Академический Документы
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PREFACE
This publication deals primarily with small and medium-sized induction
motors which are the most common type of alternating current motor.
They are internationally standardized and are efficiently manufactured in
long production runs. The combination of new materials and more
sophisticated methods for calculation, design and production have made
the modern three-phase induction motor a robust and reliable prime
mover.
This publication was made possible through the initiative and support of
the International Copper Association South East Asia and
administered, executed, and implemented by the Institute of Integrated
Electrical Engineers of the Philippines
All information and data contained in this publication is believed to be
reliable, but all recommendations or suggestions are made without
guarantee. Furthermore, suggestions for use of material supplied shall
not be construed as a recommendation or inducement to violate any law
or infringe any patent.
iii
iv
Table of Contents
Section
Title
Motor Specifications
1.1 Nameplate
1.2 Insulation Class
1.3 Enclosure Type
1.4 Temperature Class
1.5 Mounting
1.6 Manufacturers Identification Number
1.7 Terminal Markings
1.8 Motor Design
1.9 Types of Duty
General Characteristics
2.1 System Nominal Voltage
2.2 Voltage
2.3 Power Factor
2.4 Efficiency
2.5 Speed
2.6 Vibration Characteristics and Balancing
2.7 Bearings
2.8 Torque
Asynchronous Motor Starting Systems
3.1 Starting Methods
3.2 Single-phase Motor Starting
Motor Protection and Coordination
4.1 Motors Protection
4.2 Protection Against Short Circuits
4.3 Protection Against Overload
4.4 Multifunction Relays
4.5 Motor Circuit Breakers
Motor Starter Co-ordination
5.1 Concepts
5.2 Solutions
5.3 Motor Overload Protection
5.4 Terminology
Page
1
3
11
19
30
51
55
67
76
103
104
112
113
118
119
141
170
175
187
193
194
203
212
215
219
220
229
241
Motor Efficiency
6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model
6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors
Installation, Testing, and Maintenance
7.1 Installation and Maintenance
7.2 Description of Routine Tests
7.3 Recommended Winding Tests
7.4 Other Tests
7.5 Motor Starting Capabilities and Considerations
7.6 Maintenance and Reliability
7.7 Maintenance Programs
7.8 Machinery Condition Monitoring
7.9 Maintenance Planning
vi
246
262
273
309
321
322
323
328
332
334
338
Motor Specifications
1.1 Nameplate
Motor standards are established on a country by country basis.
Fortunately though, the standards can be grouped into two major
categories: NEMA and IEC (and its derivatives).
In North America, the National Electric Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) sets motor standards, including what should go on the
nameplate (NEMA Standard MG 1-10.40 "Nameplate Marking for
Medium Single-Phase and Polyphase Induction Motors").
In most of the rest of the world, the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) sets the standards. Or at least many countries base
their standards very closely on the IEC standards (for example,
Germany's VDE 0530 standard and Great Britain's BS 2613 Standard
closely parallel the IEC 34-1 standard).
The NEMA and IEC standards are quite similar, although they
sometimes use different terminology. Thus, if one understands the IEC
nameplate, it is fairly easy to understand a NEMA nameplate, and viceversa as shown in Fig 1.1A and B.
assuming the motor has been stopped long enough. Temperature rises in
the motor windings as soon as the motor is started. The combination of
ambient temperature and allowed temperature rise equals the maximum
rated winding temperature. If the motor is operated at a higher winding
temperature, service life will be reduced. A 10 C increase in the
operating temperature above the allowed maximum can cut the motors
insulation life expectancy in half.
Fig.1.2A shows the allowable temperature rise for motors operated at a
1.0 service factor at altitudes no higher than 3300 ft. Each insulation
class has a margin allowed to compensate for the motors hot spot, a
point at the center of the motors windings where the temperature is
higher. For motors with a service factor of 1.15, add 10 C to the allowed
temperature rise for each motor insulation class.
40
45
50
55
60
100
96.5
93
90
86.5
79
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
100
97
94.5
92
89
86.5
83.5
70
Insulation classes
According to EC 85, insulation is divided into insulation classes. Each
class has a designation corresponding to the temperature that is the upper
limit of the range of application of the insulating material under normal
operating conditions and with satisfactory life. If this upper limit
exceeded by 8 to 10 K (see below), the Life of the Insulation will be
approximately halved.
The correct insulation for the winding of a motor is therefore determined
by both the temperature rise in the motor and the temperature of the
ambient air. If a motor is subjected to an ambient temperature higher
than 40 C, it must normally be derated or an insulating material of a
higher class must be used.
According to international standards, temperature is measured in degrees
Celsius (C), whilst temperature difference is stated in the unit Kelvin
(K). 1 Celsius degree is equivalent to 1 K.
For class F, for instance, the temperature rise must not exceed 105 K,
provided that the ambient temperature does not exceed +40C. This
applies if the resistance measuring method is used. This involves first
measuring the resistance of the winding at ambient temperature, then
running a temperature-rise test of the motor to determine the temperature
in the winding at rated power, then measuring the resistance of the
winding at the end of the test.
The temperature rise is calculated using this formula:
Where:
t2 = temperature of winding at end of temperature-rise test
t1 = temperature of winding before temperature-rise test
ta = temperature of cooling medium at end of temperature-rise
test
R2 = resistance of winding at end of temperature-rise test
R1 = resistance of winding at temperature t1
Constant = 235 for copper winding: 225 for aluminum winding
What this method determines is the mean temperature rise. This is why
an extra thermal margin of 10 K, for example, is reserved between the
mean temperature of the winding and the temperature at its hottest point.
The graph in Fig.1.2.C illustrates the effect of exceeding the highest
permitted winding temperature on the winding life.
The numbers used to designate frame sizes have specific meanings based
on the physical size of the motor. Some digits are related to the motor
shaft height and the remaining digit or digits relate to the length of the
motor.
The rerate, or frame size reduction programs were brought about by
advancements in motor technology relating mainly to higher temperature
ratings of insulating materials, improved magnetic steels and improved
bearings. At the present time, NEMA frame assignments do no exist for
motors larger than 445T and each manufacturer may have different frame
designations for these motors.
One additional suffix that may be used on standard motors in frames
286T and larger is an S inserted after the T. This S stands for short
shaft.
In addition to having a short shaft, the motor will have a small diameter
shaft (U dimension) and the bearing in the drive shaft end of the motor
will be somewhat smaller than the equivalent long shaft motor. Short
shaft motors are intended for use only on direct coupled centrifugal
pumps and other direct coupled loads where there will not be a side pull
(overhung load) exerted on the shaft by V belts.
Table 1.2B NEMA Frame Assignment Three-Phase Motors
OPEN MOTORS GENERAL PURPOSE
NEMA
PROGRAM
HP
1
1.5
2
3
5
7.5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
ORIG.
3600
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
ORIG.
1800
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
ORIG.
1200
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
ORIG.
900
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364S
364S
365S
404S
405S
444S
445S
504S
505S
182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
324S
326S
364US
365US
404US
405US
444US
445US
143T
145T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284TS
286TS
324TS
326TS
364TS
365TS
404TS
405TS
444TS
445TS
203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
364
365
404
405S
444S
445S
504S
505S
182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
324U
326U
364U
365US
404US
405US
444US
445US
143T
145T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364TS*
365TS*
404TS*
405TS*
444TS*
445TS*
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
324U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T
225
254
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505
213
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T
* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.
ORIG.
3600
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
ORIG.
1800
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
ORIG.
1200
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
ORIG.
900
RPM
1952
RERATE
1964
RERATE
203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
365S
404S
405S
444S
445S
504S
505S
182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
324U
326S
364US
365US
405US
444US
445US
143T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284TS
286TS
324TS
326TS
364TS
365TS
405TS
444TS
445TS
203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444S
445S
504S
505S
182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
324U
326U
364U
365US
405US
444US
445US
143T
145T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364TS*
365TS*
405TS*
444TS*
445TS*
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
324U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T
225
254
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505
213
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T
* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.
C
CM
D
E
FC
FD
G
H
10
Note: Manufacturers may use any letter preceding the frame number, but
such a letter will have no reference to standard mounting dimensions.
1.3
Enclosure Type
The enclosure of the motor must protect the windings, bearings, and
other mechanical parts from moisture, chemicals, mechanical damage
and abrasion from grit. NEMA standards MG1-1.25 through 1.27 define
more than 20 types of enclosures under the categories of open machines,
totally enclosed machines, and machines with encapsulated or sealed
11
12
SECOND
CHARACTERISTIC
NUMERAL
DEGREE OF PROTECTION
DEGREE OF PROTECTION
Non-protected machine
Non-protected machine
6*
Dust-tight machine
2
3
4
2
3
4
13
CLASSIFICATION
IP CODE
IP 00
Open Machine
IP 22
IP 10
Semi-guarded machine
IP 44
IP 12
Dripproof machine
IP 54
IP 13
Splash-proof machine
IP 55
14
CLASSIFICATION
Dripproof guarded machine
Totally enclosed pipe-ventilated
machine
Totally enclosed non-ventilated
machine
Water-proof machine
Open Dripproof.
The open dripproof motor (ODP) has a free exchange of air with the
ambient. Drops of liquid or solid particles do not interfere with the
operation at any angle from 0 to 15degrees downward from the vertical.
The openings are intake and exhaust ports to accommodate interchange
of air. The open dripproof motor is designed for indoor use where the air
is fairly clean and where there is little danger of splashing liquid. Refer
to Fig. 1.3A Open Dripproof (ODP)
but is used in situations where air is being blown over the motor shell for
cooling, such as in a propeller fan application. Refer to Fig. 1.3B
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Motor.
Explosionproof
The explosionproof motor is a totally enclosed machine and is designed
to withstand an explosion of specified gas or vapor inside the motor
casing and prevent the ignition outside the motor by sparks, flashing or
explosion. These motors are designed for specific hazardous purposes,
such as atmospheres containing gases or hazardous dusts. For safe
operation, the maximum motor operating temperature must be below the
ignition temperature of surrounding gases or vapors. Explosionproof
motors are designed, manufactured and tested under the rigid
requirements of the Underwriters Laboratories.
Hazardous location motor applications are classified by the type of
hazardous environment present, the characteristics of the specific
material creating the hazard, the probability of exposure to the
environment, and the maximum temperature level that is considered safe
16
for the substance creating the hazard. The format used to define this
information is a class, group, division and temperature code structure.
17
18
Continuation of
1.4
Temperature class
19
20
21
The air gap between rotor and stator is subject to certain minimum
dimensions. There are also minimum dimensions for creepage distance
and the air gap between winding leads and earth.
All connections between live parts must be secured so that they cannot
work loose. Cable bushings and the cable branch in the terminal box are
also subject to certain temperature limits. The motors must have both an
internal and an external earthing screw.
Flameproof enclosure, EEx d
The housing of the motor must be so designed that ignition and
combustion of any explosive mixture inside the housing cannot be
propagated to a similar mixture outside the housing and that the housing
can withstand without damage the explosion pressure thus caused.
The motor need not be hermetically sealed; gas may therefore penetrate
the motor. The permitted temperature inside the motor is limited only by
the insulation class of the motor.
The rated output depends on how hot the outer surface of the motor is
permitted to be with regard to the relevant temperature class. Slip-ring
motors, commutator motors and brake motors can all be made in
flameproof versions.
No external parts may cause sparks.
The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw.
Pressurized enclosure, EEx p
In this version the motor must be under a given minimum positive
pressure relative to the surroundings, so that the ambient atmosphere
cannot penetrate the motor in service.
The pressurization can take the form of positive pressure with
compensation for leakage or positive pressure with continuous flushing.
22
23
24
25
26
27
temperature, with the rotor locked and the stator winding loaded with the
starting current IA. In other words, the highest permitted surface
temperature for the temperature class or the insulation class of the
winding, the lower of the two being the limit.
=
=
=
=
temperature 0 C.
maximum ambient temperature, normally 40 C.
temperature at rated output.
maximum permitted temperature at rated output for the
insulation class.
D = limit temperature at rated output for the insulation class or
the temperature class.
E = temperature rise at rated output.
F = temperature rise in locked-rotor test.
G = heating time during F.
Relationship between IA/lN. and tE
The time tE and the ratio IA/lN must be determined and stated so that
suitable current dependent protection can be chosen to protect the motor
from overheating. The value of tE must be such that, when the rotor is
locked, the motor is disconnected by a current-dependent protection
device before the time tE has expired. Generally this is possible if the
time tE for the motor is longer than the value indicated by the curve for
28
the corresponding IA/lN. Values below the curve are only permitted if
specially adapted current-dependent overload protection that has been
proved effective in tests is used. This protection must be identified on the
rating plate of the motor.
29
In no case must the time tE be shorter than 5 seconds, nor must the ratio
IA/IN be greater than 10. If some form of protection other than currentdependent protection is used (temperature sensors built into the motor for
example), IA/IN and tE are not stated. The rating plate of the motor states
how it is protected against overheating.
Mounting
NEMA Dimensions
NEMA has standardized motor dimensions for a range of frame sizes.
Standardized dimensions include bolt-hole size, mounting base
dimensions, shaft height, shaft diameter, and shaft length. Use of
standardized dimensions allows existing motors to be replaced without
reworking the mounting arrangement. In addition, new installations are
easier to design because the dimensions are known.
NEMA divides standard frame sizes into two categories, fractional
horsepower and integral horsepower. The most common frame sizes for
30
fractional horsepower motors are 42, 48, and 56. Integral horsepower
motors are designated by frame sizes 143 and above. A T in the motor
frame size designation for an integral horsepower motor indicates that
the motor is built to current NEMA frame standards.
Motors that have a U in their motor frame size designation are built to
NEMA standards that were in place between 1952 and 1964. The frame
size designation is a code to help identify key frame dimensions. The
first two digits are used to determine the shaft height. The shaft height is
the distance from the center of the shaft to the mounting surface. To
calculate the shaft height, divide the first two digits of the frame size by
4. For example, In Fig. 1.5A - a 143T frame size motor has a shaft height
of 3 inches (14 4).
The third digit in the integral T frame size number is the NEMA code for
the distance between the center lines of the motor feet mounting bolt
holes. The distance is determined by matching this digit with a table in
NEMA publication MG-1. For example in Fig. 1.5B, the distance
between the center lines of the mounting bolt holes in the feet of a 143T
frame is 4.00 inches.
31
FRAME
SIZE
SERIES
140
160
180
200
210
220
250
280
320
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.25
5.50
6.25
7.00
8.00
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.00
5.50
6.25
7.00
8.00
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
5.50
6.25
7.00
8.00
9.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.50
6.25
6.75
8.25
9.50
10.50
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.50
6.25
6.75
8.25
9.50
10.50
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Mounting Positions
The typical floor mounting positions are illustrated in the following
drawing, and are referred to as F-1 and F-2 mountings. The conduit box
can be located on either side of the frame to match the mounting
arrangement and position. The standard location of the conduit box is on
the left-hand side of the motor when viewed from the shaft end. This is
40
41
Mounting Faces
It is sometimes necessary to connect the motor directly to the equipment
it drives. In the following example a motor is connected directly to a gear
box.
C-face
The face, or the end, of a C-face motor has threaded bolt holes. Bolts to
mount the motor pass through mating holes in the equipment and into the
face of the motor.
42
43
44
D-flange
The bolts go through the holes in the flange of a D-flange motor and into
threaded mating holes of the equipment.
45
46
47
JM Face Mounted
NEMA FRAME DIMENSIONS*
TYPE JM FACE-MOUNTING,
CLOSED-COUPLED, AC PUMP MOTORS
* DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS
BF
BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE
NUMBER
BB
3.5
BD
MAX
168
TAP
SIZE
3/8-16
14
114.30
3.5
168
3/8-16
14
184.15
215.90
228
1/2-13
19
134
184.15
215.90
254
1/2-13
19
31.73
134
279.40
317.5
355
5/8-11
24
31.73
134
279.40
317.5
355
5/8-11
24
FRAME
DESIGNATIONS
143JM and 145JM
U
22.21
AH*
108
AJ
149.25
AK
114.30
22.21
108
149.25
22.21
108
31.73
TAP
SIZE
EN
TAP
DRILL
DEPTH
MAX
BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE
KEYSEAT
EP
MIN
FRAME
DESIGNATIONS
EL
EM
29.35
25.40
3/8-16
28
19
30
31.75
25.40
3/8-16
28
19
32
31.75
25.40
3/8-16
28
19
45
44.45
34.92
1/2-13
38
25
45
44.45
34.92
1/2-13
38
25
54
44.45
34.92
1/2-13
38
25
54
EQ*
16.0
ER
MIN
108
R
19.5
ES
MIN
42
S
4.80
ET*
73.0
16.0
108
19.5
42
4.80
73.0
16.0
108
19.5
42
4.80
73.0
16.0
134
28.2
65
6.40
76.5
16.0
134
28.2
65
6.40
76.5
16.0
134
28.2
65
6.40
76.5
48
JP Face Mounted
NEMA FRAME DIMENSIONS*
TYPE JM FACE-MOUNTING,
CLOSED-COUPLED, AC PUMP MOTORS
* DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS
BF
NUMBER
TAP
SIZE
BB
BD
MAX
BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE
3.5
168
3/8-16
14
3.5
168
3/8-16
14
215.90
228
1/2-13
19
184.15
215.90
254
1/2-13
19
207
279.40
317.5
355
5/8-11
24
31.73
207
279.40
317.5
355
5/8-11
24
41.26
207
279.40
317.5
355
5/8-11
24
FRAME
DESIGNATIONS
AH*
AJ
AK
22.21
186
149.25
114.30
22.21
186
149.25
114.30
31.73
207
184.15
31.73
207
31.73
TAP
SIZE
EN
TAP
DRILL
DEPTH
MAX
BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE
KEYSEAT
FRAME
DESIGNATIONS
EL
EM
EP
MIN
EQ*
ER
MIN
ES
MIN
ET*
29.35
25.40
3/8-16
28
19
30
40.0
186
19.5
42
4.80
151.0
31.75
25.40
3/8-16
28
19
32
40.0
186
19.5
42
4.80
151.0
44.45
34.92
3/8-16
38
25
45
60.5
207
28.2
65
6.40
149.5
44.45
34.92
1/2-13
38
25
45
60.5
207
28.2
65
6.40
149.5
44.45
34.92
1/2-13
38
25
54
60.5
207
28.2
65
6.40
149.5
44.45
34.92
1/2-13
38
25
54
60.5
207
28.2
65
6.40
149.5
53.95
44.45
1/2-13
38
25
54
60.5
207
35.9
65
9.55
149.5
49
Mounting arrangements
IEC Publication 347 lays down two ways of stating how a motor is
mounted.
Code I covers only motors with bearing end shields and one shaft
extension.
Code II is a general code.
The table below includes the designations for the most commonly
occurring mounting arrangements according to the two codes.
50
The electric motors execution and assembly type can be seen here
1.6
This model and/or catalog number is used to establish motor identity and
age for replacement parts and warranty.
51
52
Tolerance Classes
The tolerance classes specified in the ABMA Standards have been
established by the Annular Bearing Engineers Committee (ABEC).
These tolerance classes have been accepted by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and conform essentially with standards of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
ABEC Parameters
ABEC Standards, which define tolerances for several major bearing
dimensions and characteristics, are divided into mounting dimensions
and bearing geometry. The geometric tolerances apply to both inner and
outer rings and include:
Bore roundness
Bore runout with side
Bore taper
Race runout with side
Width variation
Radial runout
ABEC standards do not address many other factors that affect bearing
performance and life, including:
Materials
Ball complement number, size and precision
Raceway curvature, roundness and finish
Cage design
Lubricant
ABEC Precision Classes
General purpose ball bearing are manufactured to tolerances in
accordance with precision classes ABEC1, ABEC3, BEC5, ABEC7 and
ABEC9. The ascending numbers indicate stricter tolerances and
additional requirement as found in ABMA Standard 20.
53
54
55
56
1.7
Terminal Markings
IEC Publication 34-8 lays down that the stator winding, parts of it and
the terminals of A.C motors must be designated with the letters U, V and
57
W. External neutral terminals are designated N. The letters used for the
rotor winding are K, L, M and Q.
1. End points and intermediate points of a winding are indicated by a
digit after the letter, e.g. U1, U2 etc.
2. Parts of the same winding are designated by a digit before the
letter, e.g. 1U1, 2U1 etc. If there is no possibility of confusion, the
digit before the letter, or both, may be omitted.
58
The switch in the auxiliary winding circuit has been omitted from this
diagram. The connections to the switch must be made so that both
auxiliary windings become de-energized when the switch is open
ROTATION:
CC Counter- clockwise
CW - Clockwise
The direction of shaft rotation can be determined by facing the end of the
motor opposite the drive.
(NEMA Standards MG 1-2006, 2.41. Note: May not apply for some
definite-purpose motors.)
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
Dahlander Motors
Two speed motor with a re-connectible winding (Dahlander
Connection)
66
1.8
Motor Design
Changes in motor windings and rotor design will alter the performance
characteristics of induction motors. Motors are designed with certain
speed torque characteristics to match the speed torque requirements of
the various loads. To obtain some uniformity in application, NEMA has
designated specific designs of general purpose motors having specified
locked rotor torque, breakdown torque, slip, starting current, or other
values. The following graph shows the relationship between speed and
torque that the motor produces from the moment of start until the motor
reaches full load torque at rated speed.
67
68
NEMA Design A, B, C, D
NEMA has established four different designs - A, B, C and D - for
electrical induction motors.
Different motors of the same nominal horsepower can have varying
starting current, torque curves, speeds, and other variables. Selection of a
particular motor for an intended task must take all engineering
parameters into account.
The four NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) designs
have unique speed-torque-slip relationships making them suitable to
different type of applications:
NEMA design A
Has maximum 5% slip, high to medium starting current, normal locked
rotor torque, normal breakdown torque, and suited for a broad variety of
applications - as fans and pumps.
69
NEMA design B
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque,
normal breakdown torque, suited for a broad variety of applications,
normal starting torque - common in HVAC application with fans,
blowers and pumps.
NEMA design C
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque,
normal breakdown torque, and suited for equipment with high inertia
starts - as positive displacement pumps.
NEMA design D
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, very high locked rotor
torque, and suited for equipment with very high inertia starts - as cranes,
hoists etc.
IEC Design
Motors covered by this IEC standard are classified by the following
designs:
Design N
Normal torque three-phase cage induction motors intended for direct-online starting, having 2, 4, 6, or 8 poles and rated from 0.4 kW to 630 kW
at frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
Design NY
Motors similar to design N, but intended for star-delta starting. For these
motors in star-connection, minimum values for Tl and TU of 25% of the
values of design N as shown in Table 1.8A may be expected.
70
Design H
High torque three-phase cage induction motors with 4, 6 or 8 poles,
intended for
Direct-online starting, and rated from 0.4 kW to 160 kW at a frequency
of 60 Hz. Torques of IEC Design H are nearly identical to NEMA
Design C.
Design HY
Motors similar to design H but intended for star-delta starting. For these
motors in star-connection, minimum values for T1 and TU of 25% of the
values of Design H as shown in Table 1.8B may be expected.
71
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
The values of Tl are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but arc not less than 2.0.
The values of Tu are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but are not less than 1.4.
The values of Tb are equal to the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but are not less than 1.9 and the values of Tu.
72
73
Table 1.8D
74
75
1.9
Types of duty
Definitions
Various types of duty have been defined in terms of how the load, and
thus the output of the motor, varies with time. The rated output for each
type of duty is determined in a load test which the motor must undergo
without the temperature limits laid down in IEC Publication 34-1 being
exceeded.
Actual operating conditions are often of a more irregular nature than
those corresponding to any of the standardized types of duty. It is
therefore essential, both when choosing a motor and when rating and
testing it, to decide on the type of duty that corresponds best to the
thermal stresses that are expected to occur in practice.
IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission) uses nine duty
cycle designations to describe electrical motor operating conditions:
76
S1 Continuous duty
Operation at constant load long enough for thermal equilibrium to be
reached.
S2 Short-time duty
Operation at constant load for a given time that is shorter than the time
needed to reach thermal equilibrium, followed by a rest and de-energized
period long enough to allow the motor to reach a temperature that does
not deviate from the temperature of the cooling medium by more than 2
K.
77
S3 Intermittent duty
A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one
at constant load and the other at rest and de-energized, in this type of
duty the starting current has no significant effect on the temperature rise.
The duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be reached.
78
79
80
Direction of rotation
If the mains supply is connected to the stator terminals marked U, V and
W of a three-phase motor, and the phase sequence of the mains is L1, L2,
L3, the motor will rotate clockwise as viewed from the drive end. For the
opposite direction of rotation, interchange two of the three wires
connected to the starter switch or the motor.
81
Braking
Mechanical braking
Mechanical braking with magnetic lifting is the technique most widely
used for the braking of electric motors. At standstill brakes of this type
provide a holding torque, and are therefore used where loss of braking in
the event of power failure could be dangerous. However, in certain cases
it may be necessary to lift the brake without starting the motor. This can
be done by supplying the brake coil from a separate power source, or
with a manual release device.
The mechanical brakes used for electric motors are shoe, multiple-plate
or disc brakes. ABB Motors brakes are disc brakes with asbestos-free
brake pads or linings.
82
Electrical Braking
Countercurrent braking
With countercurrent braking, an ordinary standard motor is switched at
full speed for the opposite direction of rotation. This can be done with a
reversing switch. After braking to a standstill, the motor starts in the
opposite direction of rotation, unless the current is switched off at the
right moment. A low speed detector is therefore used to cut off the
supply to the motor when the speed approaches zero.
Countercurrent braking gives a very high braking torque. The current
during braking is about the same as during starting, so that there is a
considerable temperature rise in the motor. Consequently the permitted
frequency of braking with the countercurrent technique is only about
one-quarter of the number of permitted brakings for a brake motor. Since
the permitted frequency of braking can easily be exceeded with
countercurrent braking, temperature sensors should always be used to
protect the motor windings from overheating.
For squirrel-cage motors the braking time can be calculated
approximately with the formula:
Where:
tb
K1
Jm
Jb
=
=
=
=
Mmax =
Mstart =
braking time, s
constant depending on number of poles. See table
below.
moment of inertia of motor, kgm2
moment of inertia of load, referred to speed of motor,
kgm2
maximum torque of motor, Nm
starting torque of motor, Nm
83
For slip-ring motors the starting and braking times are both determined
by the dimensioning of the rheostatic starter. With countercurrent
braking there is no braking action in the event of power failure. The
technique is therefore unsuitable for use in plant where loss of braking
could cause danger.
Direct-current braking
When braking with this technique, the A.C. supply to the motor is
disconnected and the stator is excited with direct current instead; this
causes the motor to produce a braking torque.
An ordinary standard motor and suitable equipment for D.C. excitation
may be used. The A.C. voltage follows a decay curve, and the D.C.
voltage must not be connected until the A.C. voltage has fallen to a value
at which it will not harm the D.C. equipment.
Direct-current braking gives a far longer braking time than
countercurrent braking, however high the excitation current is, but
thermal losses are lower, so more frequent braking is permissible.
Derating Factors
Several factors can affect the performance of an AC motor. These must
be considered when applying a motor.
Voltage Variation
As previously discussed, AC motors have a rated voltage and frequency.
Some motors have connections for more that one rated voltage. The
following table shows the most common voltage ratings for NEMA
motors.
84
85
Frequency
A variation in the frequency at which the motor operates causes changes
primarily in speed and torque characteristics. A 5% increase in
frequency, for example, causes a 5% increase in full-load speed and a
10% decrease in torque.
Altitude
Standard motors are designed to operate below 3300 feet. Air is thinner,
and heat is not dissipated as quickly above 3300 feet. Most motors must
be derated for altitudes above 3300 feet. The following chart shows
typical horsepower derating factors, but the derating factor should be
checked for each motor. A 50 HP motor operated at 6000 feet, for
example, would be derated to 47 HP, providing the 40C ambient rating
is still required.
Example: 50 HP x 0.94 = 47 HP
Ambient Temperature
The ambient temperature may also have to be considered. The ambient
temperature requirement may be reduced from 40C to 30C at 6600 feet
on many motors. However, a motor with a higher insulation class may
not require derating in these conditions.
86
Earthing of machines
Machines shall be provided with means for connecting a protective
conductor or an earth conductor, such means being identified by the
appropriate symbol or legend. This requirement does not apply to
machines with supplementary insulation, to machines with rated voltages
up to and including 50 VAC or 120 VDC (see IEC 60364-4-41, clause
411 and IEC 60449), or to machines for assembling in apparatus with
supplementary insulation.
In the case of machines having rated voltages greater than 50 VAC or
120 VDC, but not exceeding 1 000 VAC, or 1 500 VDC, the terminal for
the earth conductor shall be situated in the vicinity of the terminals for
the line conductors, being placed in the terminal box, if one is provided.
Machines having rated outputs in excess of 100 kW (or kVA) shall have
in addition an earth terminal fitted on the frame.
Machines for rated voltages greater than 1 000 VAC or 1 500 VDC shall
have an earth terminal on the frame, for example an iron strap, and in
addition, a means inside the terminal box for connecting a conducting
cable sheath, if any.
For other cross-sectional areas of live conductors, the earth or protective
conductor shall have a cross-sectional area at least equivalent to:
1. That of the live conductor for cross-sectional areas less than 25
mm2;
2. 25 mm2 for cross-sectional areas between 25 mm2 and 50 mm2;
3. 50 % of that of the live conductor for cross-sectional areas
exceeding 50 mm2
The earth terminal shall be identified in accordance with IEC 60445.
87
Speed Control
General
The relationship between rotational speed, supply frequency, number of
poles and slip for induction motors is usually written:
88
PAM
PAM (pole amplitude modulation) makes it possible to design a twospeed motor with a stator winding for pole number ratios other than 2:1.
Pole number changing is achieved by changing the direction of the
current in part of the winding, thus varying the excitation in the same
way as with the Dahlander arrangement. Among the advantages of PAM
is that a given motor size can be better utilized and a higher rated power
can be extracted from it. Just as with the Dahlander connection, constanttorque or fan-torque versions are possible.
89
Multi-speed motors
A pole changing winding can also be combined with another winding.
This winding can be for a single speed or it too can be a pole-changing
winding. In this way, three or even four-speed motors can be made. Even
so, such motors are uncommon.
Examples of stator windings and connection arrangements with different
types of multi-speed motor There may be other variants.
90
Converter control
91
The basic principle of this form of speed control is that the rotor power is
taken out via the slip-rings and rectified in a conventional uncontrolled
rectifier. The voltage is then converted into alternating voltage in a
controlled inverter and fed back to the supply via a transformer. The
amount of power fed back to the supply can be varied by varying the
firing angle in the inverter.
Fig. 2.3A Typical torque/speed diagram for pump and fan duty
with speed control using a slip recovery system.
92
93
If the rated voltage of the motor corresponds to the supply voltage, the
motor cannot be controlled to a speed higher than the rated speed if the
load torque is to be maintained, since the inverter cannot provide a
voltage higher than the supply voltage.
Another limit to higher speeds has to do with rotor design. Particularly in
large motors for high speeds, control to higher speeds is determined by
the critical speed of the motor and the highest permitted runaway speed.
One possible result of a wide speed range is that cooling of the motor
might be insufficient at low speed and high torque, making it necessary
to provide extra cooling. Alternatively, an over dimensioned motor must
be chosen.
Standard motors are generally used with frequency control, in any case
for the lower power ranges. Standard motors are dimensioned for a fairly
high starting torque. The shape of the rotor bars is often such that large
amounts of heat are produced at the top of the bars during starting, when
the rotor frequency is high. Because of the high harmonic losses, this
type of rotor bar design is a disadvantage in frequency converter
operation, in view of the high harmonic content of the supply voltage.
After all, there is no need for a high starting torque when starting with a
frequency converter and it may be preferable to use a different rotor bar
shape.
94
95
96
As the figure shows, the characteristics of the torque curves are such that
the change in speed for varying load is insignificant over the normal
speed range.
2.4
Motor Efficiency
97
98
99
100
101
102
General Characteristics
2.1
Three
-wire
120/240
240
Four-wire
Utilization
Voltage
Service
Voltage
110
110/120
114
114/228
208Y/120
191Y/110
240/120
220/120
220
440Y/254
440
550
2160
3740Y/2160
3740
4320
6210
480Y/277
480
600
2400
VOLTAGE RANGE A
Minimum
Maximum
4160Y/2400
4160
4800
6900
8320Y/4800
12000Y/6930
Utilization and
Service Voltage
Single-Phase Systems
VOLTAGE RANGE B
Minimum
Maximum
Utilization
Voltage
Service
Voltage
Utilization and
Service Voltage
126
126/252
106
106/212
110
110/220
127
127/254
197Y/114
218Y/126
252/126
228
456Y/263
456
570
2340
4050Y/2340
4050
4680
6730
8110Y/4680
11700Y/6760
252
504Y/291
504
630
2520
4370Y/2520
4370
5040
7240
8730Y/5040
12600Y/7270
184Y/106
(Note d)
212/106
212
424/245
424
530
2080
3600Y/2080
3600
4160
5940
191y/110
(Note d)
220/110
220
440Y/254
440
550
2280
3950Y/2280
3950
4560
6560
7900Y/4560
11400/6580
220Y/127
228/114
Three-Phase Systems
220/127
254
508Y/293
508
635
2540
4400Y/2540
4400
5080
7260
8800Y/5080
12700Y/7330
103
Voltage
104
105
Voltage deviations also affect the temperature rise in the winding of the
motor. If the voltage is low, the temperature rises in both small and large
motors; if the voltage is high the temperature may drop slightly in large
motors, but rises sharply in motors with small output powers. It is
therefore essential to dimension the windings generously enough to
ensure that there is no significant voltage drop in them on starting or in
service.
106
Unbalance Voltage
Far too many assumptions are made when dealing with the symmetry of
a voltage supply. In order to accurately assess the quality of the voltage
supply, it is necessary to verify it at a number of places within the service
and over a reasonable period of time and seasons. NEMA MG 1, 14.36
offers the following explanation of the effects of unbalance voltage,
along with a load derating curve.
Effects of Unbalance Voltages on the Performance of Polyphase
Induction Motors.
When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not
equal, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will result. A small
107
When the derating curve as shown in the left figure, it is applied for
operation on unbalanced voltages, the selection and setting of the
overload device should take into account the combination of the derating
factor applied to the motor and increase in current resulting from the
unbalance voltages. This is a complex problem involving the variation in
108
Example: With voltages of 460, 467, and 450, the average is 459, the
maximum deviation from average is 9, and the percent unbalance equals:
109
PREM. EFF.
STD. EFF.
Model No.
7965
E398
Type
TCE
CT
HP Rating
Voltage/Freq.
230/60
230/60
No. of Poles
Syn. Speed
1800
1800
Connections
Wye
Wye
12.56
1750
0.0280
445
89.3
83.4
13.47
1738
0.0344
611
85.9
80.9
107
114
0.0325
43
116
110
120
0.0359
51
116
110
111
2.3
Power factor
112
Efficiency
Electric motors are simply devices that convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Like all electromechanical equipment, motors
consume some "extra" energy in order to make the conversion.
Efficiency is a measure of how much total energy a motor uses in
relation to the rated power delivered to the shaft.
A motor's nameplate rating is based on output horsepower, which is fixed
for continuous operation at full load. The amount of input power needed
to produce rated horsepower will vary from motor to motor, with moreefficient motors requiring less input wattage than less-efficient models to
produce the same output. Electrical energy input is measured in watts,
while output is given in horsepower. (This convention applies in the
USA; output power for motors manufactured in other countries may be
stated in watts or kilowatts.) One horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts.
There are several ways to express motor efficiency, but the basic concept
and the numerical results are the same. For example:
Efficiency, % =
or its equivalent;
113
x 100
Watts (output)
Watts (input)
Efficiency, % =
x 100
Watts (output)
Watts (output) + Watts (losses)
x 100
or its equivalent;
Efficiency, % =
x 100
"Losses" stands for all the energy "fees" the motor charges in order to
make its electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion. Their magnitude
varies from motor to motor and can even vary among motors of the same
make, type and size. In general, however, standard-efficiency motors
(pre-EPAct) have higher losses than motors that meet EPAct standards,
while NEMA Premium motors, or better, have lower losses still.
Types of Losses
Energy losses in electric motors fall into four categories:
114
Power losses and stray load losses appear only when the motor is
operating under load. They are therefore more important in terms of
energy efficiency than magnetic core losses and friction and windage
losses, which are present, even under no-load conditions (when the motor
is running, of course).
Power losses, also called IR losses, are the most important of the four
categories and can account for more than one-half of a motor's total
losses. Power losses appear as heat generated by resistance to current
flowing in the stator windings and rotor conductor bars and end rings.
Stator losses make up about 66% of power losses, and it is here that
motor manufacturers have achieved significant gains in efficiency. Since
increasing the mass of stator windings lowers their electrical resistance
(and therefore reduces IR losses), highly efficient motors typically
contain about 20% more copper than standard efficiency models of
equivalent size and rating.
Rotor losses are reduced by decreasing the degree of slip. This is
accomplished by increasing the mass of the rotor conductors (conductor
bars and end-plates) and/or increasing their conductivity (see below), and
to a lesser extent by increasing the total flux across the air gap between
rotor and stator.
115
The fact that high-efficiency motors tend to have less slip (run faster)
than standard-efficiency motors must be taken into account in certain
applications. For example, energy consumption by centrifugal loads such
as fans and rotary compressors is proportional to the cube of rotational
speed. If such loads are driven at the higher speed of a low-slip, highefficiency motor directly replacing a standard motor, energy
consumption can actually increase. This situation can sometimes be
resolved by lowering rotational speed with a variable-speed drive, gears
or pulleys. There are other parameters, such as torque or starting current,
that can vary among motors of the same nominal horsepower. It is
important to properly engineer the application of any motor to the
intended task.
Magnetic core losses arise from hysteresis effects, eddy currents and
magnetic saturation, all of which take effect in the steel laminations.
Magnetic losses can account for up to 20% of total losses. With proper
design, use of better materials and stringent quality control, these losses
can be reduced considerably.
117
Speed
The speed of an A.C. motor depends on the mains frequency and the
number of poles of the stator winding.
118
The rules above apply to moderate changes in output and voltage. The
speeds of the motors when warm and at rated output are subject to a
tolerance of 20% of the slip. The normal testing speed for overspeed is
120% of the rated speed for two minutes.
2.6
119
121
Monitoring principle
The evaluation of the vibrations is based on the following principles:
Measurement of the velocity using a broad band
Comparison to acceptance criteria depending on the machines
class, type and power : Criteria 1
122
VRMS :
VA
:
G
k et m :
123
ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and
nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in
situ.
RMS velocity value VRMS and RMS displacement DRMS during
nominal and steady running conditions.
Broad band measurements [10-1000] Hz if speed > 600 RPM.
Broad band measurements [2-1000] Hz if 120 < speed < 600
RPM.
The zone limits are given according the machine group and
mounting type.
124
ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and
nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in
situ.
Group 1: Large machine with rated power above 300kW and not
more than 50 MW ; electrical machine with shaft height H > 315
mm
125
ELECTRICAL HEALTH BANDS FOR MOTOR DRIVES (AC, DC, VFD, LOW
FREQUENCY FAULTS
RANGE
DRIVE
Band #
1x LF
2x LF
3x LF
4x LF
5x LF
6x LF
Band 1
Band 2
Band 3
Band 4
Band 5
Band 6
Band Level
AC
DRIVE
Band Level
AC VFD
0.020
ips
0.080
ips
0.020
ips
0.040
ips
0.020
ips
Band Level
DC
FWR
0.020
ips
0.020
ips
0.020
ips
0.020
ips
0.020
ips
Band Level
DC
HWR
0.020
ips
0.020
ips
0.080
ips
0.020
ips
0.020
ips
0.9-1.1x
LF
1.8-2.2x
LF
2.9-3.1x
LF
3.8-4.2x
LF
4.9-5.1x
LF
Frequency
Range
0.080
ips
0.040
ips
0.020
ips
0.080
ips
0.020
ips
5.9-6.1x
LF
FMAX = 24,000 CPM #FFT Lines = 6400 #Average = 2 Overlapping = 0% Window = Hanning
If Drive is Variable Speed Type:
Lock Drive to Repeatable Frequency for each Survey, or
Expand Frequency Range(s) to include range of possible operating conditions.
If Drive is DC Type:
Set SCR Bands to appropriate Control Type (Half Wave Rectified or Full Wave
Rectified).
126
Vibration Principles
127
128
In the case of the rotating machines, the period often corresponds to the
duration for one shaft rotation
Like any movement, a vibration can be studied according to three
magnitudes:
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
There are mathematical relationships between theses values. These
relations are simple in the case of pure sinusoidal signals. The choice of
the magnitude is important for the quality of diagnosis.
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
The decomposition of a periodic and complex vibratory signal in its
various sinusoidal components, represented each one by their amplitude
(Ai) their frequency (Fi) is carried out by a time - frequency
transformation called Fourier transform. This mathematical function
carries out a transposition of the signal from the time domain towards the
frequency domain. The resulting signal is called a frequency spectrum.
The algorithm used in the modern analyzer to calculate the Fourier
Transform is called: FFT (Fast Fourier Transform).
Vibration from Unbalance
Many vibration and balancing specialists suggest that machinery
unbalance is the most common cause of vibration in rotating equipment.
The vibration caused by unbalance occurs at a frequency equal to 1 x
RPM on the unbalanced part.
Note: Unbalance is not the only problem that can cause vibration frequencies of 1
x RPM. Misalignment also causes high levels of vibration at 1 x RPM.
129
The units used for measuring unbalance are varied. It may be stated that
a machine is out-of-balance 6.5 mm/s RMS. This usually means that the
vibration amplitude is 6.5 mm/s and it has been determined that
unbalance is causing the vibration. Unbalance units can also be measured
in ounce-inches or gram-centimeters. To calculate these unbalance units
multiply the amount of unbalance by the radius at which it is acting. For
example, one ounce of unbalance at one-inch radius will result in one
ounce-inch of unbalance.
Causes of Unbalance
There are many reasons that unbalance is present in a rotor. Several
reasons are:
130
2x rpm
1x rpm
Measured radial or axial
132
Misalignment changed the air gap between the stator and rotor resulting
to burnt motor winding due to stress on bearings.
Diagnosing Bearings Defects
Damage to the bearing can be detected early by measuring the vibration
of the machine. The degree of damage is inferred from quantitative
analysis of the amplitude and frequency of the vibration. However,
values measured differ depending on the measuring point and the
operating condition of the bearing. It is desirable to accumulate
measurement data and establish evaluation criteria for each machine. In
this example, we have a pump driven by a motor.
There was a strong axial movement from the pump that damaged motor
bearings. The two bearings 7324 BEJ were mounted in pump outboard
bearing instead of 7324 BECBJ. The later is suitable for back-to-back
bearing arrangement that can handle axial load in any direction. While,
the former is suitable for single mounting and handles one direction of
axial load only.
133
134
Bearing Defects
on motor
Rotor Balancing
Rotor balancing is a relatively simple operation and the balance is easy to
check.
However, the final vibration resistance is also influenced by other
factors, mainly the nature of the base on which the motor is mounted,
although the method of clamping, the alignment and the electromagnetic
forces also play a part.
Why Balance to tight limits? There are many reasons why a machine
should be balanced to tight limits, some of which include:
135
Balancing
When balancing a rotor, other than a 2-pole, the procedure is
straightforward. By adding or removing weight in the appropriate places
on each end of the rotor, we compensate for variations in the centrifugal
forces acting on the rotor. A heavy spot exerts more force, causing
movement that is measured as unbalance. Adding a compensating weight
directly opposite the heavy spot counterbalances it, reducing the net
unbalance.
With most rotors, the shaft is stiff enough to resist the centrifugal forces
acting to deflect it. Special cases require additional care in balancing. In
general, the longer and/or more flexible the shaft, the more critical
balancing becomes as shown below.
136
Rotor Balancing
137
138
1x Fan RPM
1x Motor RPM
Measured at Motor NDE
139
With multi-belt drives, it is important that all belts have the same tension.
If one or more belts are slack while other are under proper tension, the
slack belt can undergo excessive vibration even from very minor
disturbing forces. This condition, if continued, causes belts slippage and
brings on excessive belt and pulley wear.
Belt Slippage
Improper tension, pulley misalignment, worn pulleys, belt mismatch,
excessive loads and dirty or wet operating areas commonly cause belt
slippage. Belt slippage produces high frequency vibration and noise,
identified as a chirp or squeal. Vibration due to slippage often results
in unsteady amplitude readings. On multiple V-belt installations belts
may slip by varying amounts, which is continued may either contribute
to vibration effect, or in some cases reduce the vibration effect. However
the net result is vibration amplitude that increases in a cyclic or periodic
manner. The extent of slippage can be determined on multiple V-belt
drives by using a strobe light. Safely shut down the machine and after he
belts are stopped draw a straight line across all the belts with chalk or
other visible market. Run the machine back up to normal operating
speed, set the vibration analyzer to 1x belt RPM and closely observe the
140
lined marks on the belts under the strobe light. If the belts are slipping in
relation to one another, the marks will also appear to move relative to
one another (freeze one and watch the other).
Bearings
Rolling bearings, i.e. ball and roller bearings, are reliable, inexpensive
and easy to maintain. They are the only type of bearing used in small and
medium-sized three-phase motors. However, they have an upper size
limit that is a function of rotational speed.
This limit depends on bearing type, size, load, method of lubrication etc.
Sometimes sleeve bearings are preferred for larger motor sizes, even
where rolling bearings could be used.
Bearing Life
The nominal life of rolling bearing in motors is normally 25 000 to 100
000 hours L10 to ISO R 281.
Nominal life is the number of running hours at a given speed for which
the bearing can rotate before signs of fatigue scaling appear on the
rings or rolling elements.
ISO definition L10 means the length of life that 90% of a large number
of identical bearings are expected to reach or exceed. Half of the
bearings achieve as much as five times the L10 life.
141
Internal Clearance
There are applications that we have to consider operating temperature of
the equipment, like motors, equipment operating at 3600 rpm, and
loading that requires higher interference fits. Bearing clearance is then
required to accommodate any thermal expansion caused by the
temperature, speed, etc. Below the brief application:
Shaft and housing fits for metric radial ball and roller bearings
conforming to basic boundary plans have been established by ABMA as
Standard7.Shaft and housing fits (j5, k5 and H6) are listed in the
Bearing Fit Tolerance charts as shown below.
A careful study of the ABMA Standards 7 and 20 should be made by
anyone responsible for replacing bearings in electric motors.
Example: Motor bearing no. 6310 ZZ/C3. The basic number 10. The last
two digit is 10 x 5 = 50 mm bore diameter. The maximum shaft
interference fit is 1.9690 or 50.012 mm. The minimum shaft diameter
is 1.9686 of 50.002 mm. The inner ring of the bearing will rotate against
the shaft if diameter is < than the minimum requirement. Or bearing will
hardly rotate if > than the maximum. Hence, its best to be within the
range for safe operation.
143
144
145
Sleeve bearings
At high speeds and/or for heavy loads sleeve bearings are used. Their life
is practically unlimited provided that the lubrication is uninterrupted and
that the lubricant is changed at suitable intervals. Another advantage is
that their noise level is lower than that of rolling bearings. It is also
important not to exceed the temperature limits of sleeve bearings. A
normal bearing temperature is 65 to 80C.
Sleeve bearings are usually self-lubricated and self-cooled. Internal oil
transport is ensured by an oil ring. Forced cooling can be provided by
fitting a separate circulation unit.
146
Lubrication
43% of bearing failures is caused by lubrication. Proper lubrication will
also reduce your energy consumption.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Carefully examine the type and properties of the base oil, thickener and
additives of the grease, and select grease appropriate for the operating
condition of the bearing. The general relation between consistency of
grease and the application of the bearing is given in above Table. The
types and properties of greases can be provided by local lubricant
suppliers.
148
Grease Additives
Various additives are incorporated into lubricating greases to furnish
additional properties. Some of the most common are:
Anti-rust agents improve the protection offered by the grease. These
additives are useful for bearings operating in a wet environment. They
also protect bearings during transport and storage.
Anti-oxidants delay the breakdown of the base oil at high temperatures.
This in turn increases relubrication intervals and reduces costs.
EP, or extreme pressure, additives include sulphur, chlorine and
phosphorus compounds. (Some EP additives are harmful to bearings, so
that care should be taken in their selection.
Solid lubricants like molybdenum disulphide and graphite.
Relubrication Interval
For motor with a speed of 1800 rpm and DE bearing # 6312
D = 130 mm
B = 31mm
GP = 0.005 x 130 x 31= 20 grams
Interval is 9000 hours or 2 grams per month
149
150
Oil lubrication
Oil lubrication is generally suitable for high speed or high temperature
operations. It is also suitable for carrying heat away from the bearing. Oil
viscosities required for the operating temperatures of bearings are given
in Table below.
Carefully study the viscosity, viscosity index, oxidation resistance,
corrosion resistance, foaming resistance, etc. to select oil. Table for
Selection Guide for Lubrication Oil Viscosity gives a guide for selecting
viscosity.
151
Use Table below to select oil with an adequate viscosity for the operating
temperature of the bearing.
152
Oil Bath
Monitor conditions of oil seal for geared-motor.
153
Cause
Rolling fatigue. Flaking
may be caused early by
over-load, excessive load
due to improper handling,
poor shaft or housing
accuracy, installation error,
ingress of foreign objects,
rusting, etc.
Solution
(1) Find the cause of the
heavy load.
(2) Examine operating
conditions and adopt
bearings with larger
capacity as necessary.
(3) Increase viscosity of oil
and improve lubrication
system to form an adequate
lubricating oil film.
(4) Eliminate installation
errors.
Photo A 1
Deep groove ball bearing.
Inner ring, outer ring, and balls are flaked.
The cause is excessive load.
Photo A 2
Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing.
Flaking of raceway surface spacing equal to distances
between balls.
The cause is improper handling.
Photo A 3
Inner ring raceway of a deep groove ball bearing.
Photo A 4
Outer ring raceway of an angular contact ball bearing.
154
Photo A 6
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Flaking only on one side of the raceway surface.
The cause is an excessive axial load.
Photo A 5
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Flaking on one side of the raceway.
The cause is an excessive axial load.
Photo A 7
Tapered roller bearing.
Flaking on 1/4 circumference of inner ring raceway with
outer ring and rollers discoloured light brown.
The cause is excessive pre-load.
Photo A 8
Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing.
Flaking on 1/4 circumference of outer ring raceway.
The cause is poor installation.
Peeling
Condition
Peeling is a cluster of very
small spalls (size about
10 m).
Peeling can also include
very small cracks which
develop into spalls.
Photo B 1
Rollers of spherical roller bearing.
Peeling on rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Cause
Likely to occur in roller
bearings. Tends to occur if
surface of opposite part is
rough or lubrication
characteristics are poor.
Peeling may develop into
flaking.
Solution
(1) Control of surface
roughness and dust.
(2) Selection of appropriate
lubricant.
(3) Proper break-in.
Photo B 2
Tapered roller bearing.
Development of peeling to flaking on inner ring and rollers.
The cause is poor lubrication.
155
Spalling
Condition
Score accompanying
seizing.
Mounting score in axial
direction.
Scores on roller end face
and guide rib-cycloidal
scores. Scratches in
spinning direction on
raceway surface and
rolling contact surfaces.
Photo C 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Spalling on rib.
The cause is excessive load.
Cause
Poor mounting and
removing practice. Oil
film discontinuation on
the contact surface due to
excessive radial load,
foreign object trapping, or
excessive pre-load.
Slippage or poor
lubrication of rolling
elements.
Solution
(1) Improvement in
mounting and removing
procedures.
(2) Improvement in
operation conditions.
(3) Correction of pre-load
(4) Selection of adequate
lubricant and
lubrication system.
(5) Improvement of sealing
efficiency.
Photo C 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Spalling on raceway surface and come back face rib.
The cause is poor lubrication.
156
Smearing
Condition
Surface is roughened and
tiny particles adhere.
Cause
Rolling elements slip in
rolling motion and
characteristics of lubricant
are too poor to prevent
slippage.
Solution
(1) Select optimum
lubricant and lubrication
system capable of
forming sound oil film.
(2) Use a lubricant
including extreme
pressure additive.
(3) Take precautions such
as a small radial
clearance and pre-load
to prevent slippage.
Photo D 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Smearing on raceway surface.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.
Photo D 2
Roller of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in
Photo D-1.
Smearing on rolling contact surface.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.
Photo D 3
Rollers of spherical thrust roller bearings.
Smearing at middle of rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.
Photo D 4
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT
bearing).
Smearing on raceway surface.
157
Stepped Wear
Condition
Surface is worn and
dimensions are reduced
compared with other
portions. Surface mostly
roughened and scored.
Cause
Ingress of solid foreign
objects.
Dirt and other foreign
objects in lubricant.
Poor lubrication.
Skewing of rollers.
Solution
(1) Selection of optimum
lubricant and lubrication
system.
(2) Improvement in sealing
efficiency.
(3) Filtration of lubricating
oil.
(4) Elimination of
misalignment.
Photo E 1
Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Stepped wear on raceway surface.
The cause is oor lubrication.
Photo E 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing (inner ring of which is
shown in Photo E-1).
Stepped wear on full circumference of raceway.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Photo E 3
Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing
(hub unit bearing).
Wear on one side of the raceway.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Photo E 4
Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing.
Wear of pockets of machined high tensile brass casting
retainer (G1).
158
Cause
Ingress of foreign objects.
Poor lubrication.
Temper color by
overheating (2).
Deposition of deteriorated
oil on surface.
Solution
Speckles
(1) Improvement in sealing
efficiency
Filtration of oil
(3) Improvement in
lubrication system.
Discoloration
(1) Oil deposition is
removable by wiping
with an organic solvent
(oxalic acid).
(2) If roughness is not
removable by polishing
with sandpaper, it is rust
or corrosion. If
completely removable, it
is temper color due to
overheating.
Photo F 1
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT
bearing).
Raceway surface is speckled.
The cause is electric pitting.
Photo F 2
Ball of deep groove ball bearing.
Speckled all over.
The cause is foreign objects and poor lubrication.
Photo F 3
Outer ring of spherical roller bearing.
Partial oil deposition on raceway surface.
Photo F 4
Spherical roller bearing.
Discoloration of inner and outer ring raceway surfaces.
The cause is deterioration of lubricant.
159
Indentations
Condition
Hollows in raceway
surface produced by solid
foreign objects trapped or
impacts. (False brinelling)
Cause
Ingress of solid foreign
objects.
Trapping of flaked
particles.
Impacts due to careless
handling.
Solution
(1) Keeping out foreign
objects.
(2) Check involved bearing
and other bearings for
flaking if dents are
produced by metal
particles.
(3) Filtration of oil.
(4) Improvement in
handling and mounting
practices.
Photo G 1
Inner ring (cut off piece) of self-aligning roller bearing.
Dents on one side of the raceway.
The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.
Photo G 2
Rollers of spherical roller bearing.
Dents on rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.
Photo G 3
Rollers of tapered roller bearings.
Dents all over rolling contact surfaces. (temper color at
two ends.)
The cause is foreign objects carried by lubricating oil.
Photo G 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Dents on raceway surface.
The cause is trapping of foreign objects.
160
Chipping
Condition
Partial chipping of inner
ring, outer ring, or rolling
elements.
Cause
Trapping of large solid
foreign objects.
Impact or excessive load.
Poor handling.
Photo H 1
Cylindrical roller bearing.
Chipping of guide ribs of inner and outer rings.
The cause is excessive impact load.
Photo H 3
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Chipping of cone back face rib.
The cause is impact due to poor mounting.
Solution
(1) Trouble shooting and
improvements of impacts
and excessive load.
(2) Improvement in
handling.
(3) Improvement in sealing
characteristics.
Photo H 2
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Rib chipped.
The cause is excessive impact load.
Photo H 4
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing.
Chipping of side face.
The cause is impact due to improper handling.
161
Cracking
Condition
Splits, and cracks in
bearing rings and rolling
elements.
Cause
Excessive load.
Excessive impacts.
Overheating by creeping
and rapid cooling.
Very loose fit.
Large flaking.
Solution
(1) Examination and
improvement of cause of
very large load.
(2) Prevention of creep.
(3) Correction of fit.
Photo I 2
Fracture of inner ring shown in Photo I-1.
Originating point is observed at the middle of the left
raceway surface.
Photo I 1
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the axial direction.
The cause is excessive interference fit.
Photo I 4
Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the circumferential direction.
The cause is slipping of balls due to poor lubrication.
Photo I 3
Outer ring of four-row cylindrical roller bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the circumferential
direction, originated from large flaking.
The cause is large flaking.
162
Cause
Ingress of water or
corrosive material (such as
acid)
Condensation of moisture
contained in the air.
Poor packaging and storing
conditions, and handling
with bare hands.
Solution
(1) Improvement in sealing
effect.
(2) Periodic inspection of
lubricating oil.
(3) Careful handling of
bearing.
(4) Measures for preventing
rusting when not
operating for a long
period of time.
Photo J 2
Outer ring of tapered roller bearing.
Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent distances
between rollers. The cause is water in lubricant. Some
points are corroded.
Photo J 1
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent to the
distance between rollers. The cause is water in
lubricant.
Photo J 3
Roller of spherical roller bearing.
Rust as well as corrosion on rolling contact surface.
Ingress of water.
Photo J 4
Inner ring (split type) of self-aligning roller bearing.
Rust and corrosion of the raceway surface.
The cause is ingress of water.
163
Seizing
Condition
Bearing generates heat and
is seized up by heat
disabling spinning.
Discoloration, softening,
and welding of raceway
surface, rolling contact
surfaces, and rib surface.
Cause
Dissipation of heat
generated by bearings is
not enough. Poor
lubrication or lubricant
improper. Clearance
excessively small.
Excessive load (or
preload).
Roller skewing and
installation error.
Photo K 1
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing.
Seizing-up discolours and softens inner ring producing
stepped wear at spacing equal to distances between
the rollers.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Solution
(1) Improve dissipation of
heat from bearing.
(2) Selection of suitable
lubricant and
determination of
optimum lubricant
feeding rate.
(3) Prevention of
misalignment.
(4) Improvement in
clearance and pre-load.
(5) Improvement in
operating conditions.
Photo K 2
Rollers of double row tapered roller bearing.
Rollers of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in
Photo K-1. Discoloration, spalling, and adhesion due to
seizing up on rolling contact surfaces and end faces of
rollers.
Photo K 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Large end of the raceway surface and cone back face rib
surface are seized up.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Photo K 3
Outer ring of spherical roller bearing.
Stepped wear due to seizing up of raceway surface.
The cause is poor lubrication.
164
Cause
If a vibrating load works on
contacting elements
resulting in small
amplitude oscillation,
lubricant is driven out
from contact, and parts
are worn remarkably.
Oscillation angle of the
bearing is small.
Poor lubrication (no
lubrication)
Fluctuating load.
Vibration during
transportation.
Vibration, shaft deflection,
installation error, loose
fit.
Photo L 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Corrugated fretting along full circumference of
raceway.
The cause is vibration.
Solution
(1) Inner ring and outer
ring should be packaged
separately for
transportation. If not
separable, bearings
should be preloaded.
(2) Use oil of high
consistency grease when
bearings are used for
oscillation motion.
(3) Change lubricant.
(4) Fix shaft and housing.
(5) Improve fit.
Photo L 2
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Fretting along full circumference of raceway.
The cause is vibration.
Photo L 4
Outer ring of tapered roller bearing.
Fretting rust on the outside diameter surface.
Photo L 3
Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Fretting rust on outside diameter surface.
165
Electrical Pitting
Condition
Surface is speckled visually
and the speckles are
clusters of tiny pits when
viewed through a
microscope. Further
development leads to a
corrugated surface.
Cause
Electric current passes
through bearing, and
sparks are generated to
fuse the raceway surface.
Photo M 2
Rollers of tapered roller bearings.
Electric pitting at middle of rolling contact surfaces.
Photo M 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Raceway surface is corrugated by electric pitting.
Photo M 3
Magnified (x400) pitting of roller shown in Photo M-2.
Nital etchant develops a white layer on the cross
section.
Solution
Avoid flow of electric
current by averting
current with a slip ring
or insulation bearing.
166
Cause
Deformation or tilt of
bearing ring due to oor
accuracy of shaft or
housing.
Poor rigidity of shaft or
housing.
Deflection of shaft due to
excessive clearance.
Photo N 1
Spherical roller bearing.
Contacts on inner ring, outer ring, and rollers are not
even.
The cause is poor mounting.
Solution
(1) Improvement in
machining accuracy of
shaft and housing.
(2) Improvement of rigidity
of shaft and housing.
(3) Employment of
adequate clearance.
Photo N 2
Outer ring of tapered roller bearings.
Contact path on raceway surface strays.
The cause is poor mounting.
Photo N 3
Rollers of tapered roller bearing of which outer ring is
shown in photo N-2.
Contact marks on rolling contact surfaces are not even.
167
Damage to Retainers
Condition
Breaking of retainer
Wear of pockets or
guide
Loosening or breaking
of rivet
Cause
Excessive moment load.
High speed spinning or
large fluctuation of
speed.
Poor lubrication.
Trapping of foreign
objects.
Heavy vibration.
Poor mounting (cocked
bearing)
Excessive heat (plastic
retainer in particular)
Solution
(1) Improvement in load
conditions.
(2) Improvement in
lubrication system and
lubricant.
(3) Selection of optimum
retainer.
(4) Improvement in
handling.
(5) Study in rigidity of
shaft and housing.
Photo O 2
Retainer of spherical roller bearing.
Breakage of partitions between pockets of pressed steel
retainer.
Photo O 1
Retainer of angular contact ball bearing.
Breakage of machined high tension brass retainer L1.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Photo O 3
Retainer of tapered roller bearing.
Breakage of pockets of pressed steel retainer.
Photo O 4
Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing.
Breakage of partitions between pockets of machined
high tension brass casting retainer L1.
168
Creeping
Condition
Fitting surfaces are glazed
or matted, and sometimes
spalled as well.
Cause
Fitting of inner ring is
loose on inner ring drive
bearing, and that of the
outer ring is loose on
outer ring drive bearing.
If the housing is made of
a light alloy such as
aluminum, fit may
become loose due to the
difference of thermal
expansion.
Photo P 1
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Bore wall glazed by creep.
Photo P 3
Iner ring ring thrust ball bearing.
Spalling and friction cracking due to creep on bore
wall.
Solution
(1) Improvement in fit.
(2) Improvement in
machining accuracy of
shaft and housing.
Photo P 2
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Spalling due to creep at the middle of bore wall.
Photo P 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Spalling and friction cracking on width surface due to
creep. Crack developed into a split reaching bore wall.
169
2.8
Torque
Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - Nm
- in the SI-system and in - lb ft - in the imperial system.
The torque developed by asynchronous induction motors varies with the
speed of the motor when it accelerates from full stop or zero speed, to
maximum operating speed.
170
Pull-up Torque
The Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical
motor when it runs from zero to full-load speed (before it reaches the
break-down torque point)
When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general
decrease until it reach a low point at a certain speed - the pull-up torque before the torque increases until it reach the highest torque at a higher
speed - the break-down torque - point.
The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that need power to go
through some temporary barriers achieving the working conditions.
Break-down Torque
The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the
torque decreases when the machine continues to accelerate to the
working conditions.
Full-load (Rated) Torque or Braking Torque
The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of
the electrical motor at full-load speed.
In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as:
T = 5252 Php / nr
(1)
where:
T = full-load torque (lb ft)
Php = rated horsepower
nr = rated rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)
In metric units the rated torque can be expressed as:
T = 9550 PkW / nr
(2)
171
where:
T = rated torque (Nm)
PkW = rated power (kW)
nr = rated rotational speed (rpm)
Example - Electrical Motor and Braking Torque
The torque of a 60 hp motor rotating at 1725 rpm can be expressed as:
Tfl = 60 (hp) 5,252 / 1725 (rpm)
= 182.7 lb ft
NEMA Design
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified
electrical motors in four different NEMA designs where torques and
starting-load inertia are important criterions.
Accelerating Torque
Accelerating Torque = Available Motor Torque - Load Torque
Reduced Voltage Soft Starters
Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and
reducing the Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque and are common
in applications which is hard to start or must be handled with care - as
positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.
172
3450
Power
p
500
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
.75
.5
.1
.6
.6
.3
.1
26
0.5
4.2
.1
.3
.1
.9
.3
.9
0.7
89
5.8
1.4
.5
.1
.3
.1
26
0.5
4.2
52
8.5
.2
.6
.2
.9
0.7
89
5.8
1.4
78
1.5
2.7
.7
.6
58
3.1
15
6.3
30
2.5
.5
.6
37
36
73
45
07
.5
83
15
30
260
05
42
74
73
45
07
891
58
14
65
30
260
05
42
521
10
85
57
88
576
31
78
151
63
56
48
45
07
891
58
14
781
15
27
31
260
05
42
521
10
85
042
20
70
13
03
576
31
78
151
63
56
302
25
12
096
24
891
58
14
781
15
27
563
30
55
279
07
45
206
84
49
412
68
99
823
35
97
461
22
65
521
10
85
042
20
70
0084
40
140
644
37
86
836
36
21
672
73
41
1344
45
282
00
827
52
07
151
63
56
302
25
12
2605
050
425
25
283
90
58
939
28
45
878
57
91
5756
313
781
50
12
740
28
10
727
94
34
454
88
069
8907
576
137
75
31
197
66
61
515
60
23
1029
19
247
2058
838
494
00
49
654
04
13
302
25
12
2605
050
425
5210
101
850
25
68
110
43
65
090
91
01
4180
182
603
8361
363
206
25
68
110
43
65
090
91
01
4180
182
603
8361
363
206
50
87
567
81
16
878
57
91
5756
313
781
1512
626
562
.5
173
3450
Power
500
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
in lbf
ft lbf
Nm
75
05
024
19
68
666
22
80
7332
444
959
4663
889
918
00
24
480
57
20
454
88
069
8907
576
137
7814
151
275
50
61
394
33
23
1029
19
247
2058
838
494
4117
676
987
00
98
307
09
26
2605
050
425
5210
101
850
0419
202
699
50
36
221
85
29
4180
182
603
8361
363
206
6722
727
412
50
10
0047
37
136
7332
444
959
4663
889
918
9326
777
837
00
48
0961
13
239
8907
576
137
7814
151
275
5629
302
549
174
175
When it is switched on, the motor behaves like a transformer with its
secondary, formed by the very low resistance rotor cage, in short circuit.
There is a high induced current in the rotor which results in a current
peak in the mains supply:
Current on starting = 5 to 8 rated Current.
The average starting torque is:
T on starting = 0.5 to 1.5 rated T.
Star-Delta Starting
176
This starting system can only be used with a motor where both ends of its
three stator windings are fitted to a terminal board.
Furthermore, the winding must be done so that the delta connection
matches the mains voltage: e.g. a 380V 3-phase supply will need a motor
with 380V delta and 660V star coiling.
The principle is to start the motor by connecting the star windings at
mains voltage, which divides the motors rated star voltage by 3 (in the
example above, the mains voltage at 380V = 660V / 3).
Star-delta starting is suitable for machines with a low resistive torque or
which start with no load (e.g. wood-cutting machines). Variants may be
required to limit the transient phenomena above a certain power level.
One of these is a 1-2 second delay in the shift from star to delta.
Such a delay weakens the counter-electromotive force and hence the
transient current peak.
This can only be used if the machine has enough inertia to prevent too
much speed reduction during the time delay.
Another system is 3-step starting: star-delta + resistance-delta.
177
There is still a break, but the resistor in series with the delta-connected
windings for about three seconds lowers the transient current. This stops
the current from breaking and so prevents the occurrence of transient
phenomena.
Use of these variants implies additional equipment, which may result in a
significant rise in the cost of the installation.
Part Winding Motor Starting
This system, not widely used in Europe, is quite common in the North
American market (voltage of 230/460, a ratio of 1:2). This type of motor
has a stator winding divided into two parallel windings with six or twelve
output terminals. It is equivalent to two half motors of equal power.
The part winding starter reduces inrush current by using two different
sets of windings in the motor. Therefore, part winding starters can be
used only with motors having stator windings divided into two equal
parts with the terminals of each part available for external connection.
178
The part winding starter consists of two across the line starters and a
timer. The first starter is used to connect one winding of the motor across
the line. The starting current from one winding will be about 50% of the
starting current if both windings were connected. The starting torque is
correspondingly 50%.
Because the starting torque is so low and will not increase until the
second winding is connected, the motor may not begin to accelerate.
Therefore, the time delay for the second winding to be energized should
not be more than 4 seconds.
When the second winding is energized, the inrush current will increase
depending upon the speed of the motor when the second winding is
energized.
Primary Resistance Starter
A Primary Resistance Starter closes the contacts connecting a motor to a
power supply by way of resistors. The resistors provide a voltage drop to
reduce the starting voltage of the motor. The value of the resistors is
chosen to provide adequate starting torque while minimizing starting
current.
179
contacts open, and the resistors are shorted out by an additional set of
contacts. At this point, full voltage is supplied to the motor.
180
Autotransformer starting
An autotransformer starter reduces inrush current by using a transformer
in the line just ahead of the motor to step down the voltage applied to the
motor terminals. By reducing the voltage, the current drawn from the line
is reduced during start-up.
181
When the setting time on the timer has expired, the autotransformer is
bypassed.
The 1S contactor drops out, the run contactor closes, and the 2S
contactor opens, proving full voltage to the motor. The ABB
autotransformer starter is a closed transition type, meaning that the motor
remains connected to the line during the entire acceleration period.
The transformer has three taps which provide 50%, 65% and 80% of full
line voltage. At delivery, the transformer is connected to the 65% tap; the
inrush current will be reduced to 42% of normal; and the starting torque
will be reduced to 42%.
182
183
One-way operation,
Two-way operation,
Device shunting at the end of the starting process,
Starting and slackening several motors in cascade, - etc.
Soft-Starter
184
185
Motor
Cost
Motor starting
current
Voltage dip
Voltage and
current
harmonics
Power factor
Number of
starts available
Available
torque
Thermal stress
Mechanical
shocks
Recommended
type of load
High inertia
loads
Direct
on-line
Star-delta
Standard
Standard
+
5 to 10
RC
++
Part
windings
6
windings
++
2 to 3 RC
2 RC
Resistors
Autotransformers
Slip ring
motors
Soft
starter
Frequency
converter
Standard
Standard
Specific
Standard
Standard
+++
Approx.
4.5 RC
+++
+++
Approx.
2 RC
+++
4 to 5
RC
++++
Low
Low
Low
1.7 to 4 RC
RC
High
High on
connection
change
Low
Low
Low; precautions
to take in DOL
connection
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Low
High
High
Low
Low
Moderate
Low
Low
High
Restricted
2-3 times
more than
DOL
3-4 times
more than
DOL
Moderate
3-4 times
more
than
DOL
Limited
High
Approx.
0.5 RT
Moderate
1.5 to 2
RT
Low
Approx.
2.5 RT
Very high
Tres
eleve
RT
Approx. 0.5 RT
Moderate
High
Moderate
Moderate
2-3 times
more
than
DOL
Approx.
2 RT
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Low
No-load
Ascending
torque
Pumps
and fans
Any
Pumps
and fans
Any
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
0.2 to 0.5
RT
High
Moderate
Any
Yes*
2 RT
186
When the motor has reached about 80% of its speed, the auxiliary phase
can be cut off (centrifugal coupling) or kept running. The motor stator
thus becomes a two-phase stator, either on starting or all the time.
187
188
189
Conclusion
When selecting the starting method for a specific motor consideration
must be given to compatibility of motor and starting method, torque
requirements, cost of equipment, and so forth. The various starting
methods described in this section and summarized the best starting and
Table 4.1 are meant to be a guided for determining the best starting
method for your motor.
190
Motors that are designed for a specific relationship between the load,
start-up time and switch-off time can also be overload if the start-up time
is lengthened or the switch-off time is reduced while the current
consumption is kept constant. These kinds of time changes can also
change torque characteristics. If the torque increases, the current
consumption increases as well, leading to an increase in motor
temperature with every increase in current.
A long period of increased current consumption may damage or destroy
the insulation of the motor windings.
The lifespan of motors depends very much on the observance of
temperature limits. Examinations have shown that the lifespan of motors
is considerably reduced with even the slightest continuous over191
192
193
A thermal phenomenon
A thermal phenomenon corresponding to the energy released into the
electrical circuit crossed by the short circuit current I for at time t based
on the formula I2t and expressed as A2s. This thermal effect can cause:
1. Melting of the conductor contacts.
2. Destruction of the thermal elements in a bimetal relay if
coordination is type 1.
3. Generation of electrical arcs.
4. Calcinations of insulating material.
5. Fire in the equipment.
An electrodynamics phenomenon
An electrodynamics phenomenon between conductors producing
intensive mechanical stress as the current crosses and causing:
1. Distortion of conductors forming the motor windings.
2. Breakage of the conductors insulating supports.
3. Repulsion of the contacts (inside the contactors) likely to melt
and weld them.
These results are dangerous to property and people. It is therefore
imperative to guard against short circuits with protection devices that can
detect faults and interrupt the short circuit rapidly, before the current
reaches its maximum value.
Two protection devices are commonly used for this:
1. Fuses, which break the circuit by melting and must be replaced
afterwards.
2. Magnetic circuit breakers which automatically break the circuit
and only require to be reset.
Short-circuit protection can also be built into multifunction devices such
as motor starter protection and contactor breakers.
195
196
197
DIN Fuses
UL/CSA Fuses
UL/CSA Fuses
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
The relay size should be chosen on the basis of the motors rated current
and the estimated starting time.
Limits of use are characterized by curves based on the time and value of
the current setting (in multiples of Ir).
These relays have a thermal memory (apart from some electronic ones,
indicated by their manufacturers) and can be connected:
i.
ii.
206
207
They can also respond to a loss of a phase: this is the differential. This
feature prevents the motor from working in single-phase and complies
with standards IEC 60947-4-1 and 60947-6-2.
208
209
An electronic device
An electronic device powered by alternating and direct current for
continuous control of the resistance of the probes linked to it. If the NOT
is reached, the strong increase in resistance is detected by a threshold
circuit which then orders a change in the status of the output contacts.
Depending on the probes chosen, this protection mode can be used to:
1. Set off an alarm without stopping the machine (NOT of the
probes lower than the maximum temperature set for the element
to be protected).
2. Or order the machine to stop (the NOT has reached the
maximum level).
210
212
This new generation of product allow to reduce the costs from the design
of the equipment, as PLCs programming are made simple, to the
operation as maintenance cost and downtime are dramatically cut down.
Protection relay selection guide
Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information
can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.
213
Type of relays
Type of control
Current
Protection classes
Overcurrent
Ground Fault
Phase imbalance
Mechanical
locking
during/after starting
No load operation
Voltage and power
supply
Voltage imbalance
Phase loss
Phase inversion
Undervoltage
Overvoltage
Power in power factor
Temperature
PTC probes
PT100 probes
Numerical functions
Truth table
Timer
Starting mode
Direct on line
Reversing
Star delta
Part winding two
speed motors
Overload
relay
(thermorelay
or electronic
relay)
PTC probe
relay
Overtorque
relay
10 et 20
++
+++
++
+
++
Multifunction relay
Segregated
motor
monitor
Built in the
starter
Outside the
starter
5 to 20
+++
5 to 20
5 to 30
+++
++
++
+++
++
++
+++
module
module
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
module
module
module
module
+++
+++
3 I/O
10 I/O
10 to 20 I/O
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+
module
+
module
+++
+++
module
module
+++
module
module
+++
Operation/maintenance
Dignostics
Log
Links/communication
Local display
Remote
display
(communication bus)
214
215
216
217
218
More recently the IEC has adopted the EN numbering system for
standards, with many standards now being developed in parallel by the
IEC and CENELEC and published at the same time. Thus IEC 60947-1
and EN 60947-1 are basically the same standard with possible minor
differences in the text.
CENELEC EN standards are published as an identical version by the
Standards organization of each European country using the prefix of that
body. For example, in the United Kingdom- EN 60947-1 has been
published as BS EN 60947-1, All standards shown in the catalogue as
IEC/EN can therefore be read as the equivalent BS EN standard.
5.2 Solutions
Three products
Telemecanique 'd' and 'F' range contactors, used in conjunction with
Merlin Gerin magnetic-only (MA) trip MCCBs or GEC Alsthom brand
type T HRC fuses (marketed by GE Power Controls), and LR2 bimetal
thermal or LR9 electronic overload relays, offer an exceptional versatile
choice of motor starting options. The range of options is increased still
further by choosing an LT6 multifunction protection relay in place of
standard overloads.
Two products
Many users prefer the convenience of a resettable circuit breaker to the
use of replaceable HRC fuses. In this situation, Telemecanique 'd' and 'F'
range contactors, used in conjunction with GV2 or GV7 motor circuit
breakers having a motor overload characteristic, provide an attractive
solution, GV2 and GV7 motor circuit breakers are specifically designed
for use in motor starter circuits, and combine overload and short-circuit
protection in a single device.
Single product
For the vast majority of straightforward motor starting requirements up
to 30kW, fully integrated single-component products in the Integral
220
The table below shows the tests which are required for Type '2' coordination but it's important to note that only the r test is compulsory.
Manufacturers who have only carried out the "r' test can still claim Type
2' co-ordination - here is no obligation to carry out the subsequent
making and breaking tests to ensure that the starter is fit for further
service.
221
Test requirements
222
224
Type 2 Coordination
Type 2 Coordination is a term used to describe a level of protection that
can be achieved by properly coordinating the selection of the shortcircuit protection device with the withstand capability of the motor
controller and overload protection device in the circuit. The concept of
Type 2 Coordination originated from the IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) standard 947-4-1. In this standard, two
levels of short-circuit coordination are identified.
Type 1 Coordination is defined as follows:
Under short-circuit conditions, the contactor or starter shall cause no
danger to persons or installation and may not be suitable for further
service without repair and replacement of parts.
In other words, contact welding is allowed in the contactor and overload
burnout is acceptable. In either case, replacement of the control
components is required.
Type 2 Coordination on the other hand, limits the effect of a short-circuit
on the control components. Type 2 Coordination is defined as follows:
Under short-circuit conditions, the contactor or starter shall cause no
danger to persons or installation and shall be suitable for further use.
The risk of contact welding is recognized, in which case the
manufacturer shall indicate the measures to be taken in regard to the
maintenance of the equipment.
225
226
227
228
Tamper-proof
Not effected by nuisance tripping caused by vibration
Manual reset only
Single-phase sensitive
Selectable trip classes 10, 20, 30
230
Two types of bimetal overload relays are available, NEMA and IEC.
The NEMA type bimetal overload relay utilizes replaceable heater
elements that indirectly heat bimetal strips. As the bimetal strips are
heated, they flex towards a trip point, at which time a normally closed
contact will open, dropping out the starter coil.
Key features of a NEMA type bimetal overload relay:
IEC bimetal overload relays are similar to the NEMA devices except that
the heater/bimetal are integral to the overload relay. To allow for added
flexibility, the overload trip setting is adjustable over a range of motor
full load current settings. The typical FLA setting range would be 1.0:1.5
(min. to max. setting). IEC bimetal overload relays are typically designed
to Class 10 trip characteristics. This means that the overload relay will
trip in less than 10 seconds at locked rotor current.
Key features of an IEC type bimetal overload relay are:
232
233
Start/Stop
Reset
Restart limit
234
Advanced Protection
Feature
Jam/Stall protection
selectable
- I/O selectable
Ground (earth) fault
protection selectable
- I/O selectable
Single-phase protection
Trip setting accuracy
Repeat accuracy of trip
setting
LED trip indication
Solid-state OLRs
Trips within 0.5 sec at
400% of FLA setting
Monitors phase vector
angles
Trips at ower level prior
to fault level
Trips within two se. on
fully loaded motor
Dip switch setting
increased accuracy
2.5%
Increased accuracy 1%
Fault cause indication
- Jam/Stall
- Ground earth fault
- Improper setting
- Comunication loss
- Test
- Phase loss
- Overload
Traditional OLRs
Relays on overload trip
curve response
None-rely on SCPD
235
236
237
If, however, these curves do not intersect, or intersect well above the
motor locked rotor current, the overload protective device will react to
short-circuit currents in the gap between the overload range and shortcircuit protection, and probably be damaged.
238
If the curves intersect in the overload range below the locked rotor
current, the short-circuit protective device will nuisance trip on motor
start-up.
239
240
Life of a 40 HP Motor
5.4 Terminology
To help understand Coordinated Motor Circuit Protection, it is necessary
to be familiar with the characteristics and definitions related to fuses,
circuit breakers, overload relays, short-circuit, and overload protection.
241
244
Motor Efficiency
Introduction
Electric motors are key components in most industrial plants and
equipment. They account for two-thirds of all the electrical energy used
by industrial/commercial applications in the developed world with
lifetime energy cost normally totaling many times the original motor
purchase price. In Europe and the USA alone, the annual cost of energy
used by motors is estimated at over US$ 100 billion. Yet motor failure
can cost more in terms of lost production, missed shipping dates and
disappointed customers. Even a single failure can adversely impact a
companys short-term profitability; multiply or repeated failures can
reduce future competitiveness in both the medium and long term.
Clearly, industrial companies need effective motor maintenance and
management strategies to minimize overall motor purchase and running
costs while avoiding the pitfalls caused by unexpected motor failures.
Experienced users long have known and complained that having motors
repaired or rewound by a service center reduces capital expenditures
while assuring reliable operation. Rising energy cost in recent years,
however, have led to questions about the energy efficiency of
repaired/rewound motors.
It is common experienced that repair/rewinding inevitably decreases
motor efficiency. Based largely on a handful of studies of mostly smaller
motors (up to 30 hp or 22.5 kW, they often asserted that efficiency drops
1 5% when a motor is rewound even more with repeated rewind. One
reason is quality of materials and workmanship where the lowest bidder
took the task. As a result, low quality and cheap materials were used. The
process of rewinding had been marginalized so us to not affect the
profitability of doing business.
EASA and AEMT had conducted a study to find definitive answers to
efficiency questions, particularly as regard repaired/rewound motors.
Observations here in the Philippines pointed out mostly on rewinding
motors with no specific controls on stripping and rewind procedures,
using different winding configurations and slot fills, and physical
(mechanical) damage to stator core, rotor and its shafting.
245
There are also many cases where repairing the existing motor is the best
choice. This is especially true if an upgrade is required to address the
cause of failure, or in some cases, where cost, availability or unique
performance is an issue. The motor service center is in an excellent
position to make this assessment.
Quite often when a motor fails, the procedure is to remove the damaged
motor from service and replace it without thorough evaluation of the
root cause of the failure. Depending on the motor size and the amount
of damage, the old motor may be repaired and placed into spares
inventory or even scrapped.
The problem with this approach is that the replacement motor, whether
new or rebuilt, may fail again for the same reason. If a root cause failure
analysis is conducted, it is often possible to identify and correct the
underlying cause. All that may be required is to modify the motor, driven
equipment or system to extend the mean time between failures (MTBF)
significantly.
In most cases, where a standard motor is no longer suitable for the
application, the service center is able to make the required modification
faster than the motor manufacturer can produce a unique model.
6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model
The decision whether to repair or replace an electric motor has been one
of economics. Replacement of an older electric motor with a more
efficient model often makes sense for a motor operating continuously.
However, in most cases the decision is more complex (Refer to figure
below). A motor that operates infrequently, a motor with special
mounting or design features, an EPACT motor or a motor larger than
those covered by EPACT are all examples where the repair option may
be the better choice.
246
247
248
It makes economic sense to identify the weak link in any process, and to
detect imminent failure before it occurs. When link is strengthened, the
entire process becomes stronger. A motor subject to harsh environment
should be of a suitable enclosure, and can be modified to further protect
the motor from this hazard.
10% of motor losses are caused by friction and windage loss, thereby
reducing motor efficiency. The pictures on the right side are typical
examples of improvement after the repair.
249
More than 50% of electric motor failures start as bearing failures, bearing
temperature detectors or vibration probes are logical options in many
cases, or implementation of predictive maintenance program to prevent
any catastrophic failures. Vibration analysis is one of the best tools for
predictive maintenance that can detect bearing problems.
Whether the concern is winding temperature, vibration or bearing
temperature, specific accessories can be incorporated into the repair
process to enhance motor life and permit the end-user to monitor the
critical feature.
With most companies returning to their core business, and outsourcing
maintenance, the competent service center is best qualified to assess the
cause of each motor failure and develop a plan to reduce the possibility
of a repeat failure. The service center warranty ensures the repairer has a
vested interest in identifying the root cause of the motor failure, and
performing a quality repair.
250
251
same low line voltage. The solution then is to redesign the motor to
optimize performance at the actual applied voltage. It is common to
apply a 230 volt motor to a 200 or 208 volt application. Compounding
the problem, the utility supplying 208 volts is allowed to deviate and
may supply even lower voltage.
The table below illustrates the effect on efficiency and winding
temperature.
252
Corrosion Resistance
A chemical plant removed a 600 hp motor for routine repairs. The
corrosive environment had rusted through the motor frame in numerous
places, even the mounting feet. Although running when removed from
service, the motor was beyond repair and had to be replaced.
253
The exploded view of an open motor below illustrates the ease with
which various degrees of weather protection can be accomplished by the
addition of covers, filters or guards. While an open motor is ill-suited to
outdoor operation, the upgraded WPII enclosure was designed for
outdoor service.
Protection from Abrasive Dust
An electric motor operates downwind of a rock quarry and abrasive dust
sandblasts the windings.
Unprotected windings do not last very long in this type of environment.
The service center can topcoat the windings with a special material that
absorbs impact energy, thus protecting the windings. Filters can be added
to exclude the dust from the motor enclosure, or additional covers can be
installed to upgrade the enclosure.
Motors operating in rock quarries, cement mills or power plants benefit
from this treatment. These treatments can also be applied to new motors
before they are placed into service.
Energy Efficiency Improvement
There are occasions when rewinding a motor where the opportunity may
exist to enhance the motor performance and reliability by modifying the
winding configuration and copper content. For many designs, the copper
loss (I2R) is the largest loss component as shown in the right side picture.
In some cases, this loss can be reduced by converting from a concentric,
machine-wound configuration to a traditional, hand-inserted lap winding.
In many cases, the copper content (slot fill) can also be increased. Figure
below (Example of slot fill) shows the contrast between a relatively low
slot fill (40 to 50% where the wire is PD2/4) and one of a much higher
percent slot fill (60 to 64%).
Stator I2R loss can be reduced by increasing the conductor crosssectional area and/or decreasing the mean length of turn (MLT).
Changing the winding configuration can also increase the stator I2R loss,
although some changes (e.g., increasing the cross-sectional area) will
reduce it.
254
255
Avoid reducing the MLT too much. Doing so could make the stator
difficult or even impossible to wind. It may even affect cooling, in
extreme cases causing winding temperature to rise.
The table below contains the results of an earlier EASA study that show
the impact on efficiency of a 10% change in end turn length (about a 5%
change in MLT) for typical TEFC (IP54) motors. Where it was feasible,
reducing the MLT improved the efficiency over the nominal value. From
this it is clear that end turn length and MLT are critical to motor
efficiency.
256
Poles
4
50/37
4
100/75
4
200/150
2
50/37
2
100/75
2
200/150
Full load
efficiency
(%)
93.1
93.0
92.8
94.9
94.8
94.6
95.6
95.5
95.3
92.7
92.5
92.3
93.9
93.7
93.5
95.1
95.0
94.9
End turn
length
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
Total losses
(watts)
2746
2825
2911
4020
4129
4243
6921
7099
7278
2935
3024
3122
4881
5047
5212
7697
7975
8075
Change in
total losses
(%)
-2.8
3.0
-2.6
2.8
-2.5
2.5
-2.9
3.2
-3.3
3.3
-2.3
2.5
This modification will improve heat transfer, reduce the copper loss and
winding temperature and improve motor efficiency. There will be less
coil movement, and increased resistance to moisture, due to better
varnish retention. Even though these improvements are difficult for the
service shop to quantify, they are none the less real and will usually
improve motor performance and reliability. With this modification, the
motors service factor will be improved and it will be able to withstand
wider variations in voltage, ambient and starting conditions.
257
258
259
260
Conclusion
By incorporating effective technology as it becomes available, it is
possible to reduce downtime, improve productivity and operate more
efficiently. Reduced costs make an organization more profitable. Savings
can be redirected to improve other maintenance problems. The savvy
maintenance professional is always looking for ways to improve
processes, and the competent service center is able to assist in this task.
When evaluating the operating cost of an electric motor, the cost of
energy is only one variable (and often not the biggest one) in the
equation. The key to maximizing productivity is to eliminate downtime.
While zero downtime is not always possible, any significant reduction in
downtime improves profitability. When downtime is measured in
millions of pesos per hour, the payback reaped from extending motor life
can be enormous.
The economics of the repair or replace decision process are complex. All
variables must be considered in order to select the best option.
6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors
Note: (This article is excerpted from "Premium-Efficiency Motors and
Transformers", a CD-ROM available from CDA by calling 888/480MOTR)
There is a capital investment that can repay many times its original value
over the next 20 years. At the same time, it can improve equipment
reliability, reduce downtime and repair costs, and result in lower releases
of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The investment is straightforward: install electric motors having the
highest electrical energy efficiency commensurate with your needs.
Energy-efficient motors pay for themselves in a few years or sometimes
even a few months, after which they will continue to pile up savings
worth many times their purchase cost for as long as they remain in
service. That's another way of saying that operating costs, not just first
cost, are what you should look at when buying a new motor.
The rule applies to all motors, although this article is limited to the
widely used motors that fall under the requirements of the Energy Policy
261
Act of 1992 (EPAct) and to those that additionally meet or exceed the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association's NEMA Premium
efficiency ratings. We'll explain what the ratings mean in a moment.
Before we begin, however, there are three factors to keep in mind,
whether you're replacing an old worn out motor or specifying a motor for
a new piece of equipment. First, energy-efficient motors only provide
savings when they're running, and the more the motors run, the more
energy and money they save. Second, maximum savings and the
fastest returns on investment are attained in regions of the country
where utility rates are highest. Even so, energy-efficient motors are
highly recommended even in low energy-cost areas because they
eventually provide savings that more than adequately justify their cost.
And third, remember that any motor selection has to be properly
engineered for its intended application.
It can even be worthwhile to replace fully serviceable standard efficiency
(pre-EPAct) motors, including ones that were recently overhauled. That's
certainly not a simple decision, and it should only be made after
conducting a thorough analysis of the economic and technical factors
involved. On the other hand, large companies like Cummins Engine and
Weyerhaeuser did perform such analyses and found that the savings were
large enough to make motor replacement programs a part of their
corporate energy policies.
Background
Until the energy crises in the 1970s, most general-purpose motors were
designed to provide rated output and operating characteristics at
reasonable cost, period. Efficient operation was at best a secondary
consideration. As energy prices began rising, however, manufacturers
began promoting improved motors they called "high-efficiency" and
"energy-efficient", although the terms were not specifically defined at the
time.
Old-style "standard efficiency" motors remained popular because they
generally cost less than the new models. Purchasing agents were seldom
inclined to spend a little more money up front in order to save on energy
costs later on. Because of the national energy implications of motor
262
263
265
266
HP
5
10
15
20
25
50
Std Efficiency
Motors,
Average Efficiency
Annual
Energy
Eff. at
Use
75%
(kWh),
load
cost
84.0%
26,644
$1,998
86.75
51,653
$3,874
87.55
76,771
$5,758
89.3%
100,206
$7,515
89.9%
124,457
$9,334
91.6%
244,211
$18,316
Purchase
Price
(35%
disc)
$233
$375
$562
$666
$800
$1617
267
Payback
Period
2.44
2.60
2.50
2.48
2.36
3.48
HP
5
10
15
20
25
50
Std Efficiency
Motors,
Average Efficiency
Annual
Energy
Eff. at
Use
75%
(kWh),
load
cost
84.0%
26,644
$1,998
86.75
51,653
$3,874
87.55
76,771
$5,758
89.3%
100,206
$7,515
89.9%
124,457
$9,334
91.6%
244,211
$18,316
268
any event, so only the difference in initial cost between motors that meet
EPAct requirements and ones that meet or exceed NEMA Premium
standards enters the equation. For the operating parameters used above
(8000 h/y, 75% load, $0.075/kWh), paybacks can be achieved in as little
as 7 to 12 months for some motors, with 1-2 years being more typical, as
in the following table.
HP
5
10
15
20
25
50
269
270
271
272
4 * Mmax
A
274
Alignment
Misaligned rotating machinery has caused, and will continue to cause, a
tremendous financial loss to every industry worldwide. No one has ever
really calculated how much money has been wasted on prematurely
damaged machinery, lost production, and excessive energy consumption
due to shaft misalignment.
275
276
277
278
The most prevalent bearings used in machinery, ball and roller bearings,
all have a calculated life expectancy, sometimes called the bearings L10 life a rating of fatigue life for a specific bearing. Statistical analysis
of bearing life relative to forces applied to the bearings has netted an
equation describing how a bearings life is affected by increased forces
due to misalignment.
Wear of mechanical components such as shaft seals yields oil leakage.
As the force applied to a given bearing increases, the life expectancy
decreases by the cube of that change. For instance, if the amount of force
as a result of misalignment increases by a factor of 3, the life expectancy
of the machines bearings decreases by a factor of 27.
279
Quite a bit of research in shaft alignment has been conducted over the
past 20 years. The results have led to a much different method of
evaluating the quality of a shaft alignment and to increasingly accurate
methods of correcting misaligned conditions. Based on the research and
actual industrial machine evaluations, shaft alignment tolerances are now
more commonly based on shaft rpm rather than shaft diameter or
coupling manufacturers specifications. There are presently no specific
tolerance standards published by ISO or ANSI, but typical tolerances for
alignment are shown in the above table.
Energy Savings
The correct alignment can reduce energy consumption with anything up
to 15%, sometimes more.
280
To calculate savings
281
Pre-alignment Check
Preparations Off-site
1. Is Safety regulations complied?
2. Do you have the working
permits?
3. Time limit for the production
stop?
4. What is the alignment tolerance?
5. Any thermal offsets?
6. Is there any available working
space?
7. What is the shaft rotation?
8. Indicate shim sizes
On Visual Check
a. Is working area safe to work?
b. What is the foundation condition?
c. What is the bedplate condition?
d. What is the bolt condition?
e. What is the adjustment capability?
f. What are the shims conditions?
g. Is there a leak in the machine?
Pre-Alignment Procedures On-site
actions
1.
What is the machine
temperature?
2. Is there a gross soft foot?
3. Have you replaced the old shims?
4. Have you check coupling
specifications or loosen its bolts
prior to alignment?
5. Have you double check if there is
mechanical looseness on basebolts
or bearings?
6. Have you measure and record the
runout?
Answer
Findings
Findings
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283
them all together and insuring that everything is flat, square, and in the
same plane is very slim. However, cast baseplates are not exempt from
this problem either. Even in cast baseplates where the base is sand cast
and the machinery feet are machined, it is possible that during the
installation process the frame was warped when it was placed on the
concrete pedestal introducing a soft foot problem.
284
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
286
Disadvantages:
Laser Alignment
288
289
290
291
292
Energy Savings
Further Considerations:
For centrifugal fans and pumps, which exhibit a strong relationship
between operating speed and power, synchronous belt sprockets must be
selected that take into account the absence of slippage. Operating costs
could actually increase if slippage is reduced and a centrifugal load is
driven at a slightly higher speed. Synchronous belts are the most efficient
choice. However, cogged belts may be a better choice when vibration
damping is needed or shock loads cause abrupt torque changes that could
shear a synchronous belts teeth. Synchronous belts also make a whirring
noise that might be objectionable in some applications. (Reference:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/motor.pdf)
Mounting Pulleys, Sheaves, Sprockets and Gears
In general, the closer pulleys, sheaves, sprocket, or gears are mounted to
the bearing on the motor shaft, the less will be the load on the bearing.
This will give greater assurance of trouble-free service.
The center point of the belt, or system of V-belts, should not be beyond
the end of the motor shaft.
The inner edge of the sheave or pulley rim should not be closer to the
bearing than the shoulder on the shaft but should be as close to this point
as possible. The outer edge of a chain sprocket or gear should not extend
beyond the end of the motor shaft1. (Reference: NEMA, MG 1 2006.
14.7.1. Refer also to Section 11 of this manual: Application of V-Belt
Sheave Dimensions to Alternating Current Motors Having Anti-Friction
Bearings.)
293
Using this general rule, the shaft force per belt (applied at the sheave)
due to belt tension equals 32 x the deflection force. It should be noticed
that the horsepower does not enter into the equation at all.
Set Belt Tension per the Manufacturers Recommendation.
The belt system should be designed to match the load requirements.
Providing excess belt capacity may result in increased belt wear and
decreased efficiency.
Rule: Shaft force = Deflection force x 32 x number of belts
The following chart provides some typical force values for V-belt drives.
294
295
296
% of Failures
50 90%
5 10%
5 10%
0.1 3%
Dirt and debris can affect the internal clearance of the bearing and the fit
of the bearing on the shaft or in the housing. A small speck of dirt can
pinch the outer ring outside diameter. Also it can keep split housing from
being tight. This can cause an out-of-round housing bore in which the
bearing's outer ring may turn. Dirt on a shaft at the seal contact area can
cause seal wear which results in lubricant leakage. Dust and dirt mixes
with the lubricant in the bearing and forms a lapping compound that
causes wear in the bearing.
Do not remove a new bearing from its original package until
immediately before it is mounted. New bearings are thoroughly coated
with slushing compound to keep out air, moisture and rust. The slushing
compound used by most bearing manufacturers is not normally removed
since it is compatible with nearly all petroleum lubricants. When
synthetic oils and greases with synthetic oils are used, the slushing
compound must be removed. However, with synthetic hydrocarbon oils
and greases, the slushing compound does not have to be removed.
Bearings are wrapped in heavy duty, waterproof, polylaminate paper.
Care should be taken not to drop bearings or handle them roughly. They
should not be exposed to large temperature changes which might cause
condensation to form. Do not handle the bearing any more than
necessary. Fingerprints can become a starting point for rust.
Mounting and Dismounting Bearings
Housing Bore Fit
Because the electric motor bearings normally is assembled into its
housing with a slightly loose fit, bearing failures often cause the outer
ring of the bearing to turn in its bore, particularly at the non-drive end.
This turning action causes some wear on the bearings outer ring but
typically much more in the softer metal of the housing. This is especially
true of aluminum housings. When the failed bearing is replaced, it the
housing bore is not brought back to proper dimension (interference fit),
the new bearing turns more easily in the bore. This creates an immediate
wear situation in which the housing wear and subsequent bearing
looseness cause a drastic reduction in bearing life, as well as increase the
vibration level.
297
Prior to mount the bearings, it is necessary prepare the shaft where the
bearing is to be mounted. Ensure shaft and housing interference fits are
met, cylindricity of the shafting and pour oil to prevent rush and
corrosion later on.
A. Cold Mounting
Bearings up to a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter can be cold mounted
using a sleeve and a hammer or a press. An ordinary hammer should be
used. Hammers with soft metal heads are unsuitable as fragments of the
metal may break off and enter the bearing. The end faces of the sleeve
should be flat, parallel and burr free. It should abut the ring with the
press fit.
299
300
301
The most usual bearing mounting is that in which the inner ring is
mounted with an interference fit on the shaft, and the outer ring is
mounted with a line-to-fine to loose fit in the housing. For non-separable
bearings over a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter, it is necessary to heat the
entire bearing or just the inner ring, depending on the method of heating,
so that the inner ring easily goes over the shaft. In the case of a separable
bearing, it is only necessary to heat the inner ring. The bearing should be
uniformly heated within a maximum temperature of 250F(121C).
Methods for heating a bearing are:
302
ring has cooled sufficiently to be firm on the shaft. If this is not done, the
inner will walk away from the shaft shoulder.
Remove bearings
In many instances, bearings have to be removed from the shaft simply to
allow other parts to be removed. Regrettably it often happens that
bearings that are perfect before removal for inspection or cleaning are
damaged during removal or mounting. It is good practice only to remove
bearings when strictly necessary. Bearing inspections should instead be
done by listening to the sound of the bearing and observing the lubricant.
303
as the raceway diameter of the inner ring. The ring is heated using a hot
plate or naked flame to approximately 280 C and then placed over the
inner ring and clamped using the handles. The heat is transferred from
the heating ring to the bearing inner ring, causing the bearing inner ring
to expand. Once the bearing inner ring expansion has overcome the
interference fit, then it is easy to remove the bearing inner ring
Lubrication
Rolling bearings - ball or roller bearings - are used in most motors.
Sleeve bearings are often used in large motors, especially for high
speeds.
The correct amount of grease for roiling bearings and the grade of oil for
sleeve bearings is normally stated in the manufacturer's maintenance
Instructions that come with the motor. The rolling bearings of motors
from ABB Motors are lubricated before dispatch with full-charge grease
suitable for use in dry or humid conditions at normal ambient
temperature.
Lubrication of rolling bearings in a closed bearing housing
The bearings of small motors are normally mounted in closed bearing
housings. These have no openings for lubrication. When the grease needs
replacing, the bearing housing must therefore be opened and cleaned
before new grease can be put in. However, with the grades of grease in
use nowadays the bearings of small motors can be regarded as lubricated
for life and maintenance-free.
304
305
Grease valve lubrication allows the grease to be changed while the motor
is running and prevents over lubrication. Fresh grease is forced in
through the nipple, displacing old grease, which is discharged through an
opening in the bearing cover. The bearing housing provides excellent
protection from dust and contamination.
Slip rings and brushes
Motors with brush and slip-ring gear require more inspection than
squirrel-cage motors. There is no way of preventing brush dust collecting
on all surfaces near the brush gear, and the parts must be thoroughly
cleaned by vacuum-cleaning and wiping, generally once or twice a
month. The cable connections of the slip-ring unit and the free movement
of the brushes in the holders must be checked at the same time. Raising
the brushes by pulling on their connecting leads is a good way of
checking the soundness of the leads at the same time as ensuring that the
brushes move freely.
306
For all types of brush holder the distance between the bottom edge of the
holder and the slip ring must be 2 to 2.5 mm. For every brush material,
manufacturers state the brush pressure that will give the best
performance at the slip ring. Usually the brush pressure is around 0.02
N/mm2 (200 g/cm2).
A typical rotor for a slip-ring motor is shown at right side. The three
phases of the rotor winding are connected to the slip rings on the shaft.
307
Brush wear
There are several reasons for abnormal brush wear. These are the usual
ones:
1. Nature of load - Under-loading often leads to high brush wear. If
the motor operates largely at low load, a brush material with a
higher graphite content may have to be used.
2. Brush material - The brush material is a highly important factor
in minimizing brush wear, in doubtful cases, use the trial and
error method and consult your local brush supplier.
3. Humidity too low - The lower the humidity the greater the wear.
It has been found that there is a risk of rapid wear if the water
content per cubic meter of air is below 3 to 4 grams.
4. Brushes binding in holders - If brushes stick or bind in the brush
holders, there will be serious wear.
5. Dust - Abrasive dust, such as concrete dust, increases the-wear;
softer types of dust, such as textiles dust, have a lubricating
effect.
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309
Axial play
Axial play check is done to machines with sleeve bearings. When the
machine is running at rated voltage and speed magnetic and windage
forces are trying to move the rotor. Because there is no axial locking the
stator and rotor should be directed so that there is enough axial play.
When the machine is running at rated voltage and speed the point of a
bearing gasket is marked to the shaft with a drawing ink. After the
machine has stopped, the rotor is moved first to the one direction until it
stops and then to another direction. The displacements to the mark are
measured. It is checked that the magnetic center is in the axial play area.
Electrical Tests and Measurements
Insulation Test Conditions
Test should be performed to indicate the suitability of the insulation for
continued operation. Inspection and insulation resistance tests should be
performed with acceptable results before the high-potential tests. Other
tests, indicated below, may also be applied. All test results should be
retained. Trends in results are often better condition indicators than the
absolute values (Reference: IEEE Stds. 95)
Inspection
Insulation should be examined for evidence of degradation or damage,
such as:
1. Puffiness, cracking, separation or discoloration as indication of
thermal aging.
2. Contamination of coil and connection surfaces.
3. Abrasion or other mechanical stresses.
4. Evidence of partial discharges (corona).
5. Loose wedges, fillers, ties, banding, or surge rings.
6. Fretting at supports, bracing or crossing (an indication of
looseness or movement). (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec. 5)
310
Test Specimen
For most windings made before
about 1970, all field windings,
and others not described below.
For most DC armature and AC
windings built after about 1970
(form-wound coils).
For most machines with randomwound stator coils and formwound coils rated below 1kV.
Notes:
1.
2.
311
500
1000 2500
500 1000
2501 5000
1000 2500
5001 12000
2500 5000
> 12000
5000 10000
a
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314
This test evaluates ground insulation. It will usually detect damaged slot
liners and conductors outside the slot liner. It does not stress insulation
between turns, coils or phases.
Insulation Power Factor
Insulation power factor, dissipation factor, and tip-up test may be
performed on large machines. Interpretation of results is by comparison
with results of tests on similar machines. No standard interpretation of
results has been established (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec. 8.1).
Step Voltage Test
Step voltage tests are useful if performed at regular maintenance
intervals. Changes in results may indicate insulation degradation
(Reference: IEEE Stds. 95).
Surge Comparison Test
The surge comparison test is most often applied to winding circuits using
a test voltage of twice the circuit rating plus 1000 volts.
315
This will check for shorted wires and misconnections. This is the only
test that stresses insulation between turns, coils, and phases. Although it
stresses the insulation to ground, it usually is not accepted as a ground
insulation test.
Interlaminar Insulation Test
Defects in laminated cores can be detected by loop or core tests
(Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec 9.1, App. A4)
Bearing Insulation Test
Bearing insulation should be tested with a 500V megohmmeter.
Insulation resistance should be 1 megohm or greater.
Winding Resistance measuring
With a resistance bridge the resistance in the windings is measured.
Measuring can be either between terminals or per phase, note in the form
which alternative has been used.
316
No load test
With connectors attached according to rating plate a voltage is applied
from test bench to SI, S2 and S3; and the voltage is adjusted to rated
voltage. Make sure that the frequency is correct and that ammeters are
shorted during start-up- Voltage current, power, speed and frequency are
noted in the form. Measuring is according to the 2-Wattrneter principle.
See sketch below.
kW =
wattmeter
connection
according to
sketch
connection
according to
sketch
VW
skd
AW
kA
317
=
=
=
=
520
130
520V
130
5A
1
x 5 x 1 = 20V
where:
V
W
kW = skd
x AW x kA
During the test balance vibrations and bearing are checked. No load test
executes at rated voltage. No load current varies with the number of
poles as an average, the following table can be used:
318
Cooling System
The cooling system should be verified as being operational.
Bearing Temperature
Ambient and bearing temperature may be measured periodically until
temperatures are stabilized.
Vibration measurement
The vibration tests should be in accordance with NEMA Stds. MG 1, 7
for standard machines, as arranged with the customer, or as necessary to
check the operating characteristics of the machine. When there are
special requirements, i.e. lower than standard levels of vibration for a
machine, NEMA Stds. MG 1,7 for special machines is recommended.
The unfiltered vibration limits for resiliently mounted standard machines
(having no special vibration requirements), based on rotational speed,
and is shown in table at the right. Vibration levels for speeds above 1200
rpm are based on the rms 2.69 mm/s. Vibration levels for speeds below
about 1200 rpm are based on the peak velocity equivalent of 0.0025 inch
(0.0635 mm) peak-to-peak displacement. For machines with rigid
mounting, multiply the limiting values by 0.8. You may also refer to
ISO 10816-3 Vibration Severity Chart in page 115.
RPM @
60 Hz
3600
1800
1200
900
720
600
319
Velocity
mm/s
3.8
3.8
3.3
2.5
2.0
1.7
Machine Sound
The limits specified herein are applicable to motors operating at rated
voltage without load.
Acoustic quantities can be expressed in sound pressure terms or sound
power terms. The use of a sound power level, which can be specified
independently of the measurement surface and environmental conditions,
avoids the complications associated with sound pressure levels which
require additional data to be specified. Sound power levels proved a
measure of radiated energy and have advantages in acoustic analysis and
design.
Sound pressure levels at a distance from the motor rather than sound
power levels, may be required in some applications, such as hearing
protection programs. However, the information provided here is only
concerned with the physical aspect of noise and expresses limits in terms
of sound power level. Reference: NEMA MG 1 -2006, 9.2.
Performance Test
Full-load tests may be made as arranged with the customer or as
necessary to check the operating characteristics of the machine
(Reference: IEEE Stds. 112 and 115 and NEMA Stds. MG 1).
320
321
Squirrel-cage windings
One or both of these tests should be performed:
1. Growler test
2. Single-phase test
7.4 Other Tests
Tan Delta Measurements
Tan , representing the dielectric and discharge energy losses, is
measured in steps of 0.2 x U up to the main voltage U. The rate of rise of
tan as a function of voltage describes the average partial discharge
level both inside and on the surface of the insulation. This makes it
difficult to determine the condition inside the insulation. For old
windings, tan measurements can not estimate the age or predict failure
of the insulation.
Voltage Unbalance
Alternating-current polyphase motors shall operate successfully under
running conditions at rated load when the voltage unbalance at the motor
terminals does not exceed 1 percent. Performance will not necessarily be
the same as when the motor is operating with a balanced voltage at the
motor terminals. [MG 1-12.45]
322
323
324
Although the motor torque available has been reduced, the load torque
remains unchanged. The result is a longer acceleration time. If the
reduced motor torque is equal to that of the load, leaving none available
for acceleration, the motor and load will not accelerate beyond the speed
point. Further, if the motor torque is less than that of the load at initial
startup, the rotor will not rotate. That is, it will remain in a locked-rotor
condition. Figure below illustrates both of these conditions.
325
326
If the starting conditions are other than those stated above, the motor
manufacturer should be consulted. When additional starts are required, it
is recommended that none be made until all conditions affecting
operation have been thoroughly investigated and the apparatus examined
for evidence of excessive heating. It should be recognized that the
number of starts should be kept to a minimum since the life of the motor
is affected by the number of starts. [MG 1-12.54]
Failure of motor components may be due to a number of stresses
associated with acceleration. In the rotor, the bars and end rings that
make up the rotor cage are subject to high and cyclic (alternating)
magnetic forces. Heating of the rotor cage results in axial expansion of
the bars and radial expansion of the end rings, creating stress in various
sections of the bars and end rings. Current tends to crowd the tops of
the bars during starting; causing bending stresses as the top of the bars
try to expand more than the bottoms. This is depicted in the figure at the
right. As speed increases during acceleration to the thermal and other
stresses already mentioned.
The mechanical and electrical forces also affect the stator windings. The
excessive starting current leads to rapid heating of the windings and
consequently, rapid thermal expansion resulting in physical stress. The
torque forces associated with starting are many times normal, leading to
327
328
329
330
plan contains inputs drawn from the reviews and analysis rather than
from complaints.
Step 5: Assess the condition of the equipment and facilities. Be objective
in the assessment. Determine which equipment requires immediate
attention.
Step 6: Select the appropriate maintenance program. Is a computerized
maintenance system needed? What technique will be employed, reactive, preventive or predictive maintenance? Determine the order
maintenance activities will be carried out, first, then second, etc.? What
type of reporting system will be used to track and record the data
collected when measuring the performance of each piece of equipment?
Step 7: Measure equipment condition. When measuring for equipment
condition which method(s) will be considered: vibration analysis; fluid
analysis; non-destructive testing; or performance monitoring methods?
Step 8: Prepare the maintenance personnel. As the maintenance program
activities and methods are implemented ensure that the maintenance
personnel are trained to understand the program and why the activities
and methods are performed. Without this step no type of maintenance
improvement and reliability program will succeed.
Step 9: Monitor equipment and machinery effectiveness to the detail the
maintenance program requires. Monitor for performance, reliability and
quality. Overtime, the recorded information can be used to evaluate the
machinery and equipment condition and situation. This is an on-going
activity of any quality maintenance program.
Step 10: Initiate periodic reviews. Equipment and machinery
effectiveness is based on scheduled predictive and preventive
maintenance activities. The reviews of these activities may indicate
common problems and trends which identify any design or operational
changes required. Include engineering, maintenance and production
personnel in these periodic reviews. Ensure that action plans develop
from these review sessions, not just complaints.
331
333
334
335
336
Sight
Maintenance personnel, as shown in illustration #3, can simply look at
equipment to see if there is anything out of the ordinary happening.
Check for any apparent oil leaks or grease leaks around seal areas, or if
any of the bearing housings are loose, cracked or improperly assembled.
Check the lubricant. Discoloration or darkening of the oil is usually a
good indication that the lubricant is either contaminated or worn out. It is
also very important to check whether or not there is sufficient lubricant.
Is the lubricant the proper one for the application? Check whether the air
is free of obstructions.
Take a small sample of used oil and compare it with new oil. If it is
cloudy in appearance, water has more than likely mixed with it,
therefore, the oil must be replaced.
Dark or thick oil is a sure sign of contamination or that the oil has started
to carbonize. Overheating may have caused this problem.
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance work should be planned and scheduled, unless
true emergencies unexpectedly arise. Planning involves identifying all
resources necessary to repair the machinery. This identification of
resources may include:
Note: The maintenance planner responsible for planning and scheduling the
corrective maintenance work must have direct access to records
which contain past maintenance history, information on equipment
design, bill of materials, parts list, assembly/disassembly drawings,
and current inventory status for specific parts and assemblies.
338