatureTM(inKelvin).Inasimilar
manner
2TM
1
= GS = GT , M
RP
+ 2TM

whereGT,MisthethermistorconductanceatTM.
Theimprovedlinearitycomeswithadecreaseintheeffectivetemperaturecoefficientofthe
combinationthatcanbegivenby
eff
eff
2
T
M
=
RT , M

+ 1
R
P
(Parallel)
TM2
=
GT , M

+1
GS
(Series)
Itisreportedthat,withcarefuldesign,themaximumdeviationfromthelinearitycanbe aslowas
0.03Cfora10Cspanand0.1Cforaspanof15C.Morecomplexcircuitarrangementsmustbe
usedforabetterlinearizationoverwidertemperatureranges.
ThermistorThermometry
Inathermistorthermometry,eitherthevoltageacrossorthecurrentthroughthenetworkisusedto
RT or VT
indicate the temperature. Figure 7.28 shows conversion of temperature to voltage using a shunt
R1
VS
R T,m
VT
Tm
RP
RT
50
Temperature, C
Figure7.28Convertingtemperaturetovoltagewithaparallelcompensatedthermistor
compensated thermistor. The characteristic of the equivalent resistance (Reff = Rp//RT) is shown as
dashed line and it is linearized around TM as indicated by the solid line. The output voltage of the
circuitbecomes
VT = VS
Reff
R! + Reff

AndwithR1>>Reff=RT//RP,thevoltagecanbecomputedusing
VT
VS
Reff
R1

thatindicatesalinearrelationshipbetweenthevoltageandtheresistance.
R2
R1
VS
- VT +
VA
Voltage V
Theaboveequationdoesntyieldalinearrelationshipbetweenthetemperatureandthevoltage.It
VA
VB
VB
VT
R3
RP
RT
50
Temperature, C
Figure7.29Convertingtemperaturetovoltagewithabridgenetwork
maybecomelineararoundthemidrangeifthevoltageVTissubtractedfromVT(0C).Thiscanbeeasily
managedusingthebridgenetworkshowninFigure7.29. 1ThevoltageVAisthesameasVTinFigure
7.28.Thebalancingvoltage
VB =
VS R3
R2 + R3
As this voltage is set to the value of VA at 0C, the bridge voltage VT = ST, where S is the
sensitivityofthesystemandTisthetemperatureindegreeCelsius.Theactualresponseisillustrated
bythedashedlineinthefigure.Theerrorduetolinearizationincreasesaswegoawayfromthemid
point.ThesensitivitySaroundthemidpointis
S =
VS
Reff eff
R1
where Reff and eff are the effective resistance and temperature coefficient for the shunt
compensatedthermistor.
The bridge circuit will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. Readers who do not have prior familiarity with
such circuits are recommended to read the related section of the next chapter first.

The series compensated thermistor can also be used to obtain an output voltage
proportionaltothetemperature.AnexampleisshowninFigure7.30.Theinvertingterminalofthe
operationalamplifier(opamp)behavesasavirtualground.Thecurrentthroughthethermistoris
Rf
I1
RT
V1
G or current I
R1
V2
If
RS
IT
+
V0
Linearized IT
(G T + GS) or IT
Tm
Temperature, C
Figure7.30Athermometerbasedonaseriescompensatedthermistor
IT =
V1
= V1Geff
RT + RS
anditflowsthroughthefeedbackresistorRftogetherwiththecurrentI1yieldingtheoutputvoltage,
V0 = R f (I1 + IT ) = R f 2 + V1Geff
R1
Thesensitivityoftheoutputvoltagetotemperatureis(aroundthemidrange)
dG
dV0
= S = R f V1 eff = R f V1Geff eff
dT
dT
where Geff and eff are the effective conductance and temperature coefficient for the series
compensatedthermistor.ScanbesettoanyvaluebyadjustingtheRfandV1.Theoutputvoltagecan
indicatethetemperatureinCifV2andR1areselectedtohave
V1
V2
=
R1 RS + RT
T = 0 C
PROBLEMSONTEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTS
ReviewQuestions
1. Whatisthetemperatureandhowitcanbeusedasanindicatoroftheheatenergy?
2. Whatarethecommonlyusedtemperaturescalesandhowtheyarerelatedtoeachother?
3. Whatisthethermodynamicscaleandhowitisexpressed?
4. Whatisthesignificanceofareferencetemperature?
5. Whatarethereferencetemperaturesusedinpractice?
6. Whatarethecommonlyusedtemperaturemeasuringdevices?
7. Whatisathermocoupleandhowitworks?
8. Whataretheresistancetemperaturedevices?
9. Whatisathermistorandhowthentcandptctypesdifferfromeachother?
10. Whatistheselfheatingprobleminthermistorthermometry?
11. What is the radiation detector (infrared sensor) and how it can be used for temperature
measurement?
12. Whataretheintegratedcircuit(I.C.)sensorsusedfortemperaturemeasurement?
13. Howabimetallicdeviceisusedintemperaturesensing?
14. Whatisthefunctionofabimetallicdeviceintemperaturesensing?
15. Whatarethefluidexpansiondevicesandhowitcanbeusedintemperaturemeasurement?
16. What are the chemical (changeofstate) sensors and they are used in temperature
measurement?
17. Howcanyoucompareandcontrastpracticaltemperaturemeasurementdevices?
18. Howdoyoumeasuretemperatureusingthermocouples?
19. Whataretheempiricallawsofthermocouples?
20. Howcanyoumeasurethethermocouplevoltageusingadigitalvoltmeter(DVM)?
21. Whyisthereferencejunctionisimportantintemperaturemeasurementusingthermocouples?.
22. Howdoesareferencecircuitreplacethefunctionofthereferencejunction?
23. Howdoesthesoftwarecompensationtechniquereplacethefunctionofthereferencejunction?
24. Whyarethermocouplescommonlyusedintemperaturemeasurements?
25. Why are the thermistors used for temperature measurement although their characteristics are
nonlinear?
26. Howcanyoulinearizethermistors?
27. Howdoesthethermistorthermometrywork?

40
1. Resistance versus temperature characteristic of a
thermistorcurvecanbeverycloselyapproximated
throughuseoftheSteinhartHartequation:
1
= A + B (ln RT ) + C (ln RT )3
T
Thermistor resistance (kilo ohm)
typical thermistor is shown in the figure. The

30
20
10
where; T = Kelvins, RT = Resistance of the thermistor,

andA,B,C=curvefittingconstants.
0
a. Show that the equation can be converted
RT = R0e
T0 T
TT0
20
40
Temperature (degree Celcius)
Figureforquestion1
to
(
-20
where RT is the resistance of the thermistor at a temperature T (K) and R0 is its resistance at a
referencetemperatureT0(K)(assumingthatthecoefficientCinthepreviousequationisnegligible)
1
= A + B(ln RT )
T
1
= A + B(ln R0 )
Ans. T0
Rearranging the equation and taking the exponential of both sides and
_______________
1 1
R
= B ln T
T T0
R0
letting=1/Byieldstherequiredresult.
2. Foragiventhermistor=3420Kandtheresistanceat25Cis5.00k1%. Thethermistoris
usedforatemperaturemeasurementandtheresistancemeasuredis23154.Calculatethe
temperatureanditsuncertainty.
Ans.
;1/T=0.003131,T=319.43K=46C;wecanusethe"goalseek"functionofthe
EXCELaswell.
Uncertaintyinmeasuringtheresistanceis400/2315=0.17%,uncertaintyinRT/R0is1.17%thatwill
betheuncertaintyinTaswell.

3. A thermopile is formed as shown in the
Con
figure. It has five junctions including the

ones
inside
the
isothermal
Cu
block.
Cu
Fe
Thermocouple data are given for copper
D
Con
constantan (CuCon; type T) and iron

constantan(FeCon;typeJ)pairsinmillivolt
RT
A
F
Cu
Cu
(mV)inthetable.Theisothermalblockisat
+ET -
Isothermal
Block
25C.Athermalresistorisalsoplacedinto
Figureforquestion3
theisothermalblock.
TemperaturesatjunctionsCandDare180Cand275Crespectively.VoltagesacrossjunctionsB
andEareVB=VFeCon=5.27mVandVE=VCuCon=4.00mV.FindthevoltagesacrossC[VC=VCuCon]and
Tableforthermocoupledatainquestion3
T(C)
Cu-Con
Fe-Con
-50
-1.766
-2.40
0
0
0
25
1.004
1.28
50
2.056
2.59
100
4.289
5.27
150
6.704
8.00
200
9.297
10.79
300
14.947
16.33
400
27.428
D[VD=VCuCu]andtemperaturesatBandE.
a. FindthevoltagesdevelopedacrossjunctionsA(VA=VCuFe)andF(VF=VCuCon).(Hint:use
the low of inserted metals for
junction A.) Calculate the output
Metal A
Metal B
voltageET.
b. A resistance temperature device is
placed on the isothermal block.
RT = R0[1 + (T T0 )] where R0 = 100 at
B A
Metal
Metal C
150
Metal C
300
Figureforproblem2b.
10V
A
+ V0 -
T0=0Cand=4x104/C.CalculateRTandits
sensitivitytoTattheT=25C.
c. Assume RT is placed into one arm of the
RT
200
D
Wheatstone bridge as shown in the figure.

Calculatethebridgevoltageat0Cand25C.
Ans.Forthethermopile:
Figureforquestion3c

VC = VCuCon = (9.2976.704)x30/50 + 6.704 = 8.26 mV; VD = VCuCu = 0 mV; TB = 100C and TE = 50 +
50x(4.002.056)/(4.2892.056)=93.53C.
VA=VCuFe=VCuCon+VConFe=1.0041.28=0.276mV;VF=VCuCon=1.004mV.ET=1.0044.00+0+
8.265.27+0.276=0.27mV.
RT = R0[1 + (T T0 )] whereR0=100atT0=0Cand=3.92x104/C.
RT=100(1+0.01)=101andRT/T=R0=0.04/C.
RT
200
yields0mVand23.9mVat0Cand25Crespectively.
V0 = Eb
RT + 150 500
GeneralQuestions
1. Discusstheproblemofselfheatinginresistancetemperaturedevices.
2. Forathermocouple:
a. Statetheempiricallaws.
b. Explainthecoldjunctionandcoldjunctioncompensationbriefly.
c. What are the similarities and differences between bimetalic temperature sensors and
thermocouples?
d. It is required to measure temperature in the range 50200 C by means of a
thermocouplehavingasensitivityof50V/C1.5%.ThereferencetemperatureT0=0
0.1C.Theavailablemillivoltmeterhasuncertaintyof40V.Findthetemperature
anditsuncertaintyforanoutputof2.5mVand10mV.
3. Atemperaturemeasurementsetupusingaresistancetemperaturesensorisshown.
e. WritedownanexplicitformularelatingV0totemperatureT.R=R0[1+{TT0)]
f.
Showthattheindicatedtemperatureis
T = T0 +
4V0
Eb
iftheeffectofleadresistanceRlisignored.V0isthebridgeoutputvoltage.
g. Describe a resistance thermometer and explain a method for lead resistance (Rl)
compensation.
h. Intheshownresistancethermometerbridge,showthattheactualtemperatureTis

T = T0 +
i.
4V0 2 Rl
Eb R0
Inasimilarcircuit=5x104,R0=100,Rl=0.020,Eb=10V,T0=0CandV0=0.1V.
Find the true and indicated
B
temperatures and the percentage

errorduetoleadresistance.
linear
variation
of
resistance
with
R0
R0
4. A metallic resistance thermometer has a

Eb
+ V0 -
temperature
R=R0[1+{TT0)]
R0
The resistance R0 at temperature T0 = 280K
Rl
0.01KisfoundtobeR0=20k0.1%,whileat
Rl
atemperatureTtheresistanceisfoundtobeR
R0 + R
=30k0.1%.Thecoefficient=0.00392/K
j.
WriteanexplicitexpressionforT.
k. ShowthattheuncertaintyTinTis
Figureforproblem3.
givenby:
1 R
(T ) = (T0 ) + 2
R0
2
l.
R 2 R 2
0 +

R0 R
CalculatethenominalvalueofTanditsuncertainty.
m. Findthestaticsensitivity
R
ofthethermometer.
T
Measurement of Displacement and Mechanical Strain / 350
MEASUREMENTOFDISPLACEMENTANDMECHANICALSTRAIN
DISPLACEMENTSENSORS
ResistiveSensors
InductiveSensors
CapacitiveSensors
PiezoelectricSensors
STRAINGAGES(GAUGES)
MechanicalPrinciples
ElectricalResistanceoftheStrainGageWire
BondedandUnbondedStrainGages
EffectofTemperatureandStraininotherDirections
THEWHEATSTONEBRIDGE
Utilization
CircuitConfiguration
NullmodeofOperation
DeflectionmodeofOperation
BRIDGECONFIGURATIONSFORSTRAINGAGEMEASUREMENTS
BridgewithaSingleActiveElement(QuarterBridge)
BridgewithTwoActiveElements(HalfBridge)
BridgewithFourActiveElements(FullBridge)
GeneralizedInstrumentationSystem
NOVELPRESSURESENSORS
QuantumTunnelingComposites
Applications
Measurement of Displacement and Mechanical Strain/ 351
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1. Describedisplacementsensors.
2. Explaintheresistivedisplacementsensors.
3. Describeinductivedisplacementsensors.
4. Illustratetheprinciplesofcapacitivesensors.
5. Discussapplicationsandlimitationsofpiezoelectricsensors.
6. Expressstrainandstressasimportantmechanicalmeasures.
7. Discussmechanicalprinciplesofstraingages.
8. Explainchangesintheelectricalresistanceofthestraingagewire.
9. Exemplifytheuseofstraingages.
10. Describebondedandunbondedstraingages.
11. Explaintheeffectoftemperatureandstraininotherdirectionsindisplacementmeasurements.
12. Analyzethewheatstonebridge.
13. Discussutilizationofthewheatstonebridge.
14. Designcircuitsinvolvingthewheatstonebridge.
15. Describethenullmodeanddeflectionmodeofoperationofwheatstonebridges.
16. Describe mechanical connection of strain gages and arrangement of bridges for using a single,
doubleandfouractivestraingages.
17. Discusseliminationoftemperatureandunwantedstraininthemeasurementsusingwheatstone
bridges.
18. Recognizequantumtunnelingcomposites.
19. Describeapplicationsofnovelsensors.
DISPLACEMENTSENSORS
Displacement is one of the major mechanical variables that is measured in many engineering
applications.Thedisplacement xisrelatedtovelocityandaccelerationthroughdifferential/integral
operationsasvelocity v=dx/dtandacceleration a=d2x/dt2.Itisconvertedintoelectricalcurrentor
voltage using resistive, inductive, capacitive and piezoelectric sensors and related circuitries. This
chapterwillbriefthecommonlyusedsensorsfordisplacementandmechanicalstrain.
ResistiveSensors
Resistivesensorscanbedividedintotwogroupsaspotentiometersandstraingages.Potentiometers
willbediscussedbelowandstraingageswillbetreatedinaseparatesection.
Potentiometers
translational
are
and
used
for
rotational
displacements as illustrated Figure

8.1.
(b)Rotational
(a)
i l t
(c)Helical
Figure8.1Potentiometertypedisplacementtransducers
In
translational
type
potentiometer (a), the resistance

between the wiper and the
referenceterminal
Ri=kxi
and
v0=vsRi/R=(kvs/R)xi
R is the total resistance of the potentiometer and xi is the displacement, provided that there is no
instrumentloading.
In the rotational type (b), the output voltage becomes proportional to the angular
displacement i. The resolution of the measurement depends upon the area covered by the wiper
arm.Theresolutioncanbeimprovedbyusinghelicalmultiturnpotentiometersasillustratedin(c).
InductiveSensors
Inductanceisdefinedas
L=n2G
Where
n=numberofturnsofcoil
G=geometricformfactor
=effectivepermeability
We can obtain
a
change
in
the
inductanceLbyvarying
any one of the three
defining
(a)
Self (b)
Mutual
(c)
inductance
transformer
Figure8.2Inductivetypedisplacementsensors
Differential
parameters.
The change can be

induced
as
self
inductance (Figure
8.2(a))
and
inductance.
Variable
mutual
The
Linear
Differential
Transformer(LVDT)shownin
Figure 8.2(c)) is the mostly
used inductive transducer.
Theinputcoilofthedeviceis
excited with an alternating
voltage. The displacement of
the core causes variation in
the magnitude of the output
voltage as illustrated in
Figure
8.3.
The
output
voltage is zero as the core is

inthecenter.Themagnitude
Figure8.3CharacteristicsofaLVDT
of the output increases as

the core moves away from
thecenter.However,theincreaseisinphasewiththeinputasthecoretravelsupandoutofphase
asthecoremovesdown.Aphasesensitivedemodulatordecodesthesignalandproducesavoltage
proportionaltothedisplacementofthecore.

CapacitiveSensors
i
i
+
v
C
1
dv/dt
(a) Two parallel plates
(b)Symbolofacapacitor
(c) Transfer characteristic of a

capacitor
formingacapacitance
Figure8.4Capacitivetypedisplacementsensoritssymbolandcharacteristic
Capacitors store energy in the electrical field between two plates and the capacitance is
definedby
C=0rA/x
Where
0=dielectriccoefficientoftheair
r=relativedielectriccoefficientofthemediumbetweenplates
A=Areacommonbetweenplates
x=distancebetweenplates
We can change the capacitance by changing any one of the defining parameters. In many
applications,oneofthecapacitanceplatesiskeptfixedwhiletheotheronecanmove.Sensitivityof
thesensorforadisplacementchange(x)isdefinedas
sensitivit y = K =
C
A
= 0 r 2
x
x
Yielding
dC
C
= or
dx
x
dC
dx
=
C
x
Theelectricalchargeinacapacitorisdefinedas
Q = CV
WhereCisthecapacitanceinfaradandVisthevoltageinvoltyieldingthechargeQincoulomb.The
currentinthecapacitoristherateofchangeofthecharge,thatis
i=
dQ
dC
dV
E dx
dV
= V1
+ C 1 = C
+C 1
dt
dt
dt
x0 dt
dt
Figure 8.5 shows an application of the
capacitive
sensor
in
measuring
dynamic
displacementchanges.Theoutputvoltageoccurs
across the input resistance of the amplifier. The
sensorcapacitanceholdstheexcitationvoltage E
Figure8.5Capacitivesensorformeasuringdynamic
whenthereisnochangeinthedisplacementand
displacementchanges
theoutputvoltageiszero.Acurrentinthesensor
isgeneratedasthedisplacementxvariesyielding
anoutputvoltage.
v0 = iR = v1 E and dv0
dt
dv1
dt
Combiningthepreviousequations
v0 = RC
E dx
dv
RC 0
x0 dt
dt
Reorganizingtheaboveyieldsthedifferentialequation
RC
dv0
E dx
+ v0 = RC
dt
x0 dt
Thetransferfunctionbecomes
V0 ( j )
=
X ( j )
( E ) j
x0
R A
where = RC = 0 r
x0
j + 1

Thisisacharacteristicofahighpassfilter.Hence,thesensorisusefulatfrequenciesabove
the cutoff frequency of C =
resistanceoftheamplifier.
1
, C is the nominal capacitance of the sensor and R is the input
RC

PiezoelectricSensors
Certain crystals generate electrical charges as they are exposed to external forces as illustrated in
Figure8.6.Thecharge qisproportional
totheappliedforceas
q=kf
Figure8.6Symbolicrepresentationofapiezoelectriccrystal
k being the piezoelectric constant in

Coulomb/Newton.
These
sensors
generatevoltageoutputs withoutrequiringexternalelectricalpowersupplies.Sensorsdiscussedin
previous sections have been passive devices that necessitate external electrical supplies for
generating electrical outputs. The voltage across the opposite terminals of the device can be
expressedas
v=
kf
kfx
=
C 0 r A
Thecrystalcanbemodeledasa
charge generator in parallel with a

resistor and capacitor. The cable
connecting the crystal to the amplifier
Figure8.7Modelofthepiezoelectriccrystal
behaves as a capacitor. The amplifier

can be represented by an input
capacitor in parallel with the input resistor. Figure 8.7 shows the overall equivalent circuit. The
externally applied force causes a displacement x and the charge can be redefined in terms of this
displacementas
q=Kx
KbeinganewproportionalityconstantinCoulomb/meter.
Themodelcanbesimplifiedasshown
inFigure8.8bycombiningthecapacitiveand
resistive elements. Rate of change of the
displacement is the velocity. The rate of
Figure8.8Simplifiedmodelofapiezoelectriccrystal
changeofthechargeistheelectricalcurrent.
Hence,thecurrentcomingoutofthesensoris
proportionaltothevelocity.
is =
dq
dx
=K
= iC + iR
dt
dt
Thevoltagedevelopedis
1
v0 = vC = ( ) iC dt
C

Thedifferentialequationcanbeobtainedfromtheprevioustwoequationsas
ic = is iR = C (
dv0
dx v0
)=K
dt
xt R
Theequationleadstothetransferfunction
V0 ( j ) K S j
=
X ( j ) j + 1
WithKs=K/C(V/m)and=RC(s).Thisisacharacteristicofahighpassfilter.
Figure8.9 Thehighfrequencymodel(a)andfrequencyresponse(b)ofapiezelectricsensor
ThehighfrequencymodelandfrequencyresponseofapiezoelectricsensorisgiveninFigure
8.9. RS is the sensor leakage resistance and CS the capacitance. Lm, Cm and Rm represent the
mechanical system. Mechanical resonance occurs at certain frequency that depends on the crystal
materialandgeometry.Thecrystalcanbeusedasadisplacementsensorfromthecutofffrequency
fsuptotheonsetoftheresonance.
At the resonance frequency, the crystal oscillates mechanically as excited electrically and
oscillateselectricallyasexcitedmechanically.Thecrystalisusedinultrasonicwavegenerationand
detection.Also,duetothesharpresonancecharacteristics,thecrystalbecomesapartofoscillators.
STRAINGAGES(GAUGES)
MechanicalPrinciples
Tensionandcompression
T
L
A bar of metal as shown in Figure 8.10 is subjected to a force (T) that will
elongate its dimension along the long axis that is called the axial direction.
D
This force is called the tension. If the force acts in opposite direction and
Figure8.10Ametal
bar
shortensthelength,thiscalledthecompression.
Stress
Stressisdefinedastheforceperunitarea.Hence,thetension Tproducesan
A
L
axialstressasillustratedinFigure8.11,
a=T/A(N/m2)
T
Figure8.11Barwith
whereAisthecrosssectionalarea.Dimensionofstressisthesameasthatof
tension
thepressure.
Strain
Thestressgenerateschangesinthedimensionsofthebarasshownin
L+dL
Figure 8.12. The fractional change in length is defined as the strain.

dL
Thechangeinthedirectionoftheforceiscalledtheaxialstrain
T
Figure8.12Thestrain
a=dL/L(m/m)
Dimensionofstrainisunity,i.e.strainisdimensionless.
Hookeslaw
Stressislinearlyrelatedtostrainforelasticmaterials.TheHookeslawmathematicallyexpressesthis
relationship,
a=a/Ey=(T/A)/Ey
where Ey is called the modulus of elasticity, also called the Youngs modulus. The relationship
betweentheaxialstress aandaxialstrain aisdisplayedinFigure8.4.Ithastwodistinctregionsas
the elastic (linear) and plastic (deformation). In the elastic range, the change is reversible,while in
theplasticrangethechangeisirreversible.TableinFigure8.13indicateselasticpropertiesofsome
materialscommonlyusedinengineeringapplications.Theslopeofthecharacteristic(ratioofchange
in stress to strain) is the Youngs modulus and it is fairly constant if the stress remains below the

Breaking
point
Stress
( a)
Elastic
Limit
Strain
Elastic
Region
Plastic
Region
(a)
Material
Aluminum
Brass
Glass
Iron
Phosphor bronze
Steel
E y, N/m2 Elastic limit Breaking strength

2
2
a N/m
u N/m
10
8
8
7x10
2.0x10
2.2x10
10
8
9x10
3.9x10
4.7x108
10
8
8
5x10
8x10
10x10
10
8
18x10
1.5x10
3.0x108
10
8
10x10
4.2x10
5.6x108
10
8
8
20x10
9.0x10
11.0x10
Elastic properties of some materials
Figure8.13Thestressstrainrelationshipandelasticpropertiesofsomematerials
elasticlimit.Theaxialstrainisinbetween106and103inmostengineeringapplications.Thestrainis
expressedintermsofmicrostrain(strain)and
1strain=1m/m=106
Transversestrain
Thetensionthatproducesastrainintheaxialdirectioncausesanotherstrainalongthetransverse
axis(perpendiculartotheaxialaxis)as
t=dD/D
ThisisrelatedtotheaxialstrainthroughacoefficientknownasthePoissonsratioas
dD/D=dL/L
Thenegativesignindicatesthattheactionisinreversedirection,thatis,asthelengthincreases,the
diameterdecreasesandviceversa.Formostmetalsisaround0.3intheelasticregionand0.5in
theplasticregion.
ElectricalResistanceoftheStrainGageWire
TheresistanceofthebarshowninFigure8.10isdefinedby
R=L/A
Here,allthreedefiningparameters,theresistivity,thelengthLandthecrosssectionalareaAcan
change under the stress. Therefore, the change in the resistance can be obtained using the partial
differentialequationasfollows:
dR =
R
R
R
d +
dL +
dA
L
A
Ityields;

dR =
L
d + dL 2 dA
A
A
A

anddividingbothsidesbyR:
dR d dL dA
=
+
L
A
With
A=r2=(/4)D2
dA/A=2dD/D
and
dD/D=dL/L
Therelativechangeinresistancebecomes
dR d dL
=
+
(1 + 2 )
R
The first term d/ is called the piezoresistive effect and the second term
dL
(1 + 2 ) is
L
calledthedimensionaleffect.Theratiooftherelativechangeinresistancetorelativechangeinthe
length(axialstrain)iscalledthegagefactorK,
dR/R
semiconductors
metals
dL/L
Figure8.14Thegagefactor
K=(dR/R)/(dL/L)=(dR/R)/a
For wire type strain gages the second effect will be dominant
yielding K2andforheavilydopedsemiconductortypegagesthe
second effect is dominant yielding K that ranges between 50 and
200.ThevariationoftherelativechangeinresistancewiththeaxialstrainisshowninFigure8.14.
The metal gages have low gage factors, but linear characteristics. The semiconductor gages have
paraboliccharacteristicsthatcanbeapproximatedtolinearinanarrowrangearoundtheorigin.The
differentialchange dRcanbereplacedbytheincrementalchangeRinthislinearregion.Then,the
relativechangeinresistance
R/R=Ka
anditcanbecalculatedeasilyifthegagefactorKandstrainaaregiven.

Examples
Example8.1
Aphosphorbronzewire,1.0mm2incrosssectionarea,issubjectedtoatensileforceof10N.Using
thedatainthetablegivenpreviously;
Howmuchistheaxialstress?
Axialstressa=T/A=10N/106m2=10x106N/m2
Whatisitselongationifthewireis10mlong?
Axialstraina=l/l=a/Ey=(10x106)/(10x1010)=104=100strain;l=lxa=10x104m=1.0mm
(change in length is four order of magnitude smaller than the original one and most mechanical
displacementmeasuringdevicescantmeasurethis)
Howmuchforceisrequiredtobreakthewire?
Thebreakingstress=5.6x108N/m2=TB/A;TB=5.6x108x106=560N
HowmuchisthechangeinresistanceandvalueoftheresistanceunderstressifK=2and
untrainedresistanceofthewireis100?Ans.R/R=Ka=2x104yieldingR=0.02and
Rstress=100.02(mostohmmetersdonothavethisprecision!)
Example8.2
A strain gage has a gage factor 2 and exposed to an axial strain of 300 m/m. The unstrained
resistanceis350.Findthepercentageandabsolutechangesintheresistance.
a=300m/m=0.3x103;R/R=Ka=0.6x103yielding%agechange=0.06%andR=350x0.6x103
=0.21.
Example8.3
A strain gage has an unstrained resistance of 1000 and gage factor of 80. The change in the
resistance is 1 when it is exposed to a strain. Find the percentage change in the resistance, the
percentagechangeinthelengthandtheexternalstrain(m/m)
R/R(%)=0.1%;L/L(%)=[R/R(%)]/K=1.25x103%,anda=[L/L(%)]/100=1.25x105=12.5
m/m

BondedandUnbondedStrainGages
Resistive
Wires
Backing
TheBondedgage
A strain gage consists of a small diameter wire (an etched metal
Connecting wires
foilinreality),whichisattachedtothebackingmaterial(usuallya
plastic) as illustrated in Figure 8.15. The wire is looped back and
forth several times to produce and effectively longer wire. The
combination(elasticconductorofthestraingageandthebacking)
is bound to the specimen with insulating cement under noload
conditions as shown in Figure 8.16. A load is applied, which
Direction of strain
Figure8.15Abondedgage
producesadeformationinboththespecimenandtheresistance
element. This deformation is indicated through measurement of
the change in resistance of the element and calculation
Solid (fixed) platform
proceduresthatwillbedescribedlater.
The bonded type strain gages come in different shapes
Beam
Strain
Gage
and combinations to detect the strain in various applications.

Gagefactoristypicallyaround2.0.Theelectricalresistanceofthe
unstrained gage is typically 120 or 350 . 600 and 700
gagesarealsoavailable.
Figure8.16Fixingthegage
TheUnbondedgage
Poles
Unbondedstraingagesareformedofprestrainedresistivewiresfixedbetween
twopolesasshowninFigure8.17.Thechangeinpositionofoneofthepoles
increasesanddecreasesthestrainthatisindicatedthroughthemeasurement
oftheresistanceasinthecaseofthebondedtype.
Prestrained
resistive wire
Figure8.17
EffectofTemperatureandStraininotherDirections
Thetemperatureaffectsallresistiveelementsas
R = R0[1 + (T T0 )]
R0istheresistanceatT0andisthetemperaturecoefficient.Thisisverymuchpronouncedincase
ofsemiconductorgagesduetohightemperaturecoefficient.
Thestraingagehasthehighestsensitivityagainstthestrainincertaindirection.However,it
alsohassensitivitytostrainsfromotherdirections.Thestraingagemanufacturersgenerallyspecify

this. Eventually, the change in the resistance can be expressed as the sum of resistance changes
imposedbythewantedstrain(sw),unwantedstrain(su)andtemperature(T).
R=Rsw+Rsu+RT
The effect of unwanted strain and temperature must be eliminated before the resistance
changeisusedtoindicatethestrain.
THEWHEATSTONEBRIDGE
B
Utilization
The conventional methods for measuring the
R1
resistance involves application of a fixed

current and measuring the voltage developed,
or application of a fixed voltage and measure
Eb
A
R2
Ig
C
Rg
the resultant current. The relative change in

the resistance of the strain gage R/R is so
R4
R3
small that the variation in the measured

voltage or current remains within the
uncertainty
range.
Hence,
conventional
D
Figure8.18 TheWheatstonebridge
methods cannot be used directly. The

Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 8.18 is a technique commonly used to measure changes in
resistancesaccurately.
CircuitConfiguration
The bridge has a voltage source Eb and four arms with resistances as shown in Figure 8.18. The
voltage source is connected between B and D to supply the
B
R2
R1
bridge.TheoutputistakenbetweenAandC.Theoutputmay
driveamovingcoilmeterorappliedtoavoltmeter.
Eb
The output voltage E0 = VAC. The circuit can be redrawn as
+ VAC R4
+
VC
-
+
VA
D
Figure8.19
shown in Figure 8.19 assuming the open circuit case at the

R3
moment(Rg).VoltageacrossR4is
VA=EbxR4/(R1+R4)
similarly

VC=EbxR3/(R2+R3)
yielding
E0=VAC=VAVC= Eb (
R4
R3
R2 R4 R1 R3
) = Eb
R1 + R4 R2 + R3
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )
NullmodeofOperation
Atbalance
B
R2R4=R1R3orR1/R4=R2/R3
andtheoutputvoltageiszero.Thiscondition
canbeusedtodeterminetheexactvalueof
anunknownresistor.Itisplacedintoonethe
R2 =
600
R1 =
1000
Eb =
10 V
Ig
A
arms and others are adjusted until a zero

volt is obtained at the output. This is called
thenullmodeofoperationasillustratedin
Figure8.20.
Example8.4
R4 =
Rx
R3
Figure8.20Circuitfornullmode
AssumethatthebridgeshowninFigure8.20
is used to determine the resistance of an unknown resistance Rx. The variable resistance is the
resistanceboxthatallowsselectionofseveralresistorsinseriestoobtainthetotalresistanceanditis
set until null position in the meter observed. Calculate the unknown resistance if the variable
resistancesettingindicates625.4.
Accordingtoformulastatedabove,thebridgewillbebalancedif R1/R4=R2/R3.Hence, R4=
Rx=R1/(R2/R3)=1000x625.4/600=1042.3.
DeflectionmodeofOperation
All resistors can very around their nominal values as R1 + R1, R2 + R2, R3 + R3 and R4 + R4.
Sensitivityoftheoutputvoltagetoeitheroneof theresistancescanbefoundusingthe sensitivity
analysisasfollows:
S R1 =
E0
R3 ( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 ) ( R2 + R3 )(( R2 R4 + R1 R3 )
R4
= Eb
= Eb
2
2
R1
( R1 + R4 ) ( R2 + R3 )
( R1 + R4 ) 2
Similarly,

S R2 =
E
E 0
R3
R2
E
R1
S R 4 = 0 = Eb
= Eb
S R 3 = 0 = Eb
2
2
R4
( R1 + R4 ) 2
R2
( R2 + R3 ) ,
R3
( R2 + R3 ) ,
If more than one element changes together, the output can be computed through
superposition. The sensitivity is not constant indicating that the outputinput relationship is not
linear.Itcanbeapproximatedbyalinearcharacteristiconlyinanarrowrangearoundthebalance
condition.Hence,thesensitivityanalysisassumessmalldisturbancesaroundthenominalvalueandit
may yield large errors if the disturbance is large enough and becomes comparable to the nominal
value.
B
RTh
Ig
Its Thevenin equivalent circuit

shown in Figure 8.21 can replace the
ETh = E0
bridge. The equivalent Thevenin
Rg
A
+
Eg
-
R1
R4
R2
D
R3
R Th
voltageis
Figure8.21Theequivalentcircuitofthebridge
ETh=E0=VAC(opencircuit)
Theequivalentresistance;RTh=R1//R4+R2//R3
ThecurrentthroughRg;Ig=E0/(RTh+Rg)
andvoltageacrossRg;Eg=E0Rg/(RTh+Rg)
In case of opencircuit (Rg) Eg = E0. This output voltage causes deflection of the needle in a
movingcoilmeterwhenapplied.
InitiallyR1R3=R2R4andthebridgeatbalanceyieldingEg=0andIg=0.AtaslightunbalanceRI
RI+ RIwhereRI<<RI,theresistanceisslightlychangedwhile Egisdrasticallychanged(from0

tosomefinitevalue).
Example8.5
Given Eb=10V, Rg=50,thebridgeisinitiallybalancedwith R1=R2=R3=R4=R=1000.The
bridgeisunbalancedbyR1=1,R2=1,R3=2,R4=1.FindthecurrentIgthroughexact
andapproximatemethodsanddeterminethepercentageerrorinthecurrentwhentheapproximate
methodisused.Assumethatthemeasurementisidealandnomeasurementerrorismade.
Exactsolution

E 0 = Eb
R2 R4 R1 R3
( R + R2 )( R + R4 ) ( R + R1 )( R + R3 )
= Eb
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )
( R + R1 + R + R4 )( R + R2 + R + R3 ) thatgives
E0 = 10
999 x999 1001x1002

= 12.49625 mV
(1001 + 999)(999 + 1002)
RTh = R1//R4 + R2//R3 =
( R + R1 )( R + R4 ) ( R + R2 )( R + R3 )
=1001x999/2000 +
+
( 2 R + R1 + R4 )
( 2 R + R2 + R3 )
999x1002/2001=499.9995+500.2489=1000.2484
Ig=E0/(RTh+Rg)=12.49625/1050.2484=11.8988A
Approximatesolution1
E 0 = Eb
( R + R2 )( R + R4 ) ( R + R1 )( R + R3 )
R4 + R2 R1 R3
Eb
= 12 .5 mV
( R + R1 + R + R4 )( R + R2 + R + R3 )
4R
Thisisobtainedafterignoringthecrosstermsin Rsinthenumeratorandalsoignoring Rsinthe

denominatorascomparedto2R.
RThR/2+R/2=1000yieldingIg=12.5/1050=11.9048A
%ageerrorinIg=100x(11.9048+11.8988)/(11.8988)=0.05398%
Approximatesolution2
Usingthesensitivityanalysis, E0=E0=(E0/R1)R1+(E0/R2)R2+(E0/R3)R3+(E0/R4)R4=
(Eb/4000)[1121]=12.5mV; RTh =1000asaboveyieldingthesameresultastheapproximate

solution1.
Solid platform
Strain Q
gage
BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS FOR STRAIN GAGE

MEASUREMENTS
BridgewithaSingleActiveElement(QuarterBridge)
W
Cantilever
Figure8.22Thecantilever
PhysicalConnection
The strain gage is exposed to the force that causes the stress in
varietyofways.ThecantilevertypeshowninFigure8.22isonethe
mostfamous.Theleverisfixedtoasolidplatformandaforce Qis
appliedtoitsfreeend.Thisforcecausestensioninthegagewhenappliedinthedirectionshownand
causesanincreaseinitsresistance(Rpositive).Astheforceisappliedintheoppositedirection,it
producescompressioninthegagethatproducesadecreaseinitsresistance(Rnegative).
ConfiguringtheBridge
The strain gage is placed into one of the bridge arms

R1
and other three arms are completed with fixed

resistors as shown in Figure 8.23. R4 is taken as the
Eb
A
R2
Ig
C
Rg
strain gage. R3 is made variable to balance (null) the

bridge when there is no force applied (silent
condition).Thisisneededsincetheresistorsusedhave
R3
R4 = Rx
tolerancesandexactmatchingisverydifficult.
Figure8.23Aquarterbridge
AnalysisoftheCircuit
LetR1=R2=R3=RandR4=Rx=R+R=R(1+R/R),andletx=R/R.TheopencircuitvoltageE0=0
atbalance(R=0).Atslightunbalance(R0)
E0 = Eb
R2 R4 R1R3
R( R + R) R 2
R
= Eb
= Eb
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )
( R + R + R)( R + R)
2(2 R + R)
Afterreplacingx=R/R,
E0 = Eb
x
x
= Eb
x
2(2 + x)
4(1 + )
2
ThedenominatorcanbeexpendedusingTaylorseriesas
x
x x2
(1 + ) 1 = 1 +
...
2
2 4

Then
E0 =
Eb
x 2 x3
( x + ...)
4
2
4
Sincex<<1,higherordertermscanbeneglectedyielding
E0
Eb
E R
x= b
4
4 R
Sensitivityanalysiscanalsobeused. S R 4 =
E0 = R4 S R 4 = Eb
E 0
R1
wasgivenpreviously.Hence,
= Eb
R4
( R1 + R4 ) 2
R
E R
R = b
2
( R + R)
4 R
EffectofTemperatureandTensileStrain
The change in the resistance can be expressed as the sum of resistance changes imposed by the
wantedstrain(sw),unwantedstrain(su)andtemperature(T)asstatedbefore.Qisthewantedstrain
and W(tensile)istheunwantedstraininthiscase.Hence, R= RQ+ RW+ RTasalreadystated.
Theeffectofunwantedstrainandtemperaturemustbeeliminated.Thecircuitasitisprovidesno
compensation. Using a second strain gage of the same type for R1 can compensate effect of
temperature. This second gage can be placed at a silent location within the sensor housing, hence
keptatthesametemperatureasthefirstone.Asaresult,both R1and R4havethesameamountof
changes due to temperature that cancel each other in the equation yielding perfect temperature
compensation.
Example8.6
Eb=4V,Rg=50,R1=R4=120,R2=R3=100atbalance(noload).R4isusedasthestraingage
withgagefactorK=2.FindthegalvanometercurrentIgfora=400m/m.
Solution:R/R=K=2x4x104=8x104;R=RK=120x8x104=0.096.
Exactcalculation:
RTh=(120x120.096)/240.096+50=110.02399
0.7996 x103
120 .096 x100 120 x100
= 4.9967 A
E0 = 4{
= 0.7996 mV ; I g =
110.02399 + 50
(120 .096 + 120 )(100 + 100 )
Approximatecalculation:
RTh=(120x120)/240+50=110 E0 =
ThepercentageerrorinIg=
0.8 x103
Eb R
4
;
I
=
= 5 A ,
= 8 x10 V = 0.8 mV g
110 + 50
4 R
5 4.9967
x100 < 0.065 %
4.9967
Strain Q
gages
BridgewithTwoActiveElements(HalfBridge)
PhysicalConnection
Twostraingagesarefixedtooppositesurfacesofthecantileveras
W
Cantilever
Figure8.24
shown in Figure 8.24. The force, when applied in the direction

shown,causestensioninthegageonthetopsurface(R+ RQ)and
compressiononthegageatthebottomsurface(RRQ).Thetensile
force W causes (R + RW) on both gages. The temperature also
produces(R+RT)onbothgages.
ConfiguringtheBridge
ThestraingagesareplacedintotwoneighboringarmsofonebranchofthebridgeasshowninFigure
8.25.Theotherbranchiscompensatedbytwoequalvaluefixedresistors.IntheFigureR1andR4are
taken as the strain gages. R3 is made variable to balance (null) the bridge when there is no force
applied(silentcondition).
AnalysisoftheCircuit
Let R2 = R3 = R; R1 = R R; R4 = R + R, the open
R1
R-R
circuit voltage E0 = 0 at balance (R = 0). At slight

unbalance(R0)
Eb
A
R2
Ig
C
Rg
E 0 = Eb
R2 R4 R1 R3
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )
= Eb
R ( R + R ) R ( R R )
( R R + R + R )( R + R )
= Eb
2 R Eb R
=
4R
2 R
R4
R+R
R3
D
Figure8.25Circuitforthehalfbridge
The expression yields exact result without any approximation. The output voltage is doubled
comparedtothecaseofsingleelement.
RTh =
R 2
( R R)( R + R) R
+ = R(1
)
2R
2
2 R 2
with R<<R,RTh R.Hence,theerrorinacceptingtheapproximatesolution(onlyfor RTh,since E0is

exact)isnegligible.EffectsofwantedandunwantedstrainsandtemperatureareillustratedinFigure
Wanted
strain
Unwanted
strain
8.26 for the measuring gages of Figure 8.25.

Temperature
Temperatureandunwantedtensilestrainwillhave
no effect on the output voltage since they are
completelycompensatedasfollows:
R4
R1
E0 =
Eb
( R4 R3 ) (from
4R
the
sensitivity
analysis)
Figure8.26Effectsofwantedandunwantedstrains
andtemperatureonmeasuringgages
R4= RQ+RW+ RT,and R3=RQ+RW+ RT

yielding the bridge equation for the halfbridge
configurationas
E0 =
Eb
E R
( R4 R3 ) = b
4R
2 R
BridgewithFourActiveElements(FullBridge)
Q
R2
All four arms of the bridge are made up of strain gages that are
R4
affectedbytheexternalstrain.Twogagesarefixedoneitherofthe
R1 R3
opposite surfaces of the cantilever as shown in Figure 8.27. The

force,whenappliedinthedirectionshown,causestensionongages
Figure8.27
atthetopsurface(R+RQ)andcompressionongagesatthebottom
surface(R RQ).Thetensileforce Wcauses(R+ RW)
onallgages.Thetemperaturealsoproduces(R+ RT)
onallgages.
Eb
Thestraingagesthatareworkingtogetherare
R2
R+R
R1
R-R
Ig
placed into opposite (nonneighboring) arms of the

bridge as shown in Figure 8.28. The strain gage
C
Rg
R4
R+R
R3
R-R
resistorsaremanufacturedforaperfectmatchtohave
theopencircuitvoltage E0=0atbalance(R=0).At
D
Figure8.28Circuitforthefullbridge

slightunbalance(R0)withR1=R3=RR;R2=R4=R+R.
E 0 = Eb
= Eb
R2 R4 R1 R3
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 )
( R + R )( R + R ) ( R R )( R R )
R
= Eb
( R R + R + R )( R + R + R R )
R
The expression also yields exact result without any approximation. The output voltage is
quadrupledcomparedtothecaseofsingleelement.
R 2
( R R)( R + R)
RTh = 2
= R(1 2 )
R
2R
with R<<R,RTh R.Hence,theerrorinacceptingtheapproximatesolution(onlyfor RTh,since E0is
exact) is negligible. Temperature and unwanted tensile strain will have no effect on the output
voltagesincetheyarecompletelycompensatedasinthecaseofthehalfbridge.
GeneralizedInstrumentationSystem
A cantilevered beam and the Wheatstone bridge can be used to determine the strain and/or the
bendingforceasillustratedinFigure8.29.Thecantileverconvertsthebendingforceintoabending
Bending
force
Q
Cantilever
Structure
S1
Bending
stress
Q
Metal within
elastic limit
S2
Bending
strain
Strain
gage(s)
S3
Q
(R)Q
Angular
displacement
Galvanometer
S5
Galvanometer
current
Ig
Incremental
resistance
Whetastone
bridge
S4
(R)W
(R)T
Figure8.29AfunctionalblockdiagramtoIllustratemeasurementofstrainusingacantileveredbeamand
Wheatstonebridge
stress and a bending strain provided that the metal stays within its elastic limits. The strain gages
thatareplacedoverthebeamencounterincrementalchangesintheirresistance.TheWheatstone
bridge provides the environment for determining small changes in resistances and generates an
output voltage that can be displayed using a galvanometer. At the end, the angular produces a
displacementofitspointerthatisproportionaltotheinputforce.
NOVELPRESSURESENSORS
QuantumTunnelingComposites
Firstproducedin1996,theQuantumTunnelingComposite(QTC)isacompositematerialmadefrom
micronsizedparticlesconductivefillerparticlescombinedwithanonconductingelastomericbinder,
typicallysiliconerubber.Theuniquemethodofcombiningtheserawmaterialsresultsinacomposite
whichexhibitssignificantlydifferentelectricalpropertieswhencomparedwithanyotherelectrically
conductivematerial.Henceitisaflexiblepolymerthatexhibitsextraordinaryelectricalpropertiesas
illustratedinFigure8.30. QTCusuallycomesintheformofpillsorsheet.QTCpillsarejusttinylittle
(a)Structure
(b)Effectofpressure
Figure8.30StructureandeffectofpressureforQTC
pieces of the material. The sheets are composed of one layer of QTC, one layer of a conductive
material,andathirdlayerofaplasticinsulator.WhileQTCsheetsswitchquicklybetweenhighand
lowresistances,QTCpillsarepressuresensitivevariableresistors.
QTC is used as a pressure sensor; in its normal state it is a perfect insulator, but when
compressed it becomes a more or less perfect conductor and able to pass very high currents. It
utilizesquantumtunneling:withoutpressure,theconductiveelementsaretoofaraparttoconduct
electricity; when pressure is applied, they move closer and electrons can tunnel through the
insulator.Theeffectisfarmorepronouncedthanwouldbeexpectedfromclassical(nonquantum)
effects alone, as classical electrical resistance is linear (proportional to distance), while quantum
Figure8.31EffectofpressureonaQTCpill

tunnelingisexponentialwithdecreasingdistance,allowingtheresistancetochangebyafactorofup
to1012betweenpressuredandunpressuredstatesasshowninFigure8.31.
Applications
QTC has the unique ability to smoothly change from an
electrical insulator to a metallike conductor when
placedunderpressure.Whileinanunstressedstatethe
QTCmaterialisanearperfectinsulator;withanyformof
deformation the material starts to conduct and with
Figure8.32QTCasaforcesensor
sufficient pressure metallic conductivity levels can be

achieved. This property can be utilized to convert pressure or force into an electrical signal as
QTC can be tailored to suit different force, pressure or touch sensing applications from
Figure8.33ExamplesofpotentialsensingcapabilitiesofQTCmaterial
sensing featherlight or finger operation to heavy pressure applications. Figure 8.33 shows various
applicationexamplesofsensingcapabilitiesofQTCmaterial.
QTChasbeenimplementedwithin clothingtomakesmart,touchablemembrane control
panels to control electronic devices within the clothing, e.g. mp3 players or mobile phones. This
allowsequipmenttobeoperatedwithoutremovingclothinglayersoropeningfasteningsandmakes
standardequipmentusableinextremeweatherorenvironmentalconditionssuchasArctic/Antarctic
exploration or spacesuits. However, eventually, due to the low cost of QTC, this technology will
becomeavailabletothegeneraluser.
PROBLEMSONMEASUREMENTOFMECHANICALQUANTITIES
ReviewQuestions
1. Howamechanicaldisplacementcanbesensed?
2. Whataretheresistivedisplacementsensorsandhowtheyareused?
3. Whataretheinductivedisplacementsensors?
4. WhatistheLVDTwithadvantagesandlimitations?
5. Whataretheprinciplesofoperationofcapacitivesensors?
6. Whataretheapplicationsandlimitationsofpiezoelectricsensors?
7. Whatarethetensionandcompression?
8. Whatarethestressandstrain?
9. Whatisthetransversestrain?
10. Howthestrainandstressarerelatedtoeachother?
11. Whythestrainisusedasanimportantmechanicalmeasure?
12. Whatisthepiezoresistance?
13. Whatisthegagefactor?
14. Whatarethemechanicalprinciplesforstraingages?
15. Whatcausesthechangesintheelectricalresistanceofthestraingagewire?
16. Howcanstraingagescanbeusedinpractice?
17. Whatarebondedandunbondedstraingages?
18. Howdothetemperatureandstraininotherdirectionsaffectthedisplacementmeasurements?
19. Whatisthewheatstonebridge?
20. Whereandhowawheatstonebridgeisusedinpractice?
21. Howcanyoudesignameasurementcircuitthatusesawheatstonebridge?
22. Howcanyoucomparethenullmodeanddeflectionmodeofoperationofwheatstonebridges?
23. Howcanyouconnectstraingagesmechanicallytomeasureforce?
24. Howcanyourelatetheoutputvoltagetothestraininaquarterbridgeconfiguration?
25. Whatarethelimitationsofthequarterbridge?
26. Whythehalfbridgeisthemostlypreferredconfiguration?
27. How can you eliminate the effects of temperature and unwanted strain in the measurements
usingwheatstonebridges?
28. Whatarethequantumtunnelingcompositesandhowtheycanbeusedinsensingthestrain?
29. Whataretheadvantagesofquantumtunnelingcompositesintouchscreendisplays?
1. Whichoneofthefollowingtransducersneedsaphasesensitivedemodulator?

a. Thermistor;
b. Straingage;
c. LVDT;
d. Piezoelectriccrystal.
2. Theeffectoftemperatureonastraingagedisplacementtransducercanbebestcompensatedby
usinga:
a. Thermistor;
b. Secondstraingageatareferencetemperature;
c. Thermocouple;
d. Secondstraingageatthesametemperatureasthemeasuringone.
3. Inpiezoelectrictransducerswhichofthefollowingisprimarilyrelatedtothevelocity?
a. Currentcomingoutofit;
b. Voltageacrossit;
c. Impedanceofit;
d. Chargeonit.
4. Astraingagetypedisplacementtransducerhasagagefactorof40andunstrainedresistanceof
120.ThePoissoncoefficientis0.4.Howmuchofthegagefactorisduetopiezoresistiveeffect?
a. 38;
b. 39;
c. 35;
d. None.Itis....
5. An external strain causes 6 change in the resistance in the above question. The percentage
changeindimensionis:
a. 1;
b. 0.5;
c. 0.125;
d. 2.
6. TheLVDTrequires
a. Wheatstonebridge
b. DCpowersupply
c. Phasesensitivedemodulator
d. Athermistortocompensatefortemperature
e. Balancingresistor
7. Astraingagewithgagefactorof40andunstrainedresistanceof100isconnectedtoanarmof
aWheatstonebridge.Thechangeintheresistancefor0.1%dimensionalchangeis:

a. 2
b. 6
c. 5
d. 4
e. None,itis.
8. Thebridgeissuppliedwith10VDC.Theoutputvoltageacrossthemeasuringarmsofthebridge
is:
a. 1V
b. 0.1V
c. 0.01V
d. 0.4V
e. None,itis
9. Theeffectoftemperatureonastraingagedisplacementtransducercanbebestcompensatedby
usinga:
a. Thermistor;
b. Secondstraingageatthesametemperatureasthemeasuringone.
c. Secondstraingageatareferencetemperature;
d. Thermocouple;
1. Twoidenticalstraingagesareplacedonoppositesurfacesofacantilevered beamasshownin
thefigure.Theunstrainedresistanceis120;gagefactorK=1.80.2%;Eb=10.0V0.5%.The
bridgeiscompensatedbytwo300resistors.
a. Write down the mathematical relationship between the bending force Fb and strain b
given that the bending stress b =
6L
Fb . Also write down the mathematical
bh 2
expressionforthesensitivityS1=b/Fb.
;givenb, b =
Ans.
6L
6L
Fb and S1 = 2
2
bh EY b
bh EY
b. WritedownmathematicalexpressionsforsensitivitiesS2andS3.
Ans.
yielding
;hence
Cross-section
of the beam
b
h
R2
R1
Fb
300
300
Eb
R3
Fa
+ V0 -
R4
R4
R3
Bending
force
Cantilever
structure
S1
Fb
Strain
gage(s)
S2
Bending
strain
b
Incremental
resistance
Wheatstone
bridge
S3
(R)b
(R)a
Bridge
voltage
V0
(R)T
It looks like a half bridge but sensors are placed differently. For this configuration:
sensitivity
hence,
the
, as S3 is evaluated around R = 0, it's nominal
valuebecomes:
c. Prove that the given arrangement compensates the effects of temperature and axial
forces(Fa).
d. Calculateb,andV0andtheiruncertaintiesgiventhefollowingdata:
Fb=15N1%;Youngsmodulusofelasticity=EY=20x1010Nm2
L=100mm;h=4mm1%;b=20mm.
Ans. b =
6L
0.6 x15
Fb =
= 140 .63m / m , maximum error is 3%, the
2
2
bh EY
0.004 x 0.02 x 20 x10 10
expectederror=1
2.24%
1.033
3.7%,expecteduncertaintyis=0.04
0.25
with maximum uncertainty of (0.2+0.5+3)% =

5
2.3%
2. AssumethataWheatstonebridgeisusedformeasuringthestrainusingagalvanometerwithcoil
resistanceof50andfullscaledeflectioncurrent50A.Thegalvanometeriscalibratedtoread

thestraindirectly.Thebridgesupplyis10V,theunstrainedresistanceofstraingagesis110
andcompensatingbridgeresistorsarealsotakenas110.Thegagefactorofthestraingageis
2.Findthevalueofstrainforfullscaledeflection.
Ans.Assumingthatweuseahalfbridge,
10 ,Rth=110,
yielding
thefullscale(b)max=800m/m
3. In the bridge shown, two strain gages R1
andR4areplacedontotheoppositefaces
ofacantilever.Theunstrainedresistance
is120;gagefactorFG=50;Eb=9V.The
R1
R2
W
Eb
R1
Ig
C
Rg
R4
R4
bridgeiscompensatedbyR2=R3=360;
Rg= 100 ;,. Calculate the value of the
R3
currentthroughthegalvanometer(Ig)for
anappliedstrain=0.15x103.
Ans.
99.3
7.5 10 , VT = 4.5x7.5x103 = 33.8 mV, RT = 60 + 180 = 240 ;
GeneralQuestions
1. TableforPr8.1showselasticpropertiesofsomeengineeringmaterials.Assumingthatawire10
mlongand1.0mm2incrosssectionareaismadeofeachmaterial.
a. Which element has the
largeststrain?
TableforPr8.1
b. Whichelementcancarrythe
largest
weight
without
breaking?
c. Assume that the wire is
made of aluminum and
subjected to a tensile force
M aterial
E y , N/m
A lum inum
B rass
G lass
Iron
P hosph or bronz e
S teel
10
7x10
10
9x10
10
5x10
10
18x10
10
10x10
10
20x10
E lastic lim it B re aking strength

2
2
N/m
N/m
8
8
2.0 x10
2.2x10
8
8
3.9 x10
4.7x10
8
8
8 x10
10x10
8
8
1.5 x10
3.0x10
8
8
4.2 x10
5.6x10
8
8
9.0 x10
1 1.0x10
Elastic properties of materials
of10N.Howmuchistheaxialstress?Whatisitselongation?
d. Assume the gage factor is 2.0 and unstrained resistance is 100 . How much is the
resistancewiththestrainduetothetensileforceof10N?

2. A stainlesssteel beam shown in Figure for Pr 8.2 has 10.0 mm2 in
Solid (fixed)
platform
crosssectionarea.Itissubjectedtoatensileforceof100N.Modulus
ofelasticityforstainlesssteel,EY=2.0x1011N/m2.
a. Howmuchistheaxialstress?
b. What is its elongation if the beam has the unstrained length
Beam
10cm?
3. Assume that a Wheatstone bridge is used in quarter bridge
FigureforPr8.2
configuration for measuring the strain. A galvanometer with coil

resistanceof50andfullscaledeflectioncurrent50Aiscalibrated
to read the strain directly. The bridge supply is 5.0 V, the unstrained resistance of the strain
gageis120andcompensatingbridgeresistorsarealsotakenas120.Thegagefactorofthe
strain gage is 2.0. Find the value of strain for fullscale deflection and error in accepting the
approximatesolution.
4. Astraingagehasagagefactor2.1andunstrainedresistanceis600at25C.Thetemperature
coefficientis2strain/C(i.e.RTemp/R=4.2x106/C)
a. Findthepercentageandabsolutechangesintheresistanceifa=500m/mat25C.
b. Findthepercentagechangeinresistancefora=0m/mat75C
c. Findthepercentagechangeinresistancefora=500m/mat75C
5. Inastraingage:
a. Showthemathematicalrelationshipbetweenstressandstrain.
b. Find the percentage change in the length and in the resistance of the strain gage with
gage factor = 25, unstrained resistance is 350 and
B
strain=400x106=400strain.
a. DeterminetheconditionforVAC=0
Eb =
10V
,VAc=0.CalculatethevalueofR1.
+ VAC -
b. AssumethatR1isanunknownresistance.R4=210,R2
=125.R3isavariableresistorandwhenitsetto350
R2
R1
6. FortheWheatstonebridgeshowninFigureforPr8.6;
R4
R3
D
7. InthebridgeshowninFigureforPr8.7,twostraingagesR1and
R4areplacedontotheoppositefacesofacantilever.
FigureforPr8.6

a. DeterminetheconditionforthecurrentIg=0.
b. DerivetheequationrelatingIgtothestrain.
8. Theunstrainedresistanceofstraingagesis120;gagefactorK=50;Eb=10.0V.Thebridgeis
compensated by R2=R3= 220 ; Rg= 80 . Calculate the value of the current Ig for an applied
strain=200strainusingboththeapproximateformulaandexactformula.Calculatetheerror
inacceptingtheapproximateformula.
B
R1
R2
W
Eb
R1
Ig
C
Rg
R4
R4
R3
D
FigureforPr8.7Twostraingagesonacantileverformingahalfbridge
9. InFigureforPr8.7,twostraingagesR1andR4areplacedontotheoppositefacesofacantilever.
Theunstrainedresistanceis120;gagefactorFG=50;Eb=9.0V.Thebridgeiscompensatedby
R2=R3=360;Rg=100.Calculatethevalueofthecurrentthroughthegalvanometer(Ig)foran
appliedstrain=0.15x103.
10. Twoidenticalstraingagesareplacedonoppositesurfacesofacantilevered beamasshownin
Figure for Pr 8.10. The unstrained resistance is 120 ; gage factor K = 2.0 0.2%; Eb = 9.0 V
0.5%.Thebridgeiscompensatedbytwo330resistors.
a. Write down the mathematical relationship between the bending force Fb and strain b
given that the bending stress b =
6L
Fb . Also write down the mathematical
bh 2
expressionforthesensitivityS1=b/Fb.
b. WritedownmathematicalexpressionsforsensitivitiesS2andS3.
c. Prove that the given arrangement compensates the effects of temperature and axial
forces(Fa).

Cross-section
of the beam
b
h
330
R1
Fb
Eb
R1
Fa
+ V0 -
R2
R2
330
D
Bending
force
Fb
Cantilever
structure
S1
Bending
strain
Incremental
resistance
Strain
gage(s)
S2
(R)b
Bridge
voltage
Wheatstone
bridge
S3
V0
(R)T
(R)a
FigureforPr8.10
d. Calculateb,andV0andtheiruncertaintiesgiventhefollowingdata:
Fb=10N1%;Youngsmodulusofelasticity=EY=20x1010Nm2
L=50mm;h=2mm1%;b=40mm.
Cross-section
of the beam
R1
R2
Fb
Eb
R1 R3
R 2 R4
Ig
C
Rg
Fa
R4
R3
D
FigureforPr8.11
11. Four resistances in a Wheatstone bridge are made up of strain gage elements placed in a
cantileveredbeamasshowninFigureforPr8.11.Atnoload,R1=R2=R0,R3=4R0.

e. What is the noload value for R4? The functional elements for the arrangement are as
shown.
f.
Prove that the given arrangement compensates the effects of temperature and axial
forces(Fa).
12. TheblockdiagrampresentationofthesystemasageneralmeasuringsetupwasgiveninFigure
8.29.
g. ShowthatthesensitivityS1is
S1 =
b
Fb
6L
bh 2
h. Writesimilarexpressions(withoutproof)forsensitivitiesS2,S3,S4andS5.
i.
Calculateb,bandFbandtheiruncertaintiesgiventhefollowingdata
=450.2;S5=10/A0.1%;Eb=5V0.4%
R0=50;Rg=100;gagefactorK=2.0
Youngsmodulusofelasticity=EY=2x1011Nm21%
L=480mm1%;h=3mm1%;b=60mm1%
Practical and Reporting / 383
PRACTICALANDREPORTING
LABORATORYNOTESANDSHEETS
GeneralGuidelinesinPresentingTechnicalWork
TheFormalLaboratoryReport
GeneralRequirements
SpecificContentsoftheReport
MoreOnGraphs
OnePageLabReport
GENERALGUIDELINESFOREXPERIMENTS
PreparationforExperiments
SummaryofOperationofOscilloscopes
EXPERIMENTS
MeasurementandError
DeterminingtheCharacteristicofanIncandescentLamp
DeterminingtheCharacteristicofaCapacitor
RegulatedPowerSupply
TERMPROJECT
ImportantQuestionstoAnswer
Duties
ElementsoftheReport
LABORATORYNOTESANDSHEETS
GeneralGuidelinesinPresentingTechnicalWork
All technical work must be completed
with a written report and/or oral
how did I
do that?
what problem
was this?
what does
that mean?
presentation.Apoorlypresentedwork
maybeunderminedbythereaderand
ignored.Ifitisalabreport,itwilllead
toapoorlabgradethatdamagesyour
records.Theworkmustbepresentedinasimpleformatthatdescribeswhatwedid,informswhywe
did,reportsresultsofwhatwedidandexplainswhatresultsmeantousasillustratedinthepicture.
Hence,itpreparesthereaderforwhatiscoming,itdescribesthework,andfinallyitconcludesthe
workwithourinterpretations.
Tell him
what you
are going
to tell him
Tell
him
Dr. Bellamy illustrates the
practice of technical presentation in
Context
hisbookusedforIE201informofa
presentation sandwich as shown in
Work
and
Answer
thefigure.Thesandwichismadeup
ofthreepartsasthefirstslice,filling
Discussion
Tell him what
you told him
andthesecondslice.Thefirstsliceis
the
context
gets
the
reader
interested in the work. It is written
beforetheworkbutwithbeginwiththeendinmind.Thefillingistheactualwork.However,itcant
standalonebyitself.Thesecondsliceiswrittenaftercompletingtheworkanditrevealstheworkwe
havedone.
TheFormalLaboratoryReport
Introduction
Necessarily, there is a considerable difference between what one does in a report intended for
publicationinajournalandwhatonedoesinalabreportbasedononeortwoweeksofworkinalab
course. Some general principles apply to both, however. Failure to write down the results of an
experimentandtheprocedureinwhichtheexperimentwasdoneisequivalenttonothavingdone
theexperimentatall.Iftheresultsnotedinthelabnotebookdonotappearinaformalreport,your
instructororbossatworkwillneverfindoutaboutthemorwhatafinejobyoudid.Itisessential
thatyourworkbewrittenupcarefullysothatyourorganizationandothersmaybeawareofwhat

wasdoneandthatyoudidit.Theformalreportistheoneuponwhichyouandthequalityofyour
workwillbejudged;itisworthdoingwell.
What you have learned in other courses, for example in technical writing courses and in
physicslab,shouldbehelpfulindecidinghowtowritetheformalreport.Inaddition,theinstructors
of those courses will detail specific requirements for individual courses. The following paragraphs
givesomeofthethingsthatshouldbeincludedinmostreports.
GeneralRequirements
SPACING
Thereportmustbetypedononesideofthepaperonly.Dotmatrixoutputisacceptable.Theremust
be at least a oneinch margin on all sides. Reports that are not clearly legible can result in lesser
grades.
FORMAT
Thereportshouldhavenumberedpages,figuresandtables.Referencesshouldbeindicated,either
as footnotes or as a numbered list (square bracket) at the end of the report, using the format
indicatedintheinstructionsgivenforthelaboratorynotebook.
SYMBOLSANDABBREVIATIONS
Trytoavoidusingabbreviationsinthetext.Usethefullword,suchas"ampere,""megahertz,"etc.
You can use abbreviations in the figures and should use them in tables. For abbreviations, use the
recommendedIEEEsymbols.
UNITS
Use the metric system, specifically the MKSA subsystem of the SI (System Internationale) as
recommendedbytheIEEE.
MATHEMATICALNOTATIONANDFORMULAS
Unlessyouareanaccomplishedtypistandyouhaveawordprocessorcapableofusingmathsymbols
andGreekletters,writeformulasneatlybyhand,inblackink.PayspecialattentiontoGreekletters,
andmakeacleardifferencebetweensmallcase"e1"(1)andthenumeral"one"(1).
SpecificContentsoftheReport
COVERPAGE
Thecoverpagemustincludecoursenameandnumber,experimenttitle(nomorethanninewords),
yournameandthedatethereportissubmitted.Pagesmustbestapledattheupperlefthandcorner

orheldtogetherinatransparentplasticcoverofthetypesoldatbookstores.AllpagesaretobeA4
(21cmby29.7cm)insize.Largerpagesshouldbefoldedtofitwithintheabovementionedbounds.
SHORTINTRODUCTION
Aconciseexplanationofthenatureoftheproblemathandandthepurposeoftheexperiment.
MAINBODY
This must include circuit diagram(s), formulas used in the calculations, sample calculations (see
notebook instructions), tables of data and graphs (see notebook instructions) and relevant
procedures.
CONCLUSIONS
Perhaps this is the most important part of the report. It should include what was achieved in the
experiment, limitations and advantages of the tested circuit or device, and any other piece of
informationobtainedasadirectresultoftheexperiment,whichyouthink,isrelevant.Beconcise;do
not fill the paper with long irrelevant explanations. Above all, do not quote material published
elsewhere,unlessitisessential.Justgivetheappropriatereferences.
MoreOnGraphs
Graphsshouldbeneatlydoneontheappropriatetypeofgraphpaper.Inadditiontotheinstructions
giveninthenotebookinstructions,rememberthatforpurposesofreproduction,itisbettertoavoid
usingcolors.Ifmorethanonecurveisplottedinagraph,usedifferenttypesofsegmentedlines,and
identify each by means of a short label with an arrow pointing to the corresponding curve.
Schematics must be done using templates in a neat, professional way. Black ink is preferred.
Alternativelythereportcanbepreparedusingappropriatewordprocessingandgraphicalsoftware.
OnePageLabReport
In many experiments, the students are asked to submit a onepage report. Again the sandwich
phenomenonisobserved.Theboxbelowillustratessuchasamplereport.
BME310,samplereport,oxygenmeasurement.
JohnWebster(labpartnersTomEdisonandCarrieNation)8/29/96
AbstractWeconstructedaPO2sensorfrompartsandusedittomeasurePO2.PO2ofinhaledairwas
152mmHgwhereasthatofexhaledairwas114mmHg.Thesensortimeconstantwas20s.The PO2
oftapwaterwas76mmHg,butincreasedto85mmHgwhenstirred.
IntroductionandpurposeOurmetabolismrequiresoxygen.Weneedtoknowthepartialpressureof
oxygeninthearterialandvenousbloodtoassesshowwellthelungsandheartareoxygenatingthe
tissues.Wewillconstructa PO2sensorfromparts,measureitstimeconstant,anduseittomeasure
PO2inliquidsandgases.Wewillmeasurehowmuchthe PO2changesbetweeninhaledandexhaled
air.
TheoryWhenaPtelectrodeisbiased0.7VwithreferencetoaAg/AgClelectrode,oxygenisreduced
atarateproportionaltoitspartialpressurePO2,
O2+2H2O+4e 4OH .The current from the resulting electrode is linearly proportional to PO2 in
an electrolyte. Since contaminants in blood cause error, the electrode is covered with a plastic
membrane impermeable to liquid but permeable to gas. The O2 from the blood diffuses through the
membrane to reach the Pt electrode. Because the electrode consumes O2, there is a gradient of PO2
from maximum in the blood to zero at the Pt tip. Therefore we achieve more stable results if we stir the
blood to maintain maximal PO2 as near the Pt tip as possible.
Experimental procedure Following instructions in the notes, we assembled the Clark electrode and
connectedittothevariablevoltagecircuitshowninthenotes.WeusedDMMstoobtaincurrentvs.
polarizingvoltage.WecalibratedthedifferentialO2analyzer.
ResultsNoteresultsonthedatasheet.Numberedanswerstonumberedquestionsfollow:
1
Currentvs.polarizingvoltageisplotted.
PO2ofourexhaledairwas114mmHg.
Weexcludedthefirstportionofthebreathbecausethedeadspacehasroomairwhichdoes
notparticipateingasexchange.
4
DifferenceinO2concentrationwas38mmHg.
OnePageLabReport
GENERALGUIDELINESFOREXPERIMENTS
PreparationforExperiments
Theexperimentsandlabprojectsinthiscourseintendtodevelopabilitiesofstudentstodesignand
conductexperiments,analyzeandinterpretdata.Studentswilldesignandconductlabexperiments
andpreparelaboratoryreportsthatincludethefollowingasaminimum:
A title page, objectives, preliminary work, apparatus and electronic components used,
procedure,datatables,andgraphs,discussionoftheexperimentalprocedureandresults,as
wellasanalysisandinterpretationofdatawithappropriatecomments.
Theperformancewillevaluatedbasedtheskillsandabilityofthestudentto:
Followspecifiedexperimentalprocedurestoillustratescientificandengineeringprinciples.
Operateinstrumentsandelectricalengineeringequipments.
Developexperimentalprocedures,identifyoperatingconditions,configureequipments,and
conductmeasurementstoacquireusefulelectricalengineeringdesign.
Examinelaboratorydataforreliabilityandaccuracy.
Interpretresults.
Beforestartinganylabwork:
Prepare the necessary theoretical background and the preliminary work before attempting
theexperiment.
Discussyourdesignwiththeinstructor.
Makealistofelectroniccomponentsneededfortheexperimentandgatherthemwiththe
helpofthelabengineer.
Setyourcircuituponthebreadboardandnaveyourfriendand/orthelabengineercheck
theconnectionsbeforeapplyingpowertoit.
Makeanestimateofthenormalcurrentlevelbeforeyouapplythepower.Setthecurrent
limits to their minimum values on the D.C. supplies, connect an ammeter to the line and
apply power. If you see an abnormal amount of current drawn by the circuit, immediately
interruptthepowerandrecheckyourconnectionsandifnecessaryyourdesign.
A current significantly larger than the expected would mean the existence of one or more of the
following:
Adesignerror;
Awrongconnection;
A damaged component (short or open). The damage could be there before or could have
occurredimmediatelyaftertheapplicationofthepower.
Always remember to turn the D.C. supply off before making any modifications in the circuit to
protectsemiconductordevicesfromgettingdamaged.
SummaryofOperationofOscilloscopes
Sincetheoscilloscopeisprobablythemostimportanttoolofacircuitdesigner,troubleshooter,or
instrumentationengineerandsincemanystudentslackenoughunderstandingofitsactualoperation
to be able to use effectively use its controls, a brief explanation will be presented here. Further
informationabouttheoscilloscopeisprovidedinthecoursematerial.
Asevident,theutilityofthescopeliesinthefactthatitdisplaysgraphicallyvoltagefunctions
inacircuit.ThiseffectresultsfromabeamofelectronsbeingsweptacrosstheCRTfacebyplates
with varying potentials. The face of the CRT is coated with phosphors which glow when struck by
electrons.Athighersweeprates,thebeamofelectronswillstrikethephosphorsagainbeforethey
have stopped glowing from this first contact. The result is a continuous history of the voltage
fluctuationinthecircuit.
Whenthebeamreachestherightsideofthescreenitisquicklybroughtbacktotheleftside
whereanothertracestarts.Ifnoattemptatsynchronizationismade,thebeamwillnotbeginatthe
samepointduringeachcycleandthedisplaywillappeartofloatacrossthescreen(thisisanalogous
to the vertical rolling of the picture on a TV set). To eliminate this difficulty, internal circuitry is
providedwhichholdsthebeamuntilapresetthresholdvoltageisreached(atwhichtimethetrigger,
whichmaybeatypeofmultivibrator,istrippedandthebeamagainsweepsacrossthescreen).This
is the essence of what is meant when someone uses the word "trigger" in reference to the
oscilloscope. With this, the problem with floating is eliminated and the display will appear to be
stable.
Forreasonswhicharetobeexplainedinthechapterondisplaydevices,itisoftendesirable
to"trigger"thesweeponwaveformswhichareexternaltothescopecircuitry.Thisisaccomplished
using the front panel switch labeled Triggering Source. When this switch is in the internal (INT)
position,asampleofthesignalbeingdisplayedonCH1isappliedtothetriggercircuit,andusedfor
synchronizingthesweepgenerator.Whenintheexternal(EXT)position,asignalfromsomeoutside
source is applied to the trigger circuit, and the sweep is synced to this signal. Note that the sync
signal from an outside source must be applied through the external (EXT) connector. The LINE
positionoftheswitchsynchronizesthesweepwiththe60Hzlinevoltage.

The remainder of the controls, along with the other pieces of lab equipment, are fairly self
explanatoryandwillbeillustratedthroughexperimentation.
IMPORTANTNOTE:Inallexercisesandallothersaccuratelyrecordalldataandobservations,include
theminyourreport.
WARNING:Onlyturntheintensityashighasrequiredforalegibledisplay.Toohighofanintensity
will decrease CRT life and may cause irreparable damage to the phosphors. It will also harm your
eyes.
MEASUREMENTANDERROR
Objective:Thisexerciseisdesignedto:
1. Familiarizethestudentwiththeequipmenttobeusedthroughoutthesemester;
2. Developspecifictechniqueswhicharefrequentlyrequiredinsubsequentlaboratoryexercises;
3. Refreshthestudent`sknowledgeonsomeimportantfundamentaltopics.
PreliminaryWork
1. Makeadetailedstudyoftheknobsandcontrolsontheoscilloscopepanelthefrequencymeter,
voltmeterandfunction/signalgenerator.
2. Listandmemorizecolorcodesforidentificationoftheresistorsandcapacitors.
3. Designexperimentalprocedurestomeasure:
4. Inputimpedanceoftheoscilloscope;
5. Outputimpedanceofthesignalgenerator.
ExperimentalProcedure
1. Applya1kHz5Voltspeaktopeaksinewavefromthesignalgeneratorintoadigitalvoltmeter
and frequency counter. Wait for 5 minutes for the system to warmup and stabilize. Then,
measurethevaluesforthevoltageandfrequencyatevery30seconds.Take10readingsforeach
andrecordthemwiththehighestprecisionpossible.
2. Applya1kHz5Voltspeaktopeaksinewaveintochannel1oftheCRO:
3. MeasuretheamplitudeusingX1probeincludingtheerrorinthemeasurement;
4. Repeat(a)usingX10&X100probes;
5. MeasuretheperiodandfrequencyusingCROandincludetheuncertainties;
6. Studyfunctionsoftriggeringlevelcontrolandslopecontrolknobs.
7. Determine the input impedance of the oscilloscope and output impedance of the function
generatorusingtheproceduresyouhavedeveloped.
8. Identify the values of resistors and capacitors provided by using the color codes. Measure the
valuesof10resistorsfromthesametypeandfindthemagnitudeoferrorinyouridentifications
usingthecolorcodes.

ResultsandDiscussions:
1. Record all measurements you have made. Compare them with your expectations. Discuss any
differenceyouhaveencountered.
2. Discusstheaccuracyofyourmeasurementsreferringtothesourcesoferrors.Studytheaccuracy
andresolutionofthemeasurementfortheamplitudeandfrequencyusing:
a. Oscilloscopeonlyforthemeasurements;
b. Adigitalmultimeterandfrequencycounterforthemeasurements.Refertomanualsfor
theoscilloscope,multimeterandfrequencycounterifnecessary(youcanaskthehelpof
thelabengineer).Howmanysignificantdigitsyoucanusetoexpresstheresultsineach
case?
3. Discusstherelevanceoftheoutputimpedanceofthesignalgeneratorandinputimpedanceof
the oscilloscope. What limitations they introduce into your measurements? What is the
significanceoftheinputcapacitance?
4. Whatcanyousayaboutthereliabilityofthemeasurementusingoscilloscope?
5. Usingstatisticalanalysisfindouttheerrorsinamplitudeandfrequencyofthesignaldeliveredby
thesignalgenerator.
6. Determine the error in the resistance value and compare it to the tolerance. Express the
resistanceusingsignificantdigitsonly.
DETERMININGTHECHARACTERISTICOFANINCANDESCENTLAMP
Objective:Thisexperimentisintendedto:
1.
Letstudentsdevelopexperimentalprotocols,setandconductexperiments;
2.
Developstudents'skillsindatacollectionandanalyzes.
3.
Applystatisticaltechniquesindataanalyzesandpresentationofexperimentalresults.
PreliminaryWork
1. Drawthecircuitdiagramofameasurementsetupthatyouwillusetodeterminethevariationof
thelampresistanceasitheatsupfromnopowertofullpowerlevel.
2. Writedowntheformulathatexpressthechangeofresistancewithtemperatureformetals.
3. Determinetemperaturecoefficientoftheresistancefortungstenfromreferencebooksorfrom
theweb.
PreparationsBeforetheExperiment
1. Readandrecordthevalueswrittenonthelamp(voltage,current,poweretc).
2. Makesurethatthelampissittinginitssocket.
3. Determinetheaccuracyandprecisionoftheammeterandvoltmeterthatyouwilluseinthe
experiment.
ExperimentalProcedure
1. Makeyourconnectionsproperlytothepowersupplyandcareforsafety.
2. Measuretheresistanceofthelampusinganohmmeterbeforeyouconnectittoyourcircuit.Set
theDCpowersupplytothenominalvoltageofthelamp.
3. ConnectthelamptotheDCpowersupply(withpowerswitchoff!),withanammeterinseries.
Switchthepowersupplyonandwatchtheammeterandtrytoestimatethetimetakenforthe
lamptoreachintothermalstability.
4. Setthemeasurementcircuitwiththepowersupply,theresistancebox,anammeter,voltmeter
andthelamp.Makeatableofvoltageandcurrentreadingsfor10settingsoftheresistancebox
fromalmostnocurrenttofullcurrentintothelamp.Recordallyourreadingstothehighest
precisionpossible.Waitforsufficienttimebetweenstepssothatthesteadystatevalueis
reached.Recordalsothewaitingtimebetweensteps.
5. Repeatthemeasurementinthereverseorder(asthecurrentdecreasesfromfullcurrentto
almostnocurrent).

6. Repeat(4)and(5)atleast5times.
Results
1. TransferthedatayourecordedduringtheexperimentintoanEXCELSheet.
2. Determinetheaveragevoltageandcurrentvaluesanderrorsinthemforexperimentstepsas
youincreasethecurrentandyoudecreasethecurrentseparately.
3. Calculatetheresistanceofthelampandthepowerdissipatedforeachstepoftheexperiment
includingtheerrors.
4. Drawthescatterdiagramoftheresistanceagainstthepowerforincreasinganddecreasinglamp
current.
5. Obtainthelinearregressionlines(bestfit)foryourscatterplotsandobtaintheequationsofthe
lines.
DiscussionsandConclusions
1. Commentontheerrorsinyourmeasurementsandtheireffectsontheresultsobtained.
2. Comparethechangesintheresistanceasthelampcurrentincreasesanddecreases.Howgood
yourstraightlinefit?Howmuchisthemaximumdeviation?Isitwithintheexpectederrorrange?
3. Doyouhavedifferencesbetweentheregressionlinesforincreasinganddecreasinglamp
currents?Ifso,explainthereasons.
4. Determinethecoefficientofvariationoftheresistancewiththepowerinthelamp.Estimatethe
temperatureofthelampusingthecoefficientyouhavefoundandthetemperaturecoefficientof
resistanceoftungstenyouobtainedinthepreliminarywork.
5. Submit1pagelabreporttoEng.AbdulmuttalibinpaperandyourEXCELfiletoDr.Baha
electronically.
DETERMININGTHECHARACTERISTICOFACAPACITOR
This experiment is intended to let students design their own experiments to determine the
characteristicofanelectroniccomponentandverifytheirresultsusingdifferentmethodsincluding
technical libraries. Students will submit full report in accordance with the rubric for ABET Program
Outcome3(b).
Capacitorstobeused
1. Aluminumelectrolytictypes1000to2200F,100Fand4.7F
2. Tantalum4.7F
3. Nonelectrolytictypespolyester,polystyrene,andmicaatvariousvaluesavailableinthelab.
Reminderfortheexperimentalprocedures
1. Beforethelab,determinetheequivalentcircuitofthelabandusingthelibrary/web
resourcesidentifythecomponentsoftheequivalentcircuitforeachcategoryofcapacitor.
2. Designatestcircuitandcarefullyselectthetestequipment.Writedownthemodelandserial
numberforeachequipmentthatyouuseintoyourreportsheet.
3. Becarefulaboutthepolarityofelectrolyticcapacitorsinconnectingthemtothecircuit.
4. Preparetheexperimentalprotocol,setandconductexperiments;makesurethatyourepeat
eachstepuntilyouachievestatisticalstabilityoftheresults.
5. Makesurethatyouuseallmeasurementtechniquesavailable(i.e.squarewavetesting,sine
wavetestingetc).
6. TransferthedatayourecordedduringtheexperimentintoanEXCELSheet.
7. Determinetheaveragevoltageandcurrentvaluesanderrorsinthemforeachstepofthe
experiment.
8. Calculatethecomponentsoftheequivalentcircuitforeachcategoryofthecapacitor,
compareandcontrastresultsobtainedusingdifferentexperimentalapproaches.
9. Comparethemostreliableexperimentalresultswithyourexpectationsinstep1.
10. Discussthedeviationofthedevicecharacteristicfromtheidealoneduetononideal
componentsanditseffectinselectingthecapacitanceinspecificapplications.
REGULATEDPOWERSUPPLY
The purpose of this exercise is to make the student familiar with different power sources that are
usedinmedicalequipment.Inthisrespect:
1.
The behavior of capacitors and batteries will be studied as energy as energy storage
elements.
2.
Theperformanceofelectronicpowersupplieswillbedetermined.Everystudentisgoingto
byhisownpowersupplyforthisexperiment.Anunregulatedoneispreferredandavoltage
regulatorwillbeaddedtoit.
3.
Theswitchingpowersupplywillalsobediscussed.
4.
Fusesusedinelectroniccircuitswillbestudied.
PreliminaryWork
1.
StudythecapacitorsfromthenotesthatyoualreadyhaveinappendixC.Designacircuitto
determinetheequivalentresistanceofthecapacitor.
2.
StudynotesgiveninappendixE.Makeatableofcomparisonfordifferenttypesofbatteries
thatareusedinthemedicalinstruments.
3.
Studyregulatedpowersuppliesfrombooksonelectronicsandmaterialprovidedin
appendixF.Designaregulatedpowersupplythatwilldeliver5voltsand0.5amp.Usean
electroniccomponentscatalog(i.e.anRScatalog)toselectelectroniccomponentsyouneed
foryourdesign.
4.
Drawthecircuitdiagramforthepowersupplyyoubrought.Calculatethefiltercapacitance
for500mAloadandripplevoltageof1V.Decidewhethertheexistingcapacitanceis:a)just
right? b)Insufficient
c)Morethanenough.
5.
Studythefuseparametersgivenintheappendix.Makeatableofcomparisonbetweenfuses
usedinprotectingsemiconductordevices,smallelectricalmotorsandelectricblankets.
Experiment
1.
Build the circuit you designed above for testing the resistance of a capacitor. Measure the
resistanceonthreedifferenttypesofcapacitorsandcompareyourfindingstovaluesgivenin
componentcatalogs.
2.
Measuretheripplevoltageontheunmodifiedpowersupplyforthefollowingcases:
a)Noload.
3.
b)50mAload.
c)500mAload.
Measuretheoutputvoltageontheunmodifiedsupplyunder:
a)Noload.
b)50mAload.
c)500mAload.

4.
Modify your power supply and add a series regulator to it to obtain a regulated output
voltage of 5 volts with current capacity of 500 mA. Repeat steps 2 & 3 for your regulated
powersupply.
5.
Study a switching type power supply that will be provided to you in the lab. Identify its
componentsanddetermineitsprincipleofoperation.
6.
Examinebatteriesthatyoucollectyourselfandgiveninthelab.Trytodeterminesome
salientcharacteristicsoftwotypesthatyouchoose.
7.
Collectsamplesoffusesusedinelectronics.Classifythemwithrespecttosize,trippingtime
andotherrelevantparameters.Indicateafewapplicationareasforeachtype.
TERMPROJECT
Assignment:WhenIneedtochangethebatteryofthewallclock?
Teamsize:3to4students,
Duedate:21May2011(18JumadaII1432)
StudentOutcomestobesatisfiedbytheassignment:b,d,f,k,l
ImportantQuestionstoAnswer
Whatisawallclock,whataretheeasilyavailablemodelsinthemarket?
Whatistheelectricalcharacteristicoftheclockyouhave?
Whatarethebatteriesavailabletopoweryourclock?
Howthebatteriesarefoundinthemarketandwhatisthepricerangeforeachtype?
Whatistheshelfandexpectedservicelifeforthebatteryyouchooseforyourclock?
Duties
1. Establishyourteamsanddistributeteamroles
2. Determinetaskstobedoneandexpectedtimeneededforeachone
3. Distributeresponsibilitiesoffulfillingtaskstoteammembers
4. Makeatimeplanwithdefinitedeadlines
5. Planandholdregularfollowupmeetingsandtakemeetingminutes
6. Collecttheinformationfromthemembersabouttheresultsachievedandanalyzetheresults
7. Writedownthefinalreportandsubmit.
ElementsoftheReport
1. Coverpageandoverallorganizationofthereport
2. Whatisaclock,whenandwhyitisused?
3. Wallclocksavailableinthemarketandtheirpriceranges
4. Experimentalprocedurestodeterminetheclockcharacteristics
5. Toolselectionanduse
6. Clockcharacteristicsdatatables
7. Statisticalanalysesoftheexperimentaldata
8. Graphicalpresentationoftheclockcharacteristics
9. Interpretationoftheclockcharacteristicsandmodeling
10. Whatisabattery?

11. Typesofbatteriesandbatterymanufacturers
12. Characteristicsofbatteries
13. Availability,marketsurvey,shelflife
14. Matchingtheclockcharacteristicsintobatterycharacteristics
15. Selectionofaproperbatteryforyourclock
16. Estimatedlifetimefortheselectedbattery
17. Teamsetting
18. Timeplan
19. Worksharingandresponsibilities
20. Whathasbeenlearntfromtheproject
Eachelementtakes5markstotalingto100fortheproject.
Appendix A Quantities, Units and Standards / 400
APPENDICES
AQUANTITIES,UNITSANDSTANDARDS
BasicandDerivedUnits
Inallconversations,thephysicalquantitiesarepresentedwiththeirpropervaluescomparedtothe
standard,theunits.Theinternationallyestablished(SI)unitsarethemeterforlength,thekilogram
formass,andthesecondfortime,abbreviatedasthemkssystemofunits.Althoughthemkssystem
iscommonlyusedinengineering,thecgssystemofunitsisanabsolutesystemofunitsthatiswidely
used in science. This system is based on the centimeter, gram mass, and second as basic units.
Disadvantagesincludethefactthatthederivedunitsforforceandenergyaretoosmallforpractical
purposes and that the system does not combine with the practical electrical units to form a
comprehensiveunitsystem.
TheBritishengineeringsystemofunitsisagravitationalsystemofunitsandisbasedonthe
foot,poundforce,andsecondasbasicunits.ThesystemistheonethathasbeenusedintheUnited
States.Thederivedunitofmassislbfs2/ftandiscalledaslug.TableA.1listthebasicandauxiliary
unitsusedinthemkssystem.
TableA.1Basicandauxiliaryunitsinthemkssystem
BasicUnits
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
Dimension
Length
Meter
Mass
kilogram
Kg
Time
second
Electriccurrent
ampere
Temperature
Kelvin
candela
Cd
mole
Mol
Planeangle
radian
rad
mm1=1
Solidangle
steradian
sr
m2m2=1
Luminous
intensity
Amount
substance
of
AuxiliaryUnits

There are many units used in engineering driven from the base units. Table A.2 lists the
derivedunitsmostlyusedelectricalengineeringapplications.
TableA.2Derivedunits
DerivedQuantity
Acceleration
Angular
acceleration
Unit
Symbol
Dimension
Meter per second

squared
m/s2
Radianpersecond
squared
rad/s2
Angularvelocity
Radianpersecond
rad/s
Area
Squaremeter
m2
Density
Kilogrampercubic
meter
kg/m3
Dynamicviscosity
Newton second
persquaremeter
Ns/m2
m1kgs1
Electric
capacitance
Farad
F,C/V
m2kg1s4A2
Electric charge,
quantityofelectricity
Coulomb
As
Electric
strength
Voltpermeter
V/m
mkgs3A1
Ohm
,V/A
m2kgs3A2
siemens
S,A/V
Entropy
JouleperKelvin
J/K
m2kgs2K1
Force
Newton
mkgs2
Frequency
Hertz
Hz
s1
Illumination
Lux
Lx
m2cdsr
Inductance
Henry
H,Wb/A
m2kgs2A2
square meter per

second
m2/s
Candela
squaremeter
cd/m2
Lumen
Lm
cdsr
Amperepermeter
A/m
Weber
Wb,V.s
m2kgs2A1
Tesla
T,Wb/m2
kgs2A1
field
Electricresistance
electric
conductance
Kinematic
viscosity
Luminance
Luminousflux
Magnetic
strength
field
Magneticflux
Magnetic
density
flux
per
m2kg1s3A2

DerivedQuantity
Magnetomotive
force
Power,
radiant
Unit
Symbol
Dimension
Ampereturn
Watt
W,J/s
m2kgs3
Pascal
Pa(N/m2)
m1kgs2
W/sr
m2kgs3sr1
flux
Pressure,stress
Radiantintensity
Watt
steradian
Specificheat
Jouleperkilogram
Kelvin
J/kgK
m2s2K1
Watt per meter

Kelvin
W/mK
mkgs3K1
Meterpersecond
m/s
Volt
V,W/A
m2kgs3A1
Volume
Cubicmeter
m3
Wavenumber
1permeter
m1
Joule
m2kgs2
Thermal
conductivity
Velocity
Voltage, electric
potential difference,
electromotiveforce
Work,
energy,
quantityofheat
per
There are other SI derived units whose names and symbols include SI derived units with
specialnamesandsymbols.ExamplesofthemaregiveninTableA.3.
TableA.3.ExamplesofSIderivedunitswithspecialnamesandsymbols
Derivedquantity
Name
Symbol
momentofforce
newtonmeter
Nm
surfacetension
newtonpermeter
N/m
angularvelocity
radianpersecond
rad/s
angularacceleration
radianpersecondsquared
rad/s2
heatfluxdensity,irradiance
wattpersquaremeter
W/m2
heatcapacity,entropy
jouleperKelvin
J/K
specificheatcapacity,specificentropy
jouleperkilogramkelvin
J/(kgK)
specificenergy
jouleperkilogram
J/kg
thermalconductivity
wattpermeterkelvin
W/(mK)

energydensity
joulepercubicmeter
J/m3
electricfieldstrength
voltpermeter
V/m
electricchargedensity
coulombpercubicmeter
C/m3
electricfluxdensity
coulombpersquaremeter
C/m2
Permittivity
faradpermeter
F/m
Permeability
henrypermeter
H/m
molarenergy
joulepermole
J/mol
molarentropy,molarheatcapacity
joulepermolekelvin
J/(molK)
exposure(xand rays)
coulombperkilogram
C/kg
absorbeddoserate
graypersecond
Gy/s
radiantintensity
wattpersteradian
W/sr
Radiance
wattpersquaremetersteradian
W/(m2sr)
catalytic(activity)concentration
katalpercubicmeter
kat/m3
Relationships of the SI derived units with special names and symbols and the SI base units
areschematicallyillustratedinFigure.A.12.Inthefirstcolumn,thesymbolsoftheSIbaseunitsare
showninrectangles,withthenameoftheunitshowntowardtheupperleftoftherectangleandthe
nameoftheassociatedbasequantityshowninitalictypebelowtherectangle.Inthethirdcolumn
thesymbolsofthederivedunitswithspecialnamesareshowninsolidcircles,withthenameofthe
unitshowntowardtheupperleftofthecircle,thenameoftheassociatedderivedquantityshownin
italic type below the circle, and an expression for the derived unit in terms of other units shown
towardtheupperrightinparenthesis.Inthesecondcolumnareshownthosederivedunitswithout
specialnames[thecubicmeter(m3)excepted]thatareusedinthederivationofthederivedunits
withspecial names.In thediagram, thederivationofeachderivedunitis indicatedbyarrowsthat
bring in units in the numerator (solid lines) and units in the denominator (broken lines), as
appropriate.
Two SI derived units with special names and symbols, the radian, symbol rad, and the
steradian, symbol sr (bottom of the third column of the diagram), are shown without any
connectionstoSIbaseunitseitherdirectorthroughotherSIderivedunits.Thereasonisthatinthe
From http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/units
Figure.A.1.RelationshipsbetweenSIderivedandbaseunits
SI,thequantitiesplaneangleandsolidanglearedefinedinsuchawaythattheirdimensionisone
theyaresocalleddimensionlessquantities.ThismeansthatthecoherentSIderivedunitforeachof
thesequantitiesisthenumberone,symbol1.Thatis,becauseplaneangleisexpressedastheratio
oftwolengths,andsolidangleastheratioofanareaandthesquareofalength,theSIderivedunit
forplaneangleism/m=1,andtheSIderivedunitforsolidangleism2/m2=1.Toaidunderstanding,
the special name radian with symbol rad is given to the number 1 for use in expressing values of
plane angle; and the special name steradian with symbol sr is given to the number 1 for use in
expressingvaluesofsolidangle.However,onehastheoptionofusingornotusingthesenamesand
symbolsinexpressionsforotherSIderivedunits,asisconvenient.
The unit degree Celsius, which is equal to the unit kelvin, is used to express Celsius
temperature t.Inthiscase,degreeCelsiusisaspecialnameusedinplaceofkelvin.Thisequality
isindicatedinthediagrambythesymbolKinparenthesistowardtheupperrightoftheCcircle.The
equation below CELSIUS TEMPERATURE relates Celsius temperature t to thermodynamic
temperature T. An interval or difference of Celsius temperature can, however, be expressed in
kelvinsaswellasindegreesCelsius.

Standards
International standardization is an absolute must in today's world. World standards have been
establishedas:
Themeteristhelengthequalto1650763.73wavelengthsofradiansinvacuum
correspondingtotheunperturbedtransitionbetweenlevels2P10and5d5oftheatomof
krypton86,theorangeredline.
Thekilogramisthemassofaparticularcylinder(ofdiameter39mmandheight39mm)of
platinumiridiumalloy,calledtheInternationalprototypekilogram,whichispreservedina
vaultatSevres,France,bytheInternationalBureauofWeightsandMeasures.
Thesecondisthedurationof9192631770periodsoftheradiationcorrespondingtothe
transitionbetweenthetwohyperfinelevelsofthefundamentalstateoftheatomofcesium
133.
Theampereisaconstantcurrentthat,ifmaintainedintwostraight,parallelconductorsof
infinitelength,ofnegligiblecircularcrosssections,andplaced1meterapartinavacuum,will
producebetweentheseconductorsaforceequalto2x107Newtonpermeteroflength.
TheKelvinisthefraction1/273.16ofthethermodynamictemperatureofthetriplepointof
water.(Notethatthetriplepointofwateris0.01degreeCelsius.)
Thecandelaistheluminousintensity,inthedirectionofthenormal,ofablackbodysurface
1/600000squaremeterinarea,atthetemperatureofsolidificationofplatinumundera
pressureof101325Newtonpersquaremeter.
Themoleistheamountofsubstanceofasystemthatcontainsasmanyelementaryentities
asthereareatomsin0.012kilogramofcarbon12.
ThetwoauxiliaryunitsofSIaredefinedasfollows
Theradianisaunitofplaneangularmeasurementequaltotheangleatthecenterofacircle
subtendedbyanarcequalinlengthtotheradius.(Thedimensionoftheradianiszerosince
itisaratioofthequantitiesofthesamedimensions.)
Thesteradianisaunitofmeasureofsolidanglesthatisexpressedassolidanglesubtended
atthecenterofthespherebyaportionofthesurfacewhoseareaisequaltothesquareof
theradiusofthesphere.(Thedimensionofthesteradianisalsozero,sinceitisaratioofthe
quantitiesofthesamedimension.)
Appendix B Operational Amplifiers / 406
BOPERATIONALAMPLIFIERS
Characteristicsandbasicamplifiersconfigurationsusingopamps
Amplifiersaredevicesthatincreasethevoltage,currentandpowerofaninputsignal.Theinputmay
R0
V1
V0
I0
V1
+
Rd
Rd
A(V2 V1)
V2
GT(V2 V1)
G0
V2
Voltage-controlled current amplifier
(Operational transconductance amplifier OTA)
Voltage-controlled voltage amplifier

R0
V1
V0
I0
V1
+
Ii
Ii
RTIi
G0
ACIi
V2
V2
Current-controlled voltage amplifier

(Transimpedance)
Current-controlled current amplifier
FigureB.1Typesofamplifiers
beinformofvoltageorcurrent.Accordingly,theamplifierscanbeclassifiedintofourbasicgroupsas
illustratedinFigureB.1.
Operational amplifiers (opamps) are very
versatile devices that are used in various
signal
amplification
applications.
Figure
and
processing
B.2
illustrates
utilization of an ordinary opamp as a

circuit element. It has two input terminals
andoneoutputterminal.Itrequiresadual
symmetrical
FigureB.2Opampasacircuitelement
power
supply
for
the
operation. One of the inputs is in phase

with the output and it is called the non
invertinginput.Theotherinput180outofphasewiththeoutputanditiscalledtheinvertinginput.
R0
V1
Ordinary opamp is a voltagecontrolled voltage
V0
amplifier as illustrated in Figure B.3. When

consideredideal,ithasthefollowingproperties:
+
Rd
A(V2 V1)
A=(gainisinfinity)
V2
V0=0whenV1=V2(nooffsetvoltage)
FigureB.3Diagramofanidealopamp
Rd=(inputimpedanceisinfinity)
R0=0(outputimpedanceiszero)
Bandwidth=(nofrequencyresponselimitations)andnophaseshift
V1
Of course all opamps have limitations that let them
V0
A
V2
deviate from ideal characteristics. However, the

assumption of ideal characteristics simplifies the
modelingandassociated calculations,anditisvalidfor
mostapplications.Asymbolicdiagramoftheopampis
FigureB.4Anidealopamp
showninFigureB.4.Therearetwogoldenrulesthatare
drivenfromtheidealcharacteristics:
Whentheopampoutputisinitslinearrange,thetwoinputterminalsareatthesamevoltage.
Nocurrentflowsintoeitherinputterminalsoftheopamp.
Invertingamplifiers
The simplest amplifier configuration is the
Virtual
Ground
inverting amplifier shown in Figure B.5. No
R1
current flows through the input terminals of

the opamp and the inverting terminal
appears at ground potential (virtual ground)
since the noninverting terminal is
Vi
Rf
I
-
V0
A
Actual
Ground
FigureB.5Theinvertingamplifier
physicallyconnectedtoground.Thecurrentfromtheinputis
I=Vi/R1
AnditisrootedthroughthefeedbackresistorRfyieldingV0=ViRf/R1
Followingwebsitescontainveryusefulinformationaboutopampsandtheirapplication.
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_1.html
http://users.ece.gatech.edu/mleach/ece4435/tutorial.pdf
http://holbert.faculty.asu.edu/ece201/opamp.html
Appendix C Pretest / 409
CPRETEST
Knowledgecheckoutinfundamentaltopics
Mark the correct choice in the following questions (time allowed 20 minutes):
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
A shorted resistor always has

Infinite current through it
Infinite voltage across it
Zero voltage across it
Zero current through it
A four-band resistor with color code orange-white-brown-red is
390 5%
39 2%
39 5%
390 2%
Thevenins theorem replaces a complicated circuit facing a load by an
Ideal voltage source and parallel resistor
Ideal current source and parallel resistor
Ideal voltage source and series resistor
Ideal current source and series resistor
The voltage and current into a network are measured to be 10Vcos(377t) and
1mAcos(377t+60) respectively. The input impedance of the network is
10k + j10k
10k - j10k
2
5.0k + j8.6k
1
5.0k - j8.6k
0
The waveform represents a current in 5 k resistor.
The power dissipated by the resistor is (time in
-1
-10
-5
0
millisecond and current in milliampere)
Time (ms)
Magnitude (mA)
a.
b.
c.
d.
a.2.25mW
6.
c.0.01Wd.0.45W
b. 400 Hz
a.
b.
c.
d.
10.
d. Undefined
b. cos(2000t-45) c. 3sin(2t+53)
d. 1000sin(1000t-53)
The voltage and current into a network are measured to be 10Vcos(100t) and
1mAcos(100t +60) respectively. Input impedance of the network is
a. 10k + j10k b. 10k - j10k
9.
c. 100 Hz
Which one of the following sinusoidal signals has a period of 1 msec?

a. 2sin(1000t)
8.
The fundamental frequency of the signal in the above question is

a. 0.1 Hz
7.
b.3.7mW
c. 5.0k + j8.6k
The figure can be represented by

x(t) = (1 e-2t)u(t)
x(t) = 1 - e-tu(t)
x(t) = (1 - e-t/2)u(t)
x(t) = e-tu(t)
A series RC is designed with R = 1 k
and C = 1F. The impedance seen by the
source at f = 159 Hz (1000 rad/sec) is
d. 5.0k - j8.6k
1
Magnitude
1.
a. 1k - j1.44k b. 1k - j1k c. 1.44k + j1k
0.5
0
-0.5
0.5
1
Time (s)
d. 1k + j1k
1.5
2.5
10
Appendix D Exit Survey / 410
DEXITSURVEY
KingAbdulazizUniversity
FacultyofEngineering
DepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineering
EE306ELECTRICALENGINEERINGTECHNOLOGIES
EXITSURVEY
May2011
Please mark the appropriate boxes in the following table for your current
GPAandgradeyouexpectfromthecourse.
GPARange
<2 2
2.5 3
3.5 4
4.5
4.75
2.5 3
3.5 4
4.5 4.75
5
Expected
Grade
F D D+
C
C+
B
B+
A
A+
Pleasefillinthetablesconcerningtheskills,abilitiesandattributesthatyouhaveacquired,teaching
methods and assessment tools used and quality of teaching while studying EE 306 as well as your
perceptionofcontributionofthecoursetoyourcareer.
1.AssessmentofAbilities,SkillsandAttributesAcquiredatEE306.
Pleaseratehowwellyouhavebeenpreparedineachofthefollowingskills,abilitiesorattributesas
statedintheCourseLearningOutcomes(CLOs).
Levelofpreparation
Skills,abilities,andattributes
AtfinishingofthecourseEE306,Iamableto:
3 2 1 0
(3=High,2=Average,1=Low,0=NotApplicable)
1. Recognizethecommonlyusedelectricalengineeringcomponentsandchoosetheproper
onesforspecificapplications
Compareandcontrasttheelectricalenergysources,
Determinetheenergyrequirementofanapplication
Selectprotectionschemesanddevicesforsafeoperationsofelectricallyoperated
devices
5. Recognizebasicoperationsandlimitationsofdevicesandfacilitiesthatuseelectrical
energy
6. Describetheinstrumentfunctionsanddefinetermsrelatedtoelectricalmeasurements
7. Illustratetheerrorsourcesinmeasurementsandapplystatisticalanalysisoferrors
8. Identifythecriticalissuesforsensorchoice,placement,andcircuitimplementation
9. Appreciatetheapplicationsandlimitationsofvariouselectronic/electricalmeasuring
instruments
10. Describetheinstrumentfunctionsanddefinetermsrelatedtoelectricalmeasurements
11. Determinetheenergyrequirementofanapplication
2.
3.
4.
2.AssessmentofEducationalMethodsandAssessmentTools
Pleaseindicateyoursatisfactionwitheachthefollowingmethodsandtoolsusedinthecourse.
EducationalandAssessmentMethodsUsed
EducationalMethods
1. Classroomlectures
2. LabDemonstrations
3. Labwork
4. Labproject(s)
AssessmentMethods
1. Quizzes
2. Homework
3. Majorexams
4. Labprojectreport
Levelofsatisfaction
Appendix D Exit Survey / 411

5. Shortlabreports
3.AssessmentofQualityofTeachingandTeachingTools
Pleaseindicateyoursatisfactionwitheachthefollowingmethodsandtoolsusedinthecourse.
QualityofTeachingandTeachingTools
Levelofsatisfaction
3
2
1
0
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Instructor,hiswayoflecturing
Instructor,hisattitudesandinterestsinteaching
Textbookandlecturenotes
Generallabfacilities
Experimentstoillustratetheprinciples
Labproject
Labengineer,hisattitudeandinterests
4.AssessmentofContributionoftheCoursetoYourElectricalEngineeringCareer
Pleaseindicateyoursatisfactionwitheachthefollowingprofessionalcomponentsdevelopedinthe
course.
Professionalcontribution
Levelofsatisfaction
Aftercompletingthecourse,Ican
3
2
1
0
1. Designandconductexperiments
2. Collectexperimentaldataandusestatisticalanalysis
3. Acceptresponsibilitiesasateammember,shareinformationandprovide
assistancetoothers
4. Cooperatewithothersinobtainingknowledgeoftechnicalskills,issues
andapproachesrelevanttodisciplinesoutsideofelectricalengineering
5. Determinestatisticalmeasuressuchasaccuracy,precision,resolutionetc
forameasuringequipmentandusesthem
6. Correctlyinferstolerancesofelectroniccomponentsindesignofmedical
devices
7. Recognizethestatisticalvariabilityofelectricalcomponentsandsystems
andvaluethepopulationstatisticsandcalculateimportantmeasures
suchasthemeanandstandarddeviationfromanormaldistributionof
data.
8. obtainmathematicalmodels,translateacademictheoryintoengineering
applicationsandacceptlimitationsofmathematicalmodelsofphysical
reality.
9. Developscorrectmodelsforelectricalengineeringproblemsusing
electricalcircuitanalogies,explainstheirbehaviorsandsolvesmodel
equationsandrelatesolutionstorealsystembehaviors
10. Demonstrateinnovativesynthesisofsolutionandinitiatenew
alternativesbycombiningknowledgeandinformation
11. relatetheoreticalconceptstopracticalproblemsolving,predictand
defendproblemoutcomes
5.Importantnotes:
1. ABETaccreditationidentifiestothegeneralpublic,students,schoolcounselors,educational
institutions,professionalsocieties,employers,governmentalagencies,andstateboardsof
examiners,programsthatmeetminimumcriteria.
2. Assessmentactivitieswillnotaffectyourgradesoranyotherfactorrelatedtoyouracademic
standing.
3. Muchofthedatacollectedwillbeanonymousandallwillbekeptconfidential.Thedatawill
onlybereportedtofacultyinaggregateform.
6.GeneralComments
Pleasefeelfreetoexpressyourself.Thanksforyourcooperation.
DepartmentalABETcommittee
PS:Pleasesendthefilledformtoatrigui@yahoo.com
Appendix E Rubrics for Student Outcomes Supported by EE 306 / 412
ERUBRICSFORSTUDENTOUTCOMESSUPPORTEDBYEE306
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"b"
TheGraduateoftheElectricalandComputerEngineeringatKingAbdulazizUniversityisexpectedto
demonstrateanabilitytodesignandconductexperiments,analyzeandinterpretdata.
Indicator
Best(5)
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
Labsafety
Observes good laboratory

safety procedures including
electricalsafety,hygieneand
environmentalprotection
Practices unsafe, risky

behaviorsinlabfrequently
Define
objectives
Establisheswelltheneedfor
the experiment and clearly
definestheobjectives
Unsafe
lab
procedures
observed occasionally in
electrical safety matters,
hygiene and environmental
protection
Theneedfortheexperimentis
poorly stated or not
mentioned at all; but the
objectivesareclearlydefined
Choosesrelevantresponsesto
measure, yet fails to identify
all important parameters and
variables that affect the
measurement
Selection
variables
measure
of Identifies
to variables
relevant
measure
Datagathering
Toolselection
Tooluse
Experimental
procedures
important
and
chooses
responses
to
Formulates an experimental
plan of data gathering to
attain a stated objective
(develop correlation, test a
model,
ascertain
performance of equipment,
etc.)
Can select appropriate
equipment and instruments
toperformtheexperiment
Develops
a
simplistic
experimental plan of data
gathering,
does
not
recognize entire scope of
study
(e.g.
not
all
parameters affecting the
resultsareinvestigated)
Needs some guidance in
selecting
appropriate
equipment
and
instrumentation
Is
able
to
operate Is tentative in operation of
instrumentation and process instruments and process
equipment
equipment
Can't identify the important

variablestomeasurewithout
a significance clue from
outside
No systematic plan of data
gathering;experimentaldata
collection is disorganized,
even
random,
and
incomplete
Cannot
select
the
appropriate equipment and
instrumentation required to
runexperiment(s)
Does
not
operate
instrumentation and process
equipment, or does so
incorrectly
or
requires
frequentsupervision
Develops and implements Experimentalproceduresmost Does not follow an

logical
experimental often are followed, but experimentalprocedure
occasional oversight leads to
procedures
Documentation Carefully documents data

collected
Analysis and Analyzesandinterprets data

theory
of carefully
operation
Measurement
errors
No mention for the

experiment is available and
objectivesarepoorlydefined
Is aware of measurement
errorsandisabletoaccount
lossofexperimentalefficiency
and/orlossofdata
Data collected are not all
documented,
units
are
missing,
or
some
measurements
are
not
recorded
Applies appropriate theory to
datawhenpromptedtodoso,
but misinterprets physical
significance of theory or
variable involved; makes
errorsinunitconversions
Is aware of measurement
errors but does not account
for them statistically or does
Dataarepoorlydocumented
Makes a little attempt to

relatedatatotheory
Is unaware of measurement
errors

Indicator
Additional
(multiple)
sources
possible)
Conclusion
Best(5)
forthemstatistically
Seeks
information
for
experiment(s) from multiple
(if sources
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
soataminimallevel
Seeks
information
for
experiment(s) from a few
sources mainly from the
textbookortheinstructor
Evaluates the experimental Attentively

procedures
including achievements
statistical analysis, compares objectives
the achievements against
experimental objectives and
suggests ways to improve the
experiment
Seeks no extra information

for experiments other than
what is provided by
instructor
compares Compares
achievements
against against
objectives
superficially
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"d"
demonstrateanabilitytofunctiononmultidisciplinaryteams.
Indicator
Best(5)
Contribution
Is prepared for the group

meeting with clearly
formulated ideas and
contributesafairshareto
the project workload.
Shares information with
others and provides
assistancetoothers
Responsibility Demonstrates the ability
to assume a designated
role in the group and
routinely present at team
meetingsorworksessions
Valuing
Is
courteous
group
member,
values
alternative perspectives
and
encourages
participation among all
team members. Shares
credit for success with
others and accountability
for team results. Remains
nonjudgmental
when
disagreeing
with
others/seeks
conflict
resolution; does not
"point fingers" or blame
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
Prepares somewhat for

group meetings, but ideas
arenotclearlyformulated.
Contributes less than fair
share. Sometimes keeps
information to himself;
notverywillingtoshare
Routinely fails to prepare

formeetingsanddoesnot
contribute to group work
atallorsubmitsownwork
asthegroup's
Takes charge when not in

the position to lead;
absent occasionally, but
does not inconvenience
group,
sometimes
depends on others to
completethework
Does not willingly assume

team roles and hides in
the background; only
participates if strongly
encouraged and is absent
from team meetings or
worksessions>50%ofthe
time.
Is discourteous to other
group members and does
not consider the ideas of
others. Claims work of
group as own or
frequently blames others
and is openly critical of
theperformanceofothers
Is not always considerate

or courteous towards
teammembers.Persuades
others to adopt only his
ideas
or
grudgingly
accepts the ideas of
others. Makes subtle
referencestoother'spoor
performance
or
sometimes does not
identify contributions of
other team members and
criticizes ideas of other
team members or blames

Indicator
Best(5)
others when things go

wrong
Cooperation Cooperates with others
with other (outside of the discipline)
disciplines
and has knowledge of
technical skills, issues and
approaches relevant to
disciplines outside of
electricalengineering
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
othersforerrors
Occasionally works as a
loner or interacts to a
minor extent with extra
disciplinary
team
members. Has some
knowledge of other
disciplines,butgetslostin
discussions with extra
disciplinary
team
members
Does work on his own;

doesnotvalueteamwork.
Has no knowledge of
disciplines outside of
electricalengineering
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"f"
demonstrateanunderstandingofprofessionalandethicalresponsibility.
Indicator
Best(5)
Participation Participates in class

in
ethical discussions and exercises
discussions
on
ethics
and
professionalism
Behavior
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
Does not take the

discussion
of
ethics
seriously but is willing to
acceptitsexistence
Does not participate in or

contribute to discussions
of ethics but has some
awareness for the need
forprofessionalethics
Student has been caught
cheating or plagiarizing
the work of others
occasionally
Blames others for own
issuesandproblems
Demonstrates
ethical Does not model ethical
behavioramongpeersand behavioramongpeersand
faculty
faculty
Responsibility Takes
responsibility
actions
personal Doesn't recognize the

for his need to take personal
responsibility for his
actions
exhibits
Respect to Is punctual, professional, Sometimes
others
and collegial; attends unprofessional behavior;
is sometimes absent from
classesregularly
classwithoutreason
Objectivity
Evaluates and judges a Evaluates and judges a
situation in practice or as situation in practice or as
a case study, using facts a case study using
andaprofessionalcodeof personalunderstandingof
the situation, possibly
ethics
applying a personal value
system
Uses personal value Uses personal value
Personal
systemtosupportactions, systemtosupportactions,
versus
professional but understands the role but confuses personal
of professional ethical ethics with professional
ethics
Is frequently absent from

class and is generally not
collegial
to
fellow
students,staff,andfaculty
Evaluates and judges a
situation in practice or as
a case study using a
biased
perspective
withoutobjectivity
Uses personal value

system to support actions
to the exclusion of all
otherethicalstandards

Indicator
Best(5)
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
standards for corporate ethics

decisions
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"k"
demonstrate an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for
engineeringpractice.
Indicator
Modern
software
tools
Best(5)
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
Is able to learn and

implement
process
simulation software and
uses computerbased and
otherresourceseffectively
inassignments/projects
Is able to implement
process
simulation
software with little help
and attempts to use
computerbasedandother
resources
in
assignments/projects
Is not able to learn and

implement
process
simulation software even
with considerable help
anddoesn'tusecomputer
basedandotherresources
effectively
in
assignments/projects
Has
difficulty
in
understanding
informationfromavariety
of
resources
and
eventually he can't draw
healthyconclusions
Doesn't understand the
organization and use of
the library and seeks
information on problems
onlyfromtextbooks
Skill
Is able to interpret and Is able to understand
maintenance understand information informationfromavariety
fromavarietyofresources of resources but can't
properlyinterpretthem
Outside
resources
Understands
the
organization and use of
frommultipleresources
Doesn't understand the

organization, but can use
fromafewsources
AssessmentRubricforOutcome"l"
The Graduate of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Program at King Abdulaziz University is
expected to demonstrate knowledge of probability and statistics, including applications in
instrumentations,systemsandmeasurementsrelatedtohisspecialization.
Indicator
Statistical
measures
Tolerances
Best(5)
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
No mention of statistical
measures such as accuracy,
precision,resolutionetcfora
measuring equipment but
indications of some use of
them.
Correctlyinferstolerancesof Infers
tolerances
of No use of tolerances of
electronic components in electronic components in electronic components in
Determines
statistical
measures such as accuracy,
precision,resolutionetcfora
measuring equipment and
usesthem.
Mentionstatisticalmeasures
such as accuracy, precision,
resolution etc for a
measuring equipment and
usesthem.

Indicator
Best(5)
designofelectronicdevices.
Acceptable(3)
Poor(1)
design of electronic devices design of electronic devices

witherrorsincalculations.
although there is some
mentioningoferrors.
some
Dataanalyzes Correctly analyzes data sets Minor errors in statistical Demonstrates
analysisofdata
awareness of statistics to
usingstatisticalconcepts
analysis of data without any
Calculateimportant
Calculateimportant
applicationexamples.
measuressuchasthe
measuressuchasthe
meanandstandard
meanandstandard
deviationfroma
deviationfroma
normaldistributionof
normaldistributionof
data.
datawitherrors.
Recognizethestatistical Awareofthestatistical
variabilityofbiological
variabilityofbiological
systemsandvaluethe
systemsbutdoesn't
populationstatistics
valuethepopulation
(forBME).
statistics(forBME).

EE 306 Lecture Notes

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EE 306 Lecture Notes

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EE306ELECTRICALENGINEERINGTECHNOLOGIES

LOADINGERRORS ................................................................................................................ 153

TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTUSINGTHERMISTORS ............................................................ 340

DefinitionandUse ........................................................................................................... 101

MEASUREMENTOFELECTRICALQUANTITIES ................................................................ 141

TheCounterinTimePeriodMode ..................................................................................... 173

NecessityforDSOandItsAdvantages ................................................................................ 223

SWITCHREGULATED(SWITCHING)POWERSUPPLY ................................................................ 272

BASICPRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................ 319

QuestionswithSolutions .................................................................................................. 346

PROBLEMSONMEASUREMENTOFMECHANICALQUANTITIES ................................................ 374

Reminderfortheexperimentalprocedures ........................................................................ 395

Figure1.1 Aschematicdiagram illustratingvariousactivitiesofelectronicsengineering

Interfacing computers in measurement and control applications, control systems and

Medical Imaging: combines knowledge of a unique physical phenomenon (sound,

Supervision on proper operation and safety of instruments. Ensuring electrical safety in

A biomedical engineer in the medical instrumentation track is an engineer competent in medical

Installation, planning and handling of maintenance procedures and repair of medical

Pursuing technological developmentsinthe medicalinstrumentationfieldandenlightening

An electrical engineer specialized in the general field of instrumentation, measurement and

Robotics: a robot's design, manufacture,

(MEMS): technology of very small mechanical

Biomechanics: the application of mechanical principles to biological systems, such as humans,

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 38

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Current into plane

electromagnetism: a current through a magnetic field

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 45

example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 46

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With twinlead wire, two conductors

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at 293 K (20 at500K(227 Temperature

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 58

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 59

decreasing at greater Figure2.22 Anillustartionoftheskineffect

depths. In other words, the electric current flows mainly at the

"skin" of the conductor, at an average depth called the skin

depth. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the

conductor to increase at higher frequencies where the skin

conductor. Figure 2.22 illustrates the distribution of electrical

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 60

2.23). Because the interior of a large conductor carries so

Fundamental Electrical Engineering Components / 61

Symbols of resistors are shown in Figure 2.25. The 'box' symbol

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