Granular Solid Mechanics

STRUCTURES AND GRANULAR SOLIDS FROM SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
TO ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURES AND GRANULAR

SOLIDS: FROM SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES TO ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS, THE ROYAL
SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND, UK, 12 JULY, 2008
Structures and Granular Solids

From Scientific Principles to Engineering Applications
An international conference in celebration of the 60th birthday

of Prof. J. Michael Rotter
Editors
J.F. Chen & J.Y. Ooi

Institute for Infrastructure and Environment, School of Engineering and Electronics,
The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
J.G. Teng
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hong Kong, China
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Table of Contents
Preface
VII
Organising committee
IX
Biographical note on Prof. J.M. Rotter
XI
Structures, stability, silos and granular solids: a personal adventure

J.M. Rotter
Bulk solids flow and loading

Modelling granular materials: discontinuum continuum
D.M. Wood
21
Scaling up solids handling processes and equipment: limits of theory and scale modeling
J.W. Carson, T.J. Troxel & K.E. Bengtson
41
From silo phenomena to load models

J. Nielsen
49
Experience with funnel flow

M. Kaldenhoff
59
Shock loads in an iron ore train loading bin

A.W. Roberts
67
Studies of buried pipe behaviour

I.D. Moore
77
Progressive pressure measurements beneath a granular pile with and without base deflection
J.Y. Ooi, J. Ai, Z. Zhong, J.F. Chen & J.M. Rotter
87
Silos and shell structures

Design of silos for flow and strength the various contributors must communicate
P. Arnold
95
Developments in the design of rectangular planform silos

C.J. Brown
103
Recent silo codes and still structural failure?

P. Knoedel
113
Some unresolved problems in the design of steel cylindrical silos

F. Ayuga
123
A case history of the failure of some silos during discharge

J.B. Burland
135
V
Investigation of laser-beam welding induced distortions in thin sheets of Al 6056T4

J.F. Jullien, A. Combescure & M. Zain-ul-abdein
145
Local dimpling of the shell surface of a tank due to shrinkage effects

J.M.F.G. Holst
153
Seismic response of tanks in view of shell theory

R. Greiner & M. Kettler
159
Buckling of thin-walled pressurized cylinders under bending load

A. Limam, C. Mathon, A. Combescure & J.F. Jullien
169
Fibre reinforced polymer composites to increase the buckling strength of imperfect cylindrical shells
M. Batikha, J.F. Chen & J.M. Rotter
177
Effect of geometric nonlinearity of locally supported cylinders

C. Doerich
183
Local buckling and deformation capacity of tubes in steel structures

A.M. Gresnigt & S.A. Karamanos
199
Indirect straining of shallow axisymmetric domes: analysis and behaviour

M.A. Bradford, E. Hamed & R.I. Gilbert
219
Vibrational frequencies of a Guastavino spiral staircase shell

P. Mandal & C.R. Calladine
231
Mechanics of materials and structures

A new approach to teaching and learning structural analysis
S. Kitipornchai, H.F. Lam & T. Reichl
247
Total bond-slip and friction-dilatancy membrane model for R/C structures

T.G. Harmon & M. So
259
Experimental investigation of concrete under multiaxial extension: loading path dependent

stress-strain behaviour
M. Petkovski & P. Waldron
275
Numerical modelling of heated structures: nature, requirements and benchmarks

M. Gillie
285
Deflection of semi-rigidly connected beams

B. Ahmed, T.Q. Li & D.A. Nethercot
293
Sensitivity study of a historic bridge Goole swing bridge

M. Cai & D.M. Merrett
305
Mechanics of debonding in FRP-plated RC beams

J.G. Teng & J.F. Chen
313
VI
Preface
This Festschrift marks the 60th birthday of Professor J. Michael Rotter, FREng FRSE FICE FASCE FIStructE
FIEAust. It was presented at the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 12 July 2008 and contains 29 invited papers
authored by his collaborators, colleagues, past and present students in 12 countries.
Michaels research has ranged very widely from scientific principles to engineering applications, with a
particular focus on the buckling of thin shell structures and the mechanics of granular solids. He has made major
contributions and undertaken wide international collaborations over the last 3 decades. The broad area is highly
topical with lasting importance for both fundamental scientific understanding and engineering application to
challenging problems. The breadth of his contributions is reflected by the wide range of topics covered by this
Festschrift. Michaels seminal book entitled Guide for the Economic Design of Circular Metal Silos has been
highly regarded and widely appreciated by both researchers and practising engineers worldwide. His enormous
contributions in developing the most advanced standards for loading on silos, structural design of silos and
design of shell structures will certainly have a lasting impact on engineering practice.
The three of us have had the great pleasure and special privilege of working with Michael over an extended
period of time. We are much indebted to him for his enlightening guidance, enthusiastic approach, inspiring
discussions as well as his great kindness and friendship. From the comments we have received on the production
of this Festschrift, it is clear that many colleagues around the world share the same feeling.
Finally, we take this opportunity to thank all the authors for contributing to this Festschrift and to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh for hosting the conference. We are also grateful to the Organising Committee and many
other colleagues and students at the University of Edinburgh for their input and generous help. We would also
like to acknowledge the support provided by the University of Edinburgh, the Telford Institute and the Joint
Research Institute for Civil and Environmental Engineering (Edinburgh).
Jian-Fei Chen, Jin Y. Ooi and Jin-Guang Teng
VII
Organising committee
Chairman
Prof. David Ingram, The Royal Society of Edinburgh
Co-chairmen
Prof. Jin Y. Ooi, The University of Edinburgh
Dr. Jian-Fei Chen, The University of Edinburgh
Prof. Jin-Guang Teng, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Committee members
Dr. Cornelia Doerich, The University of Edinburgh
Prof. Mike Forde, The University of Edinburgh
Dr. Martin Gillie, The University of Edinburgh
Dr. Mark Holst, Scott Wilson (UK)
Dr. Hongyu Li, Maunsell AECOM Group (Hong Kong)
Prof. Yong Lu, The University of Edinburgh
Dr. P. Pankaj, The University of Edinburgh
Prof. Garry Pender, Heriot-Watt University
Dr. Tim Stratford, The University of Edinburgh
Mrs. Margaret Taylor, The University of Edinburgh
Prof. Asif Usmani, The University of Edinburgh
Ms. Sue Walker, The Royal Society of Edinburgh
Dr. Zhijun Zhong, The University of Edinburgh
IX
Michael Rotter
Biographical note on Prof. J.M. Rotter
Professor John Michael Rotter was born in Chesterfield, England on 31st October 1948. His family environment
naturally conditioned his life. His mother and father had spent many years in China, Burma, India and Australia
before his birth and his sister and brother were born in China and Australia respectively. Throughout his childhood,
the house was full of Chinese artefacts, so it is not surprising that he grew up thinking that the whole world was
his home. His mother, a biologist, had studied under Lord Ashby and his father, a mechanical engineer working
in mining, had studied at the Royal School of Mines. This was a household with a practical scientific view of
the world in which everything was there to be explored, understood and used to benefit mankind.
Michael was educated at Monkton Combe School, near Bath, Somerset and at Clare College, Cambridge
University where he gained a first in the Mechanical Sciences Tripos in 1970. On graduating, he was keen to
see other places in the world and was awarded a Commonwealth Scholarship to study at Sydney University.
Having developed a passion for structural mechanics, he could not choose between steel and concrete, so
fortuitously chose composite steel-concrete buildings as his topic. Nearing completion of the thesis, he was
offered a lectureship at Sydney University and so began his academic career in that renowned Department of
Civil Engineering. After a total of 18 years in Sydney, he was offered the Chair of Civil Engineering at Edinburgh
University in 1988, where he became Head of Department and the only professor. After three years at Edinburgh
he was asked to take the new position of Head of the Engineering Planning Unit, in charge of Civil, Chemical
and Mechanical Engineering, a role which he undertook for the next 7 years. His dedication in transforming
the Department of Civil Engineering into one of the top civil engineering departments in the UK is very much
appreciated by his colleagues.
A brief outline of Michaels research story is told in the paper that is presented in this volume. His interest
in the development of standards for structural design was instigated by Prof. Nick Trahair at Sydney, and work
in this area has probably been the biggest driver in his research career. Coupled with this interest has been
the investigation of a large number of failures, each of which presented different conditions leading to new
understandings of critical aspects of structural engineering. The outcomes of these investigations fed into both
his research and his contributions to the development of standards. His most significant contributions have been
a great range of research studies that have transformed the standards for pressures in silos, led to the worlds first
standard on structural design of metal silos, and produced a transformation of the way in which shell buckling,
plasticity and imperfection sensitivity are dealt with whether by hand calculations or in exploiting either simple or
advanced computational modelling. He has published over 330 papers and produced more than 60 investigation
reports on failures.
In his work on standards, Michael was first a co-author of the 1983 Australian Institute for Steel Construction
Design of Steel Bins for Bulk Solids, then appointed as a corresponding member of the European Convention
for Constructional Steelwork TWG 8.4 on shell buckling in 1987 and thirdly co-authored the 1987 Institution of
Engineers, Australia Guidelines for the Assessment of Loads on Bulk Solids Containers. The latter led on to his
major contribution to the new Australian Standard AS 3774 Loads on Bulk Solids Containers (1990). Following his appointment to Edinburgh, he became chairman of the Eurocode committees charged with developing four
new standards: EN 1993-1-6 Strength and Stability of Shell Structures, EN 1993-4-1 Silos, EN 1993-4-2 Tanks,
EN 1993-4-3 Pipelines. Many new advances in thinking about these structures were made by this team, which
also worked closely with the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork TWG 8.4 group who are responsible for the European Recommendations on Shell Buckling. He now chairs both the Eurocode committee and
the ECCS group, which is about to publish the huge 5th Edition of its Recommendations. In addition to the above
standards committees, he is an active member of the American Concrete Institute Committee 313 on concrete
silos, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Structures for Bulk Solids committee and the European
Cooperation on Space Standardisation committee on the structural design of space vehicles.
Apart from his several fellowships of professional engineering institutions, Michael was elected Fellow of
the Royal Academy of Engineering in 2004 and Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 2005.
Michaels inherited vision of the world is being passed on to the next generation: he has one son, Ben, who
graduated PhD in Civil Engineering in 2008, and one daughter, Rebecca, who is currently studying for a PhD
in Social Anthropology.
XI
Structures, stability, silos and granular solids: a personal adventure

J.M. Rotter
Institute for Infrastructure and Environment, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper recounts some small parts of the authors personal story of research into structures
and granular solids over the last 40 years, with naturally some special emphasis on shell structures, silos and
the dry solids of bulk solids handling. This range of subject matter is rather broad, but is all interconnected,
and it is hoped that the reader will enjoy seeing the many connections between different areas. The paper is
also interspersed with some observations on the nature of engineering research in our time, and on the authors
personal philosophy concerning the conduct of research.
department and mentor Prof. Sir John F. Baker (later

Baron Baker of Windrush) generously supported me
to go to study with his own first PhD student, Prof.
John W. Roderick, Head of Department at Sydney for
some 25 years. This choice was partly conditioned by
my enthusiasm for both steel and concrete construction, leading me to study composite construction, in
which John Roderick specialized. The PhD was concerned with composite steel-concrete columns within
a complete composite building structure and subject to
biaxial bending and restraint from the adjacent members. Whilst very little has been published from that
densely written 750 pages tour de force, it is still full
of interesting and novel ideas and will perhaps appear
more publicly in due course.
The Sydney Civil Engineering Department was a
vibrant place, with very strong groups in steel structures and geotechnics, and a contingent of very clever
PhD students, many of whom are now eminent professors all over the world. My debt to many colleagues
there, and to the great vision of John Roderick, is very
great indeed.
INTRODUCTION
I have never liked to read technical papers that were

written in the first person. They always appear so very
self-consciously precocious. But in some fields this is
the norm. Here, for the first time in my life, I will break
my rule in order to recount a little personal history of
my research path, and to pay some tributes to those
who have given me the foundation on which I have
tried to build. Naturally the list of my debts will be very
incomplete, and I ask forgiveness of my good friends
and mentors who are well remembered but who are
not documented here.
EARLY INFLUENCES
My fascination with structural mechanics began when

I was a student in Cambridge. My first course on
structures was taught by Ted (E.W.) Parkes, who
later became Vice Chancellor of first City and then
Leeds University and President of the CVCP and was
knighted. This first course was so inspirational that
I believe I was a convert from that moment. Jacques
Heyman and Chris Calladine powerfully built on that
foundation, and I became a disciple of plasticity and
stability for the rest of my life. I was very privileged to
have been educated by such imaginative, brilliant and
enthusiastic teachers.
Cambridge was such a wonderful place to be an
undergraduate that I could not believe that this great
life would go on if I tried to extend it into a postgraduate phase. I decided instead to try to go somewhere
for postgraduate study that I could never expect to go
again with ease (such was the challenge of traveling in
those days!), and for this reason I chose to go to Sydney University to undertake PhD studies. My head of
At Cambridge, under the leadership of John Baker,

John Roderick had studied the collapse of steel
columns when the beams above and below them
remained elastic and were able to restrain them until
a plastic instability failure occurred. A good account
of this work is given in Baker et al. (1956). This type
of design, with strong beams and weak columns
was later seen to be less than ideal, so the research
endeavor, involving quite complicated analytical treatments and careful model experiments, has been largely
forgotten.
1
MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS
a) Collapses in alternate beam spans bend

columns in single curvature
Figure 2. Experiments on biaxially loaded and restrained

composite columns.
are not susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling, this

became a tractable problem to conceptualize.
The goal of this work (Rotter 1977) was to perform
experiments on columns under biaxial bending and
elastic restraint (Fig. 2), to develop computer software
to model the complete behavior up to collapse, and
most importantly, to develop a conceptual framework
and analytical models that could capture the conditions
in which a column would collapse. These conditions
involved both moderate and extensive plasticity, with
stability influenced by bending moments which would
change as the column deformed and lost stiffness due
to both plasticity and nonlinear stability effects.
Key features of this situation, from a mechanics
viewpoint, are first that the materials behave in a manner that is far from ideal elastic-plastic so that the
curvilinear character of the stress-strain relationships
were important. Second, the progressive loss of tangent stiffness meant that the reduced member stiffness
due to stability effects had to be interpreted in terms of
the changing tangent modulus load of the whole system, and this was manageable in an analytical model
provided that the individual aspects of the problem
could be separated out.
Thus, several different components were needed:
descriptions for the cross-section of how both the ultimate moment and flexural stiffness changes with axial
load, for each axis in turn (Fig. 3); and for the member,
b) All beams collapsed reduces bending

moments in columns
Figure 1. Patterns of collapsing beams in a frame applying

moments to an overloaded column.
The starting point for my research project was

the idea that large bending moments could only be
applied to a column if pattern loading was used in
the structure (Fig. 1a) and this meant that a lesser
loaded beam would usually be elastic as the column collapsed. Thus there should often be an elastic
restraint against column buckling even as the column
approached a plastified stability failure. Columns on
the boundary of a building or subject to unsymmetrical pattern loading (Fig. 1b) are subject to double
curvature bending (peak moments at their ends) and
in general should approach the achievement of full
plasticity before collapse. Thus the focus was on an
internal column without sway, subject to axial load
and bending moments in two planes, and elastically
restrained in both planes. Since composite columns
2
a) partial flexural stiffness reduction in the column at the

instant of collapse
a) cross-section bending strength with axial load
b) inelastic flexural stiffness reduction with axial load
b) plastic hinge at the centre of the column before collapse
Figure 3. Strength and flexural stiffness changes of a

s
composite column cross-section with axial load.
Figure 4.
descriptions of how the bending stiffness progressively

reduced as the moments rose towards the ultimate
moment, with coupling into applied moments and elastic restraint from the beams. Simple analytical models
were devised for both ductile and strain-softening
column cross-sections.
These models proved very effective, and gave new
insights into the elastic-plastic interaction of columns
and beams in frame structures (Fig. 4), including
demonstrating the conservatism of conventional second order treatments and surprisingly connecting with
the high plasticity collapse analysis of strong beam
weak column devised by John Roderick and presented
in Baker et al. (1956). A final nice detail of these models was that they could show the point at which a plastic
hinge would form adjacent to the column in the elastic
restraining beam, precipitating collapse of the column.
These models displayed some neat mathematical
features which made the whole endeavor even more

satisfying.
The extension of this work to unsymmetrical configurations (Fig. 5) was clear and partly worked out,
but time constraints limited what could be done.
Naturally this concept applies only to frames in
which sway is resisted by bracing or shear walls, but
such conditions are common and provide economic
structures.
The analytical models developed in the course of
this work later found application in studies of large
building structures under fire (Lane 1997), illustrating
further extensions possible with such models.
When this column research was complete, it was
followed by a study of the role of strain hardening in
composite beams (Rotter & Ansourian 1979), which
quantified the effect neatly in closed form equations,
derived the criteria for these beams to be ductile in
sagging bending, and showed that the plastic moment
3
Collapse modes for restrained columns.
influence on my professional development, and my

debt to him is very great.
At this time, consultants and designers came to the
university repeatedly seeking help with their silo structures. There were many structural disasters in these
thin shell vessels, and little guidance on safe design
in the literature. Nick Trahair asked me to take on several of these investigations, but I stolidly held to the
view that my research was in tall building structures.
But one day, I woke to realize that no one ever came to
the university seeking advice on how to build tall buildings, but there was a constant stream of silo disasters,
legal cases and tricky design questions to be addressed.
Our reliance on the shell buckling literature written to
support the development of spacecraft was clearly too
heavy, and naturally such a literature did not address
many of the issues in silo design. And so on that one
day I made a conscious choice that I should research
silo structures, and I have never regretted the decision.
ON ENGINEERING RESEARCH
5.1 The purpose of engineering research

Under the leadership of Nick Trahair, my research
developed a more mature philosophy. Our task is
not merely to perform experiments and develop new
mechanics models (analytical and computational) that
capture the key aspects of behavior. It is not merely
to achieve understanding, capture it in equations, and
present new knowledge in publications. As engineers,
our more critical task is to bring new knowledge into
industrial practice, and thus to impact on the economic
performance and safety of the whole society.
Some of our research will be of economic benefit by improving the cost-effectiveness of specific
projects, but more urgent research is called for when
accidents occur. The field of silos was, and remains,
rich in unfortunate incidents leading to expensive loss
of industrial production, litigation, and occasional
loss of life. The best research often arises from such
incidents, where an academic deepening of understanding follows from an exemplar failure. Thus,
although we must regret collapses and similar accidents, they have always been powerful triggers for
improved engineering (Hopkins 1970), and as such,
are most valuable.
Further, it should be recognized that, in general,
practicing engineers design structures without a full
knowledge of relevant requirements, and it is only later
that the academic research comes along to tidy up and
provide a safe basis for what is already being done.
Sometimes the engineering judgment of experienced
engineers will be at fault, and it is then that collapses
and other disasters are likely.
Figure 5. Column collapse mode with unsymmetrical

configurations of collapsing beams.
often considerably under-estimates the true strength.

A further development, using Greens theorem to
derive algebraically exact results for the elastic-plastic
analysis of steel, concrete and composite crosssections under axial load and biaxial bending, was
particularly satisfying (Rotter, 1985).
Further research on building structures continued with my first PhD student John Mulcahy, who
extended the frame treatment outlined above to deal
with flat slab reinforced concrete floor structures. It is
surely gratifying to see that research of this kind could
have provided the background for Johns subsequent
meteoric rise through construction management, into
banking and as far as CEO of one of Australias prime
financial organizations!
NEW DIRECTIONS
John Roderick retired at this point, and Prof. Nick

Trahair was appointed to the chair of structural
engineering at Sydney. He became the next very strong
4
heat of the debate between the simplifiers and the

sophisticates amongst designers. I am indebted to my
colleagues on the drafting committee for these standards, which I chaired, for accepting this concept so
readily.
But the task of bringing new knowledge into industrial practice is not so straightforward. Practicing
engineers often have very limited time to undertake
their work, and national regulations require that this
work should be done to a well defined quality to guarantee the safety of the public and client. Thus the role
of standards for design comes to the fore.
5.2
5.3 On research methodology in engineering

We have essentially three approaches to research:
experiments, mathematical algebraic analysis, and
numerical modeling. Each of these approaches yields
valuable information, but each has its own deficiencies.
Experiments involve the real world and must, in
some sense, deliver the truth about our structures
and systems. However, the experiments almost always
deliver only partial information that is difficult to
interpret: most experiments involve scale models of
real systems, and scale effects can change the outcome of the experiment (Nielsen & Askegaard 1977,
Munch-Andersen & Nielsen 1986); in experiments,
only a limited number of observations can be made,
and what is not observed cannot be known; the conditions of the experiment are always different from those
of the real system, and the outcome can be consequently misleading; finally, the experiment is planned
with an expected outcome (hypothesis) in mind and
both the experiment itself and the observations made of
it are conditioned by the experimenters expectations,
so the most critical aspects may be missed. In addition to these difficulties, experiments are expensive
and slow and in a domain affected by many parameters, only a very partial insight can be gained. The best
use of experiments in our current world is their use to
verify computational models.
Computational models can be devised that capture all the phenomena that we believe to affect the
system. But as these phenomena become more and
more complicated, the data required for the prediction of any systems behavior becomes more and
more difficult to acquire. Moreover, as the system
behavior becomes more complex, the analyst running the program must have progressively more skill
and experience and understanding of the system to
even persuade the software to produce a safe result.
The old saying of garbage in, garbage out naturally applies to errors of data, but it also applies
where lack of information forces the analyst to guess
data, leading to results of quite indefinable validity. Finally, computational modeling generally only
gives discrete answers to discrete questions. Piecing
together the outcomes of different computations to
make a whole in a large multi-dimensional space is
often tricky if the space contains singularities, jumps,
steps or inversions. Moreover, the range of validity of
the conclusions drawn is always difficult to determine,
especially where the computational model deals with
On standards for structural design
National and international standards provide a set of

regulated calculations that strive to provide appropriate safety, whilst offering sufficient accuracy in their
description to ensure that the structures designed using
them are not too expensive in materials. The tension
between economy and safety runs through all engineering activity, and one key aspect of this tension
is the small proportion of the total cost that must be
spent on the design process. Many designers, seeing
that their share of the total cost is rather small, appear
to want simple standards that are quick to apply, even
though this may lead to much greater client costs in
construction. The fight between those who would like
a more precise and therefore complicated standard, and
those who seek great simplicity, continues in every
standards drafting committee in the world.
However, it is certainly unreasonable to ask designers to use complicated procedures to design very
simple structures under simple loading, where quite
elementary rules, with appropriate restrictions, will
do. But it is quite important that large and complicated,
or safety-critical structures, should be designed with
the best knowledge and methodology we can muster.
In building structures, the difference between these
two extremes is not so large, because the scale is determined by human sizes, with ceiling heights some small
multiple of that of a person and spans of the order of
the scale of rooms that we like to occupy. However,
with silos and tanks the difference between a storage
for 10 tonnes and one for 10,000 tonnes is very great.
It could be said that bridges have the same large range
of geometries, but there the structural form changes
with size. By contrast, the structural form of silos
is essentially the same at all scales. Furthermore, in
silos the total weight rises as the cube of the linear
dimension, whilst the strength varies approximately
linearly with thickness. Thus very large silos come to
have many more critical dimensions and potential failure modes than small silos. This exacerbates the need
for different rules for different sizes.
It is most fortunate that this aspect of silos and
tanks has been accommodated with the Eurocodes
(EN 1991-4 2007, EN 1993-4-1 2007, EN 1993-4-2
2007), which divide silos and tanks into three classes
according to their size and the complexity of certain
details. The requirements for design are very differentiated between the classes, dissipating much of the
5
It may further be noted that possession of a powerful computer program is a little like possession of a
Formula One car. In theory anyone can drive it, but
it is only a useful tool in the hands of an extremely
experienced and clever trained driver. Reviewers of
journal articles who criticize papers as only the output from a computer program should recognize that it
is just as difficult to obtain secure outcomes from nonlinear computational analyses of sensitive structures as
it is to formulate and solve differential equations.
cases that are far removed from the experiments used

to validate the model.
The third approach is that of algebraic analysis.
This is traditional, and remains very powerful when
appropriately applied. It can deliver equations that represent the behavior of a system relatively well, and
these are often of immense value when the results of
experiments and computations are to be interpreted.
However, it is very limited to what is soluble within
the methods of algebra, and as a result, many of
the outcomes of such analyses are not very useful in
practice.
The best engineering research naturally combines
all three approaches: experiments that can be used to
verify computational models, computational models
that can be used to produce large volumes of accurate
predictions, and analytical models that can be used to
advise on the conduct of the computational modeling
process and to enable those results to be condensed
and appropriately interpreted into physical behavior.
The process of engineering research must pass from
an understanding of the physics of the system, into
capturing the essentials with mathematics, manipulating the mathematics to yield an answer to a specific
question, and reinterpreting the result back into the
physical domain to obtain new understanding.
5.4
5.5
On the application of research in practice
Engineering is concerned with the making of practical

facilities for the benefit of mankind. As a result, it can
be said that engineering research is only successful if
it finds application in practice. Thus, an analysis or
computer program that is used in a few applications is
valuable, but research that results in legally and contractually enforceable rules in standards is extremely
effective. However, the devising of rules for modern
standards is not a simple matter.
To be useful in design, rules in standards must generally be expressible in terms of simple equations.
Where the phenomena are simple, this is not a problem, but where many parameters affect the outcome
or the domain is very nonlinear, it is extremely difficult
to use either experiments or computational predictions
to devise safe rules. What is needed is an understanding of the phenomena, coupled with a good insight
into which aspects must be modeled, leading to analytical models of behavior that can lead to simple
equations for design. The analytical models do not
need to be absolutely accurate (the outcome can be
calibrated to more precise results) but it is only analytical models that can tell the researcher how to combine
many parameters into useful groupings that will lead
to neater simpler descriptions of the whole. Thus, the
modern tendency to believe that a powerful computer
program is sufficient to solve every problem is not
very helpful in devising design rules.
6
6.1
SHELL STRUCTURES AND SILOS

Introduction
As noted above, my first interest in shell structures

came from investigations of failures and the anxieties
that these failures provoked in the designers of new
structures. These early investigations, many of which
I undertook in collaboration with Peter Ansourian,
included full scale testing of beer brewing tanks, bursting of silos as stored grain expanded when wet air was
blown into it (Fig. 6), live growing fatigue cracks at the
top of a 2000 tonne coal hopper (Fig. 7) and optimized
design of a silo to include the strengthening effect of
a stored solid. These earliest practical studies already
addressed issues that remain at the very limit of current
knowledge and understanding.
6.2
Silos as an engaging research field
Metal silos are amongst the most interesting and

challenging of shell structures. They generally have
6
On the funding of research
In the times in which we live, civil engineers appear to

be in an unfortunate position. Their expertise is vitally
needed to solve many of the worlds major problems
associated with the push to give all the worlds peoples
the simple elements for a comfortable life (warmth,
shelter and food), and associated with such aspects as
climate change. However, civil engineering is widely
regarded as a mature discipline, so that the funding
of research from governments is poor.
Most civil engineering activity is, in some way,
funded by governments, their agencies or industries
that are regulated by government (e.g. water supply).
The philosophy for government funding of research
often appears to be industry should pay for engineering research: the government will pay for science.
This approach works well in a commercially competitive field like the manufacture of cars, but in the field
of civil engineering, where almost all work is for oneoff projects and the competitive feedback mechanism
is weak, it is a less useful concept. Much more could
be said on this debate.
cylindrical walls with conical roofs and conical hoppers (Fig. 7), which give them the aspect of several
shell forms connected together. The shells themselves
are subject to loads that are rather uncertain and
poorly understood (see Section 7 below), and the frictional drag of the solids against the wall causes axial
compression, leading to one of the most notoriously
imperfection-sensitive shell conditions. However,
the internal pressure, sometimes reliable, reduces
the imperfection sensitivity, and the elastic stiffness
of the solid, still difficult to quantify, can also enhance
the strength if it remains stationary when the axial load
is present (the flowing or stationary status is still tricky
to determine). It is easy for the loads from stored solids
to become unsymmetrical, leading to non-standard
shell stability problems, and it is common for these
structures to be discretely supported, leading to local
loads. Finally, the great variety of imaginative solutions that designers devise to strive for economy with
safety provide a rich range of challenging questions in
structural mechanics. All these factors make silos one
of the most interesting of all structures to study and
research.
But research into such varied structures cannot
progress very well by trying to address each question
as a special case. First, it is necessary to gain a good
understanding of the behavior of the class of structures.
In my learning about shell structures, I am particularly indebted to Richard Greiner, Herbert Schmidt,
Chris Calladine, Phil Gould, Paul Seide, Gerry
Galletly, Ian Moore, Tom Harmon, Jean-Franois
Jullien, Alain Combescure, Nol Gresnigt, Peter
Kndel, Ali Limam and Werner Guggenberger, all of
whom taught me many valuable things in discussion.
In addition, the members of the European shell buckling group ECCS TWG8.4 and the drafting committee
for the European shell buckling standard EN 1993-1-6
(2007) have all been immensely helpful in leading me
to new understandings.
The second requirement is to develop a systematic
treatment of some kind that permits all the different
detailed issues to be seen in a holistic view and context. And for this reason, the research must begin with
simple structural forms and address the easier issues
first before expanding progressively onto more complex topics. To that end, the first task was to sort out
the different key modes of failure and address each
in turn.
Figure 6. Remains of a silo that burst when the stored grain

expanded.
6.3 Critical aspects of silo structures
Figure 7.
The four key parts of the silo are the cylindrical wall,
the conical hopper, the transition ring beam lying
between these two, and the conical roof (Fig. 8).
Each has its own failure conditions, leading to key
requirements for the design.
Coal silo: collapse of hopper.
7
Conical
roof
Cylindrical
shell
or barrel
Transition
Ring
Skirt
Figure 9.
Bursting of a silo at a poorly detailed joint.
Conical
hopper
Column
Figure 8.
6.4
Sketch of typical metal silo structure.
Cylindrical walls of silos
The cylindrical wall is subject to both circumferential

tension (rarely leading to bursting, Fig. 9) and vertical compression (the commonest source of failures).
This cylindrical wall has therefore been the subject of
more research than all the others. The first structural
form is a wall made of unstiffened plate (isotropic),
which is susceptible to buckling under vertical compression (Fig. 10), with a strength that is often acutely
sensitive to minor geometric imperfections. Many of
my students and colleagues have given me great pleasure through their work with me in investigating a
huge range of problems in this field, notably JinGuang Teng, Mark Holst, Paul Jumikis, Qiao Zhang,
Ding Xiao Li, Ky-Ming She, Richard Coleman, Paul
Berry, Hong-Yu Li, Martin Gillie, Minjie Cai and
Cony Doerich. New researches continue with Mustafa
Batikha, Ying Liu, Lei Chen and Adam Sadowski.
Key problems that we studied have been the imperfection sensitivity of cylinders buckling under axial
compression, with internal pressure causing strengthening or weakening, with stored solids inside providing additional support, together with elephants foot
buckling (Fig. 11), buckling above local supports and
local settlements and collapse of special forms such
as corrugated walls (Fig. 12) and ring stiffened walls
(Fig. 13).
The result of all this work has been a great increase
in our knowledge of these different failure modes
in silos, together with many computational and analytical treatments that have permitted a considerable
Figure 10.
pression.
Figure 11.
Elephants foot buckle in a tank.
Figure 12. Corrugation collapse in an unstiffened corrugated silo under vertical compression.
8
Isotropic shell buckling under axial com-
Figure 14.
Hopper splitting on meridional seams.
Junction
Figure 13.
stiffened).
Ring
Local collapse in Lipp silos (spirally ring
Junction
Skirt
Skirt
Support
development in the European standards for shell buckling (EN 1993-1-6 2007) and silo structural design
(EN 1993-4-1 2007).
A review of many different problems in this field
is far beyond the scope of this paper, so the reader is
asked to forgive this very cursory treatment.
6.5
Cone
meridional
tension
a) Junction local geometry
Conical hoppers
b) Static equilibrium at the junction
In its role as a compression ring, it is susceptible to

buckling failure, and extensive work first with Paul
Jumikis and then comprehensively with Jin-Guang
Teng led to a full model for the behavior: plastic collapse, elastic buckling and strength assessment of this
structure. This research has now been fully adopted
into EN 1993-4-1 (2007).
The condition of a discrete supported silo is, however, much more complicated, because a very stiff shell
is expected to be uniformly supported by an essentially
flexible ring (Fig. 16). The interaction between these
two elements is complex, and still needs much further
research.
6.7 The conical roof
The final structural component of the silo is the roof,
which is commonly a thin shell on small diameter silos,
but a framework supporting cladding on large diameter
tanks and silos. The thin shell has several different
potential buckling and plastic collapse failure modes
(Figs. 17 and 18), and can also participate in a buckling
failure of the cylindrical wall under wind when the silo
is empty (Fig. 19).
The above brief outline has only skated over the
surface of the myriad of tricky problems in the structural design of silos. It is hoped that the reader will
The transition junction
The junction between the conical hopper and the cylindrical wall (Fig. 8) is termed the transition and a
ring is normally required at this location in larger silos.
This ring serves the role of resisting the radial inward
pull of the hopper tension (leading to circumferential
compression in the ring) (Fig. 15), but it may also
be expected to redistribute the discrete forces from
column supports (Fig. 8).
9
Cone
meridional
tension
Radial force
provided by
compression
Figure 15. Transition ring compression caused by hopper

top tension.
The conical hopper, subject to internal pressure and

the frictional traction of solids sliding down its internal
surface, is normally in biaxial tension. It is a very efficient structure, with the stress state chiefly consisting
only of membrane stresses.
Work with Jin-Guang Teng (Teng & Rotter 1989)
demonstrated the different failure modes, and used
quality computational modeling coupled with analytical treatments to devise simple algebraic descriptions
of wide applicability. This was a very satisfying
study, with the outcome now in EN 1993-4-1 (2007).
However, some designers still seem to have trouble
understanding the mechanics of conical shells, leading
to a remarkable number of failures (Fig. 14).
6.6
Cylinder
vertical
compression
Axisymmetric
wall loading
and bottom
pressures
Cylindrical
shell
Uniform support to
cylinder from ring girder
Figure 18.
Conical roof after snap through buckling.
Figure 19.
shell roof.
Wind buckling of silo wall, also involving
Uniform loading of
ring girder by cylinder
Ring girder
(various
cross-section
geometries)
Discrete local supports

a) Traditional design model for column-supported silos
Shell wall
In-plane vertical
deflections
Ring girder
deflected shape
Discrete
support
Figure 16.
cylinder.
Discrete
support
b) Deformation requirement on cylinder
Classical model for a ring beam supporting a
Conical shell
Ring
Conical
shell
7.1 Introduction
Ring at
membrane
yield
The many failure modes in silo structures all depend

on the stress state being induced in the local part
of the shell, and these stresses depend on the pressures exerted by the stored solid. My early contacts
with Peter Arnold and Alan Roberts, who were the
Australian experts in this field, taught me many vital
lessons, and gave me enormous respect for the granular solids inside the silo. It was quickly clear that the
wall pressure phenomena in silos were just as tricky
as the silo structural design.
My early explorations in the field of silo pressures
made me aware of the key difference between static
solid, placed into the silo from above, and the flowing
solid, discharging from it through an outlet (Fig. 20).
A good training from Peter Wroth in Cambridge had
taught me a valuable part of soil mechanics that is
Figure 17. Plastic collapse modes for a thin shell

conical roof.
be intrigued or challenged by some of the images

or thoughts and may be tempted to ponder on some
of these issues further. This field is full of excitement
for the young structural mechanics enthusiast!
10
PRESSURES IN SILOS
Pressure
Storing: pressures
stable but different at
different places
Wall pressure (kPa)
Discharge:
erratic pressure
changes,
some very large,
some small
Pressure
Pressure
Filling
and
emptying
Filling
Filling
Filling:
pressures
rising
Emptying
2
Discharge
start:
57mins
Filling
end:
31mins
a) Mass flow
Emptying
b) Mixed flow with

effective transition
c) Pipe flow with

almost no changes
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 21. Simple concepts for the symmetrical

components of filling and emptying pressures in silos.
Time from start of test (minutes)
Figure 20. Pressure cell readings on a test silo, showing

the difference between filling and storing values and those
occurring during discharge.
it is quite impossible to decide which pressure observations matter to structural integrity without understanding shell structures well, and it is equally impossible
for the shell analysts to design shell structures to
contain flowing granular solids by simply relying on
codified rules to define the notional pressures. These
two fields are remarkably different, but the complex
interaction between them is certainly one cause of the
many structural disasters in silos.
The field of silo pressures has been fascinating, and
very different indeed from structural engineering. Outstanding colleagues in this area who have given me
great pleasure in close working over many years are
Jin Ooi, Jian-Fei Chen, and Zhijun Zhong.
very relevant to solids flow (critical state theory), but

geotechnical engineering deals with conditions up to
the point of incipient flow (when the landslide begins
to move!) and not the fully fledged macroscopic flow
required for all the solids to discharge from a silo.
Nevertheless, practical silos must be designed,
and the structural failure conditions cannot be
defined without a clear understanding of the pressures
exerted on the wall by the solids. I was most fortunate that Jorgen Nielsen came on a visit to Australia in
1983, and we immediately became firm friends. I owe
a huge debt to him for many insights into silo pressures
and solids flow, for his huge expertise in the difficult
field of experiments on silos, and for endless debates
in which we struggled to reconcile our different ideas
about key phenomena. Invariably, reconciliation of our
different opinions led us to discover that some part
of what each of us thought was clearly wrong, with
great satisfaction resulting from us achieving a much
better final understanding by combining our pieces of
the jigsaw puzzle.
It was also an excellent experience to interact
with his colleagues Jorgen Munch-Andersen and Vagn
Askegaard, both of whom had special expertise in
critical aspects of silo experimental work.
7.2
7.3 Silo pressures for structural design

Most of the research on silo pressures is focused
on producing safe rules for structural design. In this
endeavor, I must pay tribute to Branko Gorenc and
Tim Hogan in Sydney, who first involved me in drafting some Australian guidelines for this task. This led
on to development of the Australian Standard AS 3774
(1996), and that in turn led to much further work on
the ISO and European Standard (EN 1991-4 2007)
with Jorgen Nielsen, Cornelius Ruckenbrod and Eric
Ragneau. The regular discussions with Martin Kaldenhoff on these matters have also been a delight. I have
also been fortunate to be involved in the ACI 313
(1997) standard and the ASME (2007) standard, both
of which led to further development of my close
friendships with John Carson and Herman Purutyan.
The critical aspect of silo pressures that is clearly
often missing is the loss of symmetry in systems which
appear to be quite symmetrical. This was noted by
Jorgen Nielsen during his big experimental program,
but he was so generous as to give us the raw data, so
that Jin Ooi, Lam Pham and I could make a fuller
statistical evaluation of the loss of symmetry. The
result was rather shocking (Fig. 22), but it showed that
substantially unsymmetrical pressure regimes systematically recur in silos, and that the magnitudes are so
great that they must not be ignored in structural design
Filling, storing and discharge pressures
The pressure regime that occurs during discharge is

significantly dependent on the pattern of solids flow
within the silo (Fig. 21), so the pressures cannot be
reliably predicted until the boundary between flowing and stationary solid has first been predicted. This
boundary remains something of an unsolved problem
(see Section 8 below).
It is unfortunate that the shell buckling community (which must deal with many complexities) and
the silo pressures community (which has a very different set of great challenges) rarely understand each
others fields well. For the silo pressure experimenters,
11
mean local forces on the silo wall must be extremely

stiff (Askegaard et al. 1971) and even when the wall is
peppered with these expensive cells, the interpolation
and extrapolation between them involves considerable
uncertainty (Rotter et al. 1986). Nevertheless, there is
still a big challenge in interpreting pressure cell readings like those in Figure 20 (Rotter 2008), since the
peak pressures do not endure very long, they occur at
different points at different times with different magnitudes, and it is arguable that metal silos are more
sensitive to the lowest unsymmetrical pressures, not
the highest peaks! The traditional interpretation of
drawing envelopes over the peak values recorded on
one cell at each level (Fig. 23), and then drawing an
envelope over these peaks from multiple experiments
is completely wrong and seriously underestimates the
danger to the structure of the true patterns.
One solution to this problem is to measure strains
in the structure and infer the pressure regime from
them, knowing that whatever pressures matter for the
structure must induce strains, and those aspects of
pressure that do not matter to the structure (perhaps
some local peaks) will be lost. This was the huge task
undertaken by Jian-Fei Chen, using experiments that
Zhijun Zhong performed, with planning from myself
and Jin Ooi (Fig. 24). The strong correlation between
the pattern of solids flow and the pressures on the wall
was fully demonstrated (Chen et al. 2007), underlining
the need to be able to predict flow channel boundaries
before we can hope to predict wall pressure forms and
magnitudes.
The outcome of these tests is that we understand
the complete pressure regime better, but it is difficult
Figure 22. Systematically unsymmetrical mean pressures

after filling and during discharge (Karpalund silo tested by
Nielsen).
(Ooi et al. 1990). Of course, others had observed

something of this asymmetry before, but most silo
experiments were, and still are, conducted on the
assumption that the pressures at any level will be
constant around the wall perimeter.
Unfortunately, silo pressure experiments to evaluate the loss of symmetry are few and far between, and
knowledge in the shell buckling community appropriate to evaluating the strength under these unsymmetrical pressure regimes is seriously lacking. Thus both
communities have much more work to do to resolve
these problems.
One final interesting series of studies has been
undertaken in a very happy collaboration with Chris
Brown. Unlike the rest of the discussion here, this
study has dealt with silos of square or rectangular
plan-form. In these silos, the pressure pattern is very
different, with flexible flat walls leading to reduced
pressures, which in turn means that the walls can
be thinner and therefore even more flexible. These
studies, involving both quality experiments and considerable computational modeling, are amongst the
most satisfying of silo pressure explorations, in that
the experiments and computations match well, and
the results have been generalized for use in design
calculations.
pA (t)
Cell A
pB (t)
Cell B
B
t
Cell C
pC (t)
C
7.4
Cell D
Research methods for silo pressures
pD (t)
Silo pressures present an interesting challenge: the

techniques mentioned above of experimentation, computational modeling and analytical treatments are still
the key tools, but all three fail to capture many key
elements in circular silos. Firstly, it is extremely difficult to perform reliable experiments, whether at full
scale or in the laboratory: pressure cells for measuring
envelope of pressure
peaks: not temporarily
coincident
Janssen fitted
envelope
Result: all actual patterns of pressure are lost
Figure 23. Traditional (wrong) interpretation of silo

experiments.
12
models that can describe the loss of symmetry in silo

pressure patterns are badly needed.
7.5
Eccentric discharge
A final note should be entered here on the challenging

problem of eccentric solids flow. Where a channel of
flowing solids occurs adjacent to the silo wall, very low
pressures are exerted by the flowing solid (Fig. 25),
and this unsymmetrical pressure pattern is probably
the most damaging of all to both metal and concrete
circular silos (Fig. 26).
Figure 25.
Eccentric flow of solids in a silo.
Figure 24. Experimental silo at Earlston using a huge array

of strain gauges.
to generalize from one set of experiments on a silo of

one size and geometry storing one set of solids to all
silos with all products in them.
The computational modeling of solids in silos also
presents a major challenge, and even the best models
of all cannot be said to have adequately reproduced the
phenomena seen in experiments. Both finite element
(continuum) and discrete element (individual particles) methods have been extensively used by many
groups, including our own, but both fall far short of
being useful predictive techniques for practical silo
design. For some special problems (hopper pressures,
square planform silos) rather effective predictions are
possible, and the collaborations with Chris Brown,
Richard Goodey and Song Xiong have been most
useful.
Extensive analytical work was done in earlier
times to develop continuum models to describe silo
pressures. These still remain the vital basis of silo
design, since equations are always needed in standards.
However, all standards in the world rely on very simple equations that are based on the filling condition
to define all pressure regimes. Some good analytical
Figure 26.
solids.
13
Buckling caused by eccentric discharge of
Such eccentric flows probably cause more buckling

problems in metal silos than any other phenomenon,
and it can again be seen that a low pressure in the
flowing zone is the root cause of the problem. It is
hoped that current research being undertaken by Adam
Sadowski will find a good solution for practical design.
mechanical behavior and properties would have been

well understood and documented by now, but this is far
from being the case. Unfortunately, numerical modeling of this huge range of materials can only progress
when much better representations of their behavior can
be devised.
In application to silos, the following aspects are critical (Fig. 28): the solid must flow, not simply reach a
condition of incipient failure; the flowing solid experiences very significant changes in its stress state as it
moves; a slightly unstable boundary develops between
flowing and stationary solid; and the pressure regime
in the flowing and stationary zones is quite different.
So many different inter-related problems are not
quickly solved. The direction of the work under-taken
with Jin Ooi, Jian-Fei Chen and Zhijun Zhong has
had the twin foci of fundamental studies and direct
addressing of industrial problems.
In the latter, a long and extensive project was undertaken on the blocking of coal hoppers by sticky coal
(Fig. 29), and the fast, real-time assessment (Fig. 30)
of the cohesive strength of a specific train-load before
it is placed into the target bunker. This even extended
to predicting the properties of a mixture of different
coals into a blend, which is an extension of normal
thinking about granular solids.
However, most of our work in this area has tried to
address the challenging questions of static properties
and the flow of the solids in a silo. Early influences
in this area were Peter Wroth, John Burland and
Ian Moore, with many later valuable insights from
John Carson, Alan Roberts, Peter Arnold, David
Muir-Wood, Juan Martinez and Eric Ragneau. Jin
Oois PhD thesis included an excellent set of triaxial tests on wheat, using different particle packing
arrangements and different stress paths informed by
critical state concepts, but this work has still to be
published. Extensive further testing has been done on
GRANULAR SOLIDS
Granular solids are familiar to us from our childhood

and appear everywhere in our lives, so we tend not to
think of them as complex. Sand on the beach, gravel
on the path, sugar in the bowl, flour in the kitchen, coal
on the fire, washing powder in the box, scree slopes on
the mountain, breakfast cereal in the morning: all seem
very everyday familiar and unremarkable items. But
geotechnical research has shown just how complicated
the behavior of sand and clay can be, and the solids
stored in silos probably have a much greater range
of particle sizes, shapes and surface textures, densities and gradings than those dealt with in geotechnics
(Fig. 27). Furthermore, practical geotechnics usually
deals with conditions where an expensive building or
bridge is to be constructed on a particular site, so the
material is defined (if complex) and there is an appropriate budget to investigate it. By contrast, the stored
granular solids in silos account for some 60% of all
feedstock into industrial processes, but their storage
is not usually seen as a serious problem in the minds
of the chemical and mechanical engineers who design
the plant.
Such huge volumes of these materials are mined
and manufactured that one would imagine that their
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
A few typical solids for silo storage.
14
Life cycle of granular solids in a silo.
Figure 29. Coal bunker blockage due to cohesion development in sticky coal.
Figure 31. Flow channels test and observed channel geometries in flat-bottomed silos containing barley.
70
Barley
d c = Various
d outlet = Various
Filling = Concentric
Discharge = Concentric
Flow channel angle
60
50
40
30
300cc 2001
300cc 2002
Hollow symbols indicate

assumed o angles for tests
20
300cc 2003
450cc 2003
10
hc
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Filling aspect ratio
Figure 32. Flow channel angles measured in two different

size silos, showing variation of the flow channel angle with
fill level (barley: distributed fill, concentric discharge). The
low curve is the boundary below which no wall intersection
occurs.
Figure 30.
coupled with our own tests (Fig. 31), whose results

are shown in Figure 32 for barley with distributed
filling and concentric discharge, demonstrate that the
behavior is complicated and dependent on the silo
size, the filling method with its consequent particle
packing structure and the location of the discharge
outlet. The predictors formerly offered on the basis of
simple frictional models and limited testing are most
unreliable.
The above illustrates what a long way there is to
go before the flow channel geometry can be reliably
predicted, yet a cursory examination of Figures 21 and
25 indicates that this geometry plays a critically important role in silo pressure patterns and consequently silo
structural design.
Many of our other investigations relating to granular
solids and those described by Nielsen (1998) show that
many factors that are difficult to define in advance play
Edinburgh cohesion tester about to squash coal.
many solids to obtain key data on lateral pressure ratios

and tangent elastic stiffnesses, both needed for loading and buckling calculations in silos (Rotter & Zhang
1990).
But the most important challenge of predicting the
geometries of flowing channels in silos remains somewhat elusive. John Carson et als (1991) classic tests,
15
critical roles in affecting flow patterns and the forms

and magnitudes of wall pressures. Notable amongst
these are the shapes of the particles, the way in which
they pack together resulting from the deposition process during filling, the roughness of the silo wall, and
the geometric imperfections in the silo wall. There is
a very long way to go before the science beneath these
phenomena is understood and transformed into design
processes.
appropriate demands are met. To this end, a universal buckling curve or capacity curve was devised
(Fig. 33a), which should be applicable to all columns,
beams, plates and shells, as well as complete structures
and systems.
This development seems to hold much promise
for the future, in that the controlling parameters of
the elastic-plastic-hardening description of any structure all relate to different phenomena (Fig. 33b), and
so can be extracted from experimental or computational data for the structure and then studied in
themselves for their variation with geometry, material properties, imperfections and boundary conditions
(Rotter 2007). Generalisation and holistic approaches
are much needed in our current era of increasing complexity, and this approach provides a small but useful
contribution towards achieving this in the field of
structural engineering.
GENERALISATION OF BUCKLING
AND PLASTICITY DESIGN PROCESSES
The final major task that I have been involved with

in recent years has been the development of a design
philosophy for the static failure of structures that can
encompass the exploitation of all types of advanced
computational analysis within a codified framework
suitable for use in standards. This work began with the
drafting of the European Standard for Shell Strength
and Stability (EN 1993-1-6 2007), where Herbert
Schmidt, Richard Greiner and Werner Guggenberger
all contributed very greatly to the development of
the ideas. The key challenge was the task of devising codified rules for design that would be applicable
to all structural forms, including those about which
we have little knowledge or which we have not yet
thought of. The main idea is that all structures should
be amenable to a consistent set of procedures that
should produce safe but very economic structures if
Plastic limit
1.0
Plastic
plateau
Elastic-plastic
behaviour
Elastic perfect
buckling
Elastic-plastic
interaction ,
E lastic
imperfect
buckling
Elastic behaviour
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
p
Relative slenderness
Rp l /R cr
To all those mentioned above, and all those who are

not identified by name, my teachers and mentors,
my current and former students, and my colleagues
and collaborators, I acknowledge my great debts and
hope that you have received adequate recompense
somewhere.
The support of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, who
host this event, is also acknowledged with thanks.
a) Traditional capacity curve (or column curve)

Geometric and strain hardening
h
Plastic limit
1
GMNIA data points
Elastic-plastic
Data for constant
interaction
curve drawn as dimensionless imperfection
amplitude and constant
lower bound
geometric nonlinearity
Relative
strength
k
RGMNIA/
RMNA
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has outlined some of the fascinating

research with which I have been involved over the last
forty years, and the great debts I owe to many people
who have generously assisted me along this exciting
path. I feel very privileged to have had such a range of
soluble and insoluble problems to study, and to have
had such great colleagues and friends with whom to
work. In the end, I always feel that I am lucky to have
found a field in which we will not even understand
the phenomena, let alone model and quantify them
all before I pass away, so there will always be something challenging to think about, even when I am old
and simply sitting on my terrace drinking wine. To
all those who have taught me and worked with me,
I would like to close with a big thank you!
Hardening zone
Relative
buckling
strength
=
Rk / Rpl
10
Elastic behaviour
2
o
Elastic
imperfect
buckling
Linear bifurcation
REFERENCES
1
Relative strength R GMNIA/R L B A
b) Transformed capacity curve

Figure 33.
systems.
ACI 313-97 1997. Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing
Granular Materials. with Commentary ACI 313R-97.
Detroit: American Concrete Institute.
Generalized capacity curve for all structural
16
AS3774 1996. Australian Standard for Loads on Bulk Solids

Containers. Sydney. Standards Association of Australia.
Askegaard, V., Bergholdt, M. & Nielsen, J. 1971. Problems in
Connection with Pressure Cell Measurements in Silos. (in
English), Bygningsstatiske Meddeselser, 42(2): 3374.
ASME 2007. Structures for Bulk Solids. ASME SBS draft
standard. New York: American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
Baker, J.F., Horne, M.R. & Heyman, J. 1956. The steel skeleton Vol. II Plastic behaviour and design. Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Carson, J.W., Goodwill, D.J. & Bengston, K.E. 1991. Predicting the shape of flow channels in funnel flow bins
and silos. Proc. ACI Convention. Boston Massachussetts:
American Concrete Institute.
Chen, J.F., Rotter, J.M., Ooi, J.Y. & Zhong, Z. 2007. Correlation between the flow pattern and wall pressures in a full
scale silo. Engineering Structures 29: 23082320.
EN 1991-4 2007. Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions
on Structures, Part 4Silos and Tanks. Brussels: CEN.
EN 1993-1-6 2007. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures,
Part 1.6: General rulesStrength and stability of shell
structures. Brussels: CEN.
Part 4.1: Silos. Brussels: CEN.
Part 4.2: Tanks. Brussels: CEN.
Hopkins, H.J. 1970. A span of bridges. New York: Praeger.
Lane, B.A. 1997. Buckling in structural frames under fire.
PhD thesis, Edinburgh UK: University of Edinburgh.
Munch-Andersen, J. & Nielsen, J. 1986. Size Effects in Large
Grain Silos. Bulk Solids Handling. 6: 885889.
Nielsen, J. 1998. Pressures from flowing granular solids in
silos. Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London: Philosophical
Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences Series A, 356(1747): 26672684.
Nielsen, J. & Askegaard, V. 1977. Scale Errors in Model Tests

on Granular Media with special reference to Silo Models.
Powder Technology. 16(1): 123130.
Ooi, J.Y., Rotter, J.M. & Pham, L. 1990. Systematic and
Random Features of Measured Pressures on Full-Scale
Silo Walls. Engineering Structures 12(2): 7487.
Rotter, J.M. 1977. The behaviour of continuous composite
columns. PhD thesis. Sydney Australia: University of
Sydney.
Rotter, J.M. 1985. Rapid Exact Inelastic Biaxial Bending
Analysis. Journal of the Structural Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 111(ST12): 26592674.
Rotter, J.M. 2007. A Framework for Exploiting Different
Computational Assessments in Structural Design. Proc.,
6th Intl Conf. on Steel and Aluminium Structures 07,
Oxford. 2639.
Rotter, J.M. 2008. Silo and hopper design for strength. in
D. McGlinchey (Ed) Bulk Solids Handling Equipment
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Rotter, J.M. & Ansourian, P. 1979. Cross-Section Behaviour
and Ductility in Composite Beams. Proc. Institution of
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Rotter, J.M., Pham, L. & Nielsen, J. 1986. On the Specification of Loads for the Structural Design of Bins and
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241247.
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17
Scaling up solids handling processes and equipment: limits of theory

and scale modeling
J.W. Carson, T.J. Troxel & K.E. Bengtson
Jenike & Johanson, Inc, Tyngsboro, MA, USA
ABSTRACT: Scale-up of solids handling processes can be very troublesome, particularly if new equipment
or process steps are being incorporated. If a sound theory has been (or can be) developed that accurately models
the process and equipment independent of scale, bench scale tests can be run and the results used as input data
in the mathematical model. If such a theory is not available, the next best approach is to use scale models, but
scaling rules must be well understood if the results are to be meaningful. Baring this, the only safe approach is
usually to model some or all of the critical elements of the system at or close to full-scale.
Examples of systems that can and cannot be scaled-up are presented, along with scaling rules. The focus
is on storage and processing vessels and does not include other types of bulk solids handling systems such as
conveyors. Case histories of successful scale-up are presented.
The sample comprised 36 process industries and

companies around the world with projects averaging
$66 million, with a median execution time for engineering and construction of 19 months and median
total cycle time from conceptual design to steady-state
operation of 28 months.
Merrow investigated innovation difficulties and
concluded, Innovation in solids processing has been
difficult, slow and expensive. He continued, It is
extremely imprudent to begin commercial design of
a second version of a process before the pioneering
design has been proven. A highly innovative solidsprocessing facility commonly requires 24 to 60 months
to reach complete steady-state operation at the original
design rates. It is not unusual to see pioneer solids processing facilities significantly modified, returned to an
older, more established technology, or even abandoned
without having achieved beneficial operation.
One of the reasons that solids processing innovation
is so difficult is the inability to extrapolate from small
pilot plants, which is not the case with liquid- and gasprocessing facilities where reaction conditions can be
adequately simulated at a small scale. Another reason
for innovation difficulty is that pilot plants for solids
processing must be not only on a much larger scale but
also fully or nearly fully integrated to provide reliable
data. This results in a very expensive non-commercial
facility, so it is tempting to bypass this stage.
Merrow stated, Bypassing an integrated pilot plant
stage under these circumstances is almost always an
economic mistake. The added cost of the pilot plant
INTRODUCTION
The theme of this international conference celebrating

the 60th birthday of Prof. J. Michael Rotter is from
scientific principles to engineering applications in
the fields of structures and granular solids. Certainly
Prof. Rotter has, throughout his career, pushed the
bounds of science in both structural engineering and
granular solids. His approach, however, has not been
limited to development of theories and mathematical concepts. Indeed he has always been mindful of
practical applications of theory and experiment.
The scale-up of solids handling processes and
equipment provides numerous excellent examples of
practical applications that test the limits of theory and
scale modeling. Reasons why scale-up is important
have been well documents by Edward Merrow author
of the famous RAND study in the mid-80s concerning
problems of start-up and operation of solids processing plants. Recently Merrow (2000) wrote an article
updating his previous study. For this work he identified and examined over 500 recently completed, fully
operational projects that met the following criteria:
Technology must involve chemical processing
Facility must be commercial (not pilot or semi
works)
Capital expenditure must be more than $7 million
Operational history must be at least one year long
Process must be continuous or semi-continuous
(not batch).
41
50 years since this theory was first developed, literally

thousands of bins and silos have been designed and
built using this as the design basis, and almost without
exception they have worked as designed. This involves
containers varying in size from small press feed hoppers and portable bins (Figure 1) all the way up to
multi-thousand tonne capacity silos (Figure 2). Splitmodel tests (described below) showing displacement
fields in mass flow hoppers confirm the assumption
of a radial velocity field (Figure 3). Also, hopper wall
pressure measurements confirm the development of a
radial stress field.
The second area in which a proven model has
been developed involves fluid flow through a packed
bed of bulk solids. The rate that interstitial gas
(fluid) migrates through a granular material under
will be more than offset by improvements in the first

few years of commercial plant operability.
Merrows analysis and conclusions beg the question, why is scale-up of bulk solids processes and
equipment so problematic? The answer appears to lie
in the paucity ofor misapplication ofsound, welldeveloped and proven mathematical models. Clearly
the most effective technique for scale-up in any discipline is to use a theory (or theories) combined with
results from bench-scale tests, since scaling is automatic and key variables are identified. Lacking a
theory the next best approach is physical scale modeling. This technique also has its limitations that
must be understood before blindly embarking on its
use. If neither theory nor appropriate modeling procedures are available, one must proceed with caution
and, wherever possible, rely on results of full-scale
applications.
SOLIDS HANDLING PROCESSES WITH

GOOD THEORETICAL BASIS OR MODEL
One area of solids handling in which there is a sound

theoretical basis involves the flow of bulk solids
through a converging hopper. The pioneering work
of Drs. Andrew Jenike and Jerry Johanson at the
University of Utah [Jenike (1961, 1964), Johanson
(1964)] involved development of stress and velocity fields during gravity discharge from converging
hoppers. They postulated, and later proved by mathematical and experimental models, that both stress and
velocity fields develop in a radial manner emanating
from the apex of the hopper. This is perhaps more
obvious for velocity fields than for stress fields, since
if mass flow develops, particle movement will vary
from being vertical at the axis of symmetry to being
parallel to the hopper walls in the region just inside the
walls. For stress fields Jenike postulated the following
based on an analogy from soil mechanics attributed to
Sokolovski (1960):
= b gc rs()
(1)
= ()
(2)
where = mean normal stress, kPa; b = bulk

density, kg/m3 ; gc = acceleration due to gravity,
9.82 m/s2 ; r = radial distance from hopper apex, m;
s = stress function dependent on angle (measured
from vertical) of a ray emanating from the apex,
dimensionless; = angle between direction of major
principal stress S1 and coordinate ray, deg.
This theory led to the development of design procedures for achieving mass flow while avoiding problems
of cohesive arch formation. Over the last nearly
42
Figure 1.
Example of portable containers.
Figure 2.
Example of large silos.
Figure 3. Comparison of theory and experiment showing

validity of radial velocity assumption.
the influence of a pressure gradient depends on

permeability, and may be written using Darcys Law as:
u = Kdp/dx/b gc
(3)
where u = superficial gas velocity through solids bed,

m/s; K = permeability coefficient, m/s; dp/dx = gas
pressure gradient across the bed, kN/m3 .
More detailed forms have followed, including the
well-known forms of Ergun (1952) and Leva (1959).
The latters form is:
dp/dx =
2fm G 2 (1 )(3n)
Dp s3n gc 3 F
(4)
where fm = modified friction factor, dimensionless;

G = superficial gas mass velocity, kg/s/m2 ; F =
density of the gas; kg/m3 , = overall bed voidage,
dimensionless; n = gas state (n = 1 for laminar, n = 2
for turbulent), dimensionless; Dp = average particle diameter, defined as the diameter of a sphere of
the same volume as the particle, m; s = particle
shape factor, defined as the area of a sphere that has
the same volume as the particle divided by the actual
surface area of the particle, dimensionless.
The superficial gas velocity through the solids bed,
u, is equal to G/F . Modified friction factor, fm , is a

function of modified Reynolds number, NRe
, which is
defined as:

= D G/
NRe
Figure 4.
Since practically no bulk solid in industrial use consists solely of uniformly sized spherical particles, and
since k must be empirically determined, this equation
may be simplified by lumping the terms together into
one overall material-dependent parameter, called permeability factor K. The result is the same as Darcys
Law, Equation 3. Permeability factor K for a given
bulk solid and gas can be determined empirically
using the tester shown in Figure 4. Results are usually expressed as a straight line on a log-log plot,
or mathematically in the following form, where K0 ,
bo and a are empirically-determined constants. See
Figure 5.
(5)
where = viscosity of gas, kg/m/s.

Equation 4 can be simplified for spherical particles
(s = 1) in laminar flow (n = 1) to:
dp/dx =
k(1 )2 u
3
D2
(6)
K = K0 (b /bo )a
43
Permeability tester.
(7)
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Jenike Shear Tester.
Figure 7.
friction.
Example of flow function, internal and wall
Figure 8.
Compressibility tester and typical results.
Typical permeability results.
BENCH SCALE TESTS USED TO PROVIDE

INPUT VALUES TO THEORIES
In order to design bins, silos, hoppers, and other types

of storage and processing vessels for bulk solids,
several key parameters are required. These include:
Cohesive strength, internal friction and wall friction. These parameters are measured using a small
(20 liter) representative sample of the bulk solid.
Important variables include moisture/volatiles content, time of storage at rest, temperature, consolidating pressure, and particle size and shape. The
most common devices used for these measurements
are the Jenike Shear Tester [Jenike (1964), ASTM
(2006)] and the Schulze Ring Shear Tester [ASTM
(2002)]. See Figure 6 for test apparatus and Figure 7
for typical test results.
Compressibility. The bulk density of a bulk solid
is not single or dual valued, but instead varies as a
function of the applied consolidation stress. A test
to measure this parameter can be found in ASTM
(2001). See Figure 8 for typical test apparatus and
results.
Permeability. As can be seen from Equation (7), the
ability of air (or other process gas) to flow through
a packed bed of solid varies strongly with the bulk
density of the material. See Figures 4 and 5 for
typical test apparatus and results.
Abrasive wear. An abrasive wear tester has been
developed [Johanson & Royal (1984) ] which allows
measurement of the absolute wear rate as a function
of applied pressure using a sample of bulk solid
and a coupon of the wall material upon which the
bulk solid will be sliding, see Figure 9. It should
be noted that this test is limited to wear due to sliding abrasion, not impact. Combining this data with
radial stress and velocity field assumptions, one can
accurately estimate the wear life of bins and other
similar storage and process equipment as described
by Johanson & Royal (1982).
44
Figure 9.
Abrasive wear tester.
Figure 10.
Split 3-D model.
Figure 11.
Typical J-Purge system.
SCALE MODELING
If a sound, well-developed and proven theory or mathematical model is not available, one should next consider physical scale modeling. This technique also has
its limitations that must be understood before blindly
embarking on its use, since validity of the scale-up
depends in many cases on utilizing an underlying
theory of solids flow.
It is well known that the bulk density of almost
all bulk solids varies with consolidating pressure, as
shown in Figure 8. Furthermore, internal and wall
friction values also vary with consolidating pressure.
As described by Carson (1988), these variations must
be taken into account when scaling up or down. One
parameter that is not scalable is the minimum outlet
size required to prevent cohesive arching, and this must
be taken into account when conducting scaling studies
or analyzing the results.
Scale modeling must obey geometric similarity and,
in some cases, also dynamic and kinematic similarity. Unfortunately, geometric similarity is not always
closely followed when conducting model tests to
observe solids flow patterns within vessels. Observing
the flow pattern only at bin walls by using transparent
material to build the bin, provides only very limited
information as to flow behavior. Therefore, various
attempts have been made to observe what is happening inside the vessel. For example, some have used
two parallel, vertical transparent plates to simulate a
cylindrical or conical vessel. This is clearly not appropriate, since flow and stress field development in such
a geometry is not the same as in an axisymmetric
vessel. Cutting a cylinder or cone along its vertical
centerline and placing a transparent panel there results
in a stationary surface on which the particles must
slide. This frictional resistance is, of course, absent in

a three-dimensional vessel, so results will not be the
same. An excellent method to view the flow pattern
inside a model vessel, shown in Figure 10, is to use
a split 3-dimensional model as described by Johanson
(1966).
One example where scale modeling is useful
involves vessels that contain inserts and/or gas introduction. See Figure 11. Inserts significantly alter stress
and velocity fields in storage vessels, and theories to
accurately predict this change have not yet been developed. Introduction of gas can result in body forces
that have a pronounced effect on flow and stress field
development, and mathematical models to describe
this effect are limited. Thus in both cases scale models
can provide useful insight provided they are properly
constructed and operated.
45
can either be high frequency, low amplitude (a humming sound), or low frequency and high amplitude
(sometimes called silo quaking). There are a number
of mechanisms by which such vibrations can occur,
many of which are described by Purutyan et al. (1994a,
b). Sometimes scale models are effective in pointing in
the direction of changes that will affect the severity of
the vibrations, while at other times scale models give
a false impression of changes that will be effective.
The bottom line is that the only sure way of knowing
whether or not a change will be effective in a large
vessel is to implement the change and observe the
result.
Deaeration of fine powders as well as the effects of

body forces due, for example, to gas pressure gradients or applied vibration, may be more pronounced in
small vessels than in larger ones since the body forces
may be relatively larger (compared to the materials
bulk density). As long as the effects of body forces
are properly taken into account, scale-up can proceed
with confidence.
Scale-up of some types of blenders is also possible. If the blending mechanism involves in-bin, gravity
flow, Carson & Royal (1992) noted that the scaling
rules are the same as for any other bin configuration.
If the blender operates by tumbling, it is essential that,
in addition to geometric similarity, dynamic and kinematic similarity also be maintained as described by
Carson et al. (1994). Geometric similarity requires
that there be a constant ratio of linear dimensions
between the test unit and full-scale. This includes
not only the relative dimensions of the container and
axis of rotation, but also such items as the percentage
of the container that is full as well as the sequence
of filling individual ingredients into the container.
Dynamic similarity requires that there be constant
dynamic forces at corresponding points at both units.
The appropriate term is the Froude number. The manner in which kinematic similarity can be obtained
is less certain than the previous two. Wang & Fan
(1981) state that the requirement is for a constant ratio
of velocities at corresponding points. Empirical data
is available for scaling of rotating drum, twin shell
(V-type), and double cone mixers. An alternative means of achieving kinematic similarity would
be to maintain a constant number of revolutions of
the blender. Troxel (2006) found this to be appropriate for tumble blenders, mostly for materials with low
cohesive strength.
Feed rate uniformity. While there is a good basis

for estimating critical discharge rates from an orifice, the uniformity by which material will flow
particularly over short time intervalscan only
really be understood in a full-scale model.
Segregation problems. Carson & Goodwill (1986)
describe many mechanisms of segregation and
ASTM (2004, 2005) describe some bench scale tests
by which some of these mechanisms can be investigated. However, for many segregation problems the
only way to assess the full magnitude of the problem as well as the effectiveness of modifications is
to run a full-scale test.
Anisotropic materials. Such materials are difficult
to test in most shear testers, particularly if the
anisotrophy is due to particle shape effects. Sometimes scale model tests provide insight into this
behavior, but often full-scale tests are required.
6
6.1
Purge column
BP Amoco Chemical (now Ineos) built a 200,000

tonne per year polypropylene (PP) plant in 1995 and
1996 at Geel, Belgium, that uses the BP Amoco
gas phase process and BP Amocos high-activity support catalyst. The plant produces random and blocked
copolymers and a wide range of homopolymers.
The design included a purge column following
the reactors. The purge column uses nitrogen to
reduce residual volatiles, deactivates the trace catalyst
residues using a small quantity of steam and provides
surge capacity between the reaction and pelletization
sections of the plant.
Engineers at BP Amoco specified the minimum
and maximum purge duration (the exposure time to
purge gas). They also specified the required solids
and gas flow rates as well as the gas temperature and
pressure at the top of the vessel. Mass flow is an important design parameter for the purge column because
product transitions are done on the fly.
EXAMPLES WHERE FULL-SCALE TESTS

ARE REQUIRED
Lacking an appropriate theory or scale modeling procedures, one must be extremely careful and, wherever
possible, rely on results of full-scale applications.
This area is ripe for innovation and research to develop
either better theories or improved scale modeling rules.
Examples include:
Transmission of vibrations. The ability of an external or internal vibrator to activate material within
a storage vessel is not at all well understood. As
a result, sizing and placement of vibrators is essentially trial-and-error, hopefully based to some extent
on past experience of what works and what doesnt.
Sometimes vessels vibrate on their own due to movement of the bulk solid within. The resulting vibrations
46
CASE HISTORIES
Figure 12.
One approach that was considered was to use a mass

flow bin with a belt feeder to control discharge. In
order to minimize the chances of the fine magnetite
flooding uncontrollably from the 600 tonne storage
silo it would be necessary to close the slide gate when
initially filling the silo from empty, and the material
would have to be left for a minimum of 24 hours prior
to the slide gate being opened and the feeder activated.
It would also be necessary to keep a 200 tonne level of
material in the silo at all times prior to re-filling, and
the silo would have to be filled on its symmetry axis
at a maximum fill rate of 500 tonne per hr.
An alternate approach was to partially fluidize the
material in the silo via an air-assisted discharger. This
solution would have the benefit of requiring no minimum head of material in the silo, thus allowing a live
capacity of 600 tonne to be realized.
In an air-assisted discharger, small amounts of air
are injected into the material via a porous membrane.
The air acts to fluidize a small boundary layer of material, thus reducing the boundary friction and enabling
the material to discharge at higher rates than would
be the case without air injection. The discharger is
comprised of a number of different gas plenums, each
designed to allow, nominally, different amounts of gas
to be injected into the material. Control of the airassisted discharger is critical from the standpoint of
obtaining mass flow in the silo above. The flow rate
from the discharger cannot be regulated, but must be
on or off.
Bench-scale fluidization tests were carried out on
the magnetite at several moisture levels to determine if
it would be feasible to discharge the magnetite via an
air-assisted discharger. Scale-model air-assisted discharger tests were also run. See Figure 13. Both sets of
tests showed that the magnetite was a good candidate
for this type of feed system.
Two air-assisted dischargers (one for each silo) were
designed, build and installed. This system has been
working reliably for nearly seven years.
This is an example of scale-up using a combination
of theoretical models with inputs from bench scale
tests, in conjunction with proper scaling approaches.
Another example of J-Purge system.
Operating in mass flow minimizes the possibility of

cross-contamination between product grades. Shortcircuiting of product that could result in high volatiles
is also avoided by operating in mass flow. The combination of low volatiles, no cross-contamination and
deactivated catalyst residues are important requirements for a high-quality PP product.
Based on flow property data for the materials being
handled, engineers developed the functional design for
the purge column as described by Carson et al (1999).
Its a tall, narrow cylinder section (H /D = 7.3), below
which is a steep-sided, conical stainless-steel hopper.
Purge gas is introduced just above the top of the conical
hopper section, see figure 12.
The purge column has been operating for nearly
ten years, and has performed to meet the design
basis. According to Jim Lee, research associate for
BP Amoco Chemical, The performance of the purge
column has exceeded our expectations. In fact, it did
not require any modification when the result of the
PP unit was debottle-necked by 40% in 1998.
This technology has been introduced at several
other plants that use the Ineos gas phase process,
as well as a number of other PE and PP production
facilities around the world.
This is an excellent example of scale-up based
on using sound theoretical models to predict solids
stresses and permeability, combined with bench scale
tests that provided input values to the theories.
6.2
6.3 Abrasive wear

A manufacturing facility stores and handles a hard
abrasive bulk solid. Since significant abrasive wear of
the silo wall was observed in several silos, abrasive
wear tests using the device described by Johanson &
Royal (1984) were run to investigate alternative materials of construction including hard liners. These tests
were conducted using the bulk materials handled at the
plant and at pressures that simulate bulk solid flow in
the existing silos, assuming that mass flow develops.
A wear analysis of the silos was performed using a
simulation tool described by Johanson & Royal (1982).
Air-assisted discharger
A power plant was switching to a new coal supply to

meet Clean Air Act requirements. Due to this switch,
it was determined that fluxing with magnetite would
be required to maintain suitable slag melting temperatures for boiler tapping. Reliable feed of magnetite
from two 225 m3 (600 tonne) silos was critical, and the
stored magnetite had to be equally split to five separate
batch weigh hoppers for pneumatic conveying.
47
The existing silo design was analyzed and the results

compared to measurements made in the transition
region of two silos. Accurate records had been kept of
the total throughput of each silo. Wall thickness measurements were made at 150 to 300 mm increments
around the circumference at each of eight elevations,
then averaged and compared to original thickness.
Comparisons of predicted vs. average total wear in
the two silos showed excellent agreement in the region
of highest wear, namely just below the cylinder-cone
transition where the normal pressure against the wall
is highest. See Figure 14.
This project provided increased confidence that the
theoretical models which use bench-scale test results
as inputs are valid. As with any theoretical model,
having continued feedback as to its accuracy and limitations is important so the user applies it properly the
next time.
7
ASTM (2006). D6182-06 Standard test method for shear

testing of bulk solids using the Jenike shear cell, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
Carson, J.W., Royal, T.A. & Goodwill, D.J. (1986). Understanding and Eliminating Particle Segregation Problems,
Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 6, 139144.
Carson, J.W. (1988). Addressing Critical Solids Handling
Aspects at the Pilot Scale, Presented at AIChE Spring
1988 Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
Carson, J.W. & Royal, T.A. (1992). In-Bin Blending Improves
Process Control, Powder Handling & Processing, Vol. 4,
No. 3, 301307.
Carson, J.W., Royal, T.A. & Hossfeld, R.J. (1994). Tumble
Blending with Mass Flow Containers Improves Productivity and Quality, Powder Handling & Processing, Vol. 6,
No. 4, 413416.
Carson, J.W., Lee, J.H. & Pittenger, B.H. (1999). Gravity
Flow Processing Vessels, Chemical Processing, 4953.
Ergun, S. (1952). Fluid Flow through Packed Columns,
Chem. Eng. Prog., Vol. 48, No. 2, 8994.
Jenike, A.W. (1961). Gravity Flow of Bulk Solids, University
of Utah Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 108.
Jenike, A.W. (1964). Storage and Flow of Solids, University
of Utah Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 123.
Johanson, J.R. (1964). Stress and Velocity Fields in the
Gravity Flow of Bulk Solids, J. Appl. Mech. Series E 31,
499506.
Johanson, J.R. (1966). The Use of Flow-Corrective Inserts in
Bins, J. Eng. Industry, Series B 88, 224230.
Johanson, J.R. & Royal, T.A. (1982). Measuring and Use
of Wear Properties for Predicting Life of Bulk Materials
Handling Equipment, Bulk Solids Handling 2, 517523.
Johanson, J.R. & Royal, T.A. (1984). Abrasive Wear Tester,
U.S. Patent 4, 446, 717.
Leva, M. (1959). Fluidization, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
Merrow, E. (2000). Problems and Progress in Particle
Processing, Chemical Innovation, Vol. 30, No. 1, 3541.
Sokolovski, V.V. (1960). Statics of Soil Media, Butterworths
Scientific Publications.
Purutyan, H., Bengtson, K.E. & Carson, J.W. (1994a). Identifying and Controlling Silo Vibration Mechanisms: Part I,
Powder and Bulk Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 11, 5865.
Purutyan, H., Bengtson, K.E. & Carson, J.W. (1994b). Identifying and Controlling Silo Vibration Mechanisms: Part II,
Powder and Bulk Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 12, 1928.
Troxel, T.G. (2006). Modeling and Scale-Up of Tumble
Blenders for High Segregating Materials, presented at 5th
World Congress on Particle Technology, Orlando FL.
Wang, R.H. & Fan, L.T. (1981). Methods for Scaling up
Tumble Mixers, Solids Handling, ed. by Chem. Eng.,
245251.
CONCLUSIONS
Scale-up of solids handling processes and equipment

must be approached with caution. Clearly the bets
approach is to use a theory coupled with bench-scale
test results, but the theory must be sound, welldeveloped and proven. Examples of such include
solids flow through a converging hopper and fluid flow
through a packed bed. If a theory is not available, the
next best approach is physical scale models. Models
must be designed and operated with caution, bearing
in mind geometric, dynamic and kinematic similarity.
If modeling rules are not well undeveloped, one must
resort to full-scale tests.
REFERENCES
ASTM (2001). D6683-01 Standard test method for measuring bulk density values of powders and other bulk solids,
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM (2002). D6773-02 Standard shear testing method
for bulk solids using Schulze ring shear tester, ASTM
ASTM (2004). D6940-04 Standard Practice for Measuring
Sifting Segregation Tendencies of Bulk Solids, ASTM
ASTM (2005). D6941-05 Standard Practice for Measuring
Fluidization Segregation Tendencies of Powders, ASTM
48
From silo phenomena to load models

J. Nielsen
Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University, Denmark
ABSTRACT: With special focus on work done by J. Michael Rotter and the Author, this paper aims at presenting
the duality between complexity and simplicity in relation to silo phenomena and specification of loads for silos.
The presentation takes its starting point in complexitya description of phenomena which may play a significant
role in developing the loads in a specific silo and which therefore must be understood if a proper design shall be
made. The paper then turns to simplicitythe transformation of this complexity into simple, safe load models
as prescribed by standards. It is stated that the present rules in some cases implies a considerable loss in economy
and in other cases may compromise the intended safety level. Therefore the overall conclusion is that there is
still a need for silo research and for a transfer of new knowledge into engineering applications.
buckling of shells and loads in silos. The author to

this paper has not been involved in scientific studies
of buckling so only loads in silos will be dealt with in
detail in the following.
The author has had the fortune to collaborate
through many years with J. Michael Rotter on the
study and specification of loads in silos. The collaboration began in 1983. J. Michael Rotter was at that
time working at University of Sydney and had developed an interest in shell buckling. He had realized how
big a challenge it was to understand buckling in silos
(Rotter 1983, Jumikis et al. 1983 and Ansourian et al.
1983). The Author had from a general interest in experimental mechanics developed an interest in accurate
determination of pressures in silos (Askegaard et al.
1971). In 1983 he could present results which indicated
severe non-symmetric loads in notionally symmetric
silos (Nielsen 1983).
Based on the fact that non-symmetrical load patterns have a major influence on buckling, this became
the starting point of a scientific cooperation which
took both of us through discussions on different silo
phenomena into a collaboration concerning international standardization concerning loads in silos (ISO,
CEN-EUROCODE). It also involved participation in a
European research collaboration, CA-Silo (Brown &
Nielsen 1998).
The author is highly indebted to J. Michael
Rotter for stimulating discussions throughout all those
years.
With special focus on work done by J. Michael
Rotter and the author, this paper aims at presenting the
duality between complexity and simplicity in relation
to silo phenomena and specification of load models
for silos.
INTRODUCTION
Silos are fascinating research objects. Not only is the

physical behaviour of the stored materialsbeing
many types of particlesmore complex than most
other materials, but also the structures themselves
many of them being shell structuresare among the
most demanding structures, seen from a design point
of view. Furthermore, the requirements for experimental techniques leading to accurate results are higher
than for most other research objects within structural
engineering.
A single word characterizing silo phenomena is
complexity.
Structural engineers have to deal with this complexity in their daily business in designing safe silos, and
as part of that be able to evaluate the influence from
different requirements to working conditions for the
silo, whether it is in a long term storage facility or
a buffer as part of a factory production line. This is
where standards with their simplified rules are helpful
in giving relevant guidelines for the design. Standards
may therefore be seen as the result of a transformation
of scientific principles into engineering applications.
They must be fairly easy to understand, with a limited
set of parameters to deal with, based on documented
knowledge, and specify rules which lead to a safe
design of structures.
A single word characterizing the aim of standardization is simplicity.
The transformation of scientific principles into
engineering applications thus has to deal with the duality between complexity and simplicity as described
above. Few, if any, has been as competent as J. Michael
Rotter in handling this duality around the two subjects
49
high (elastic state) and zero, being zero in zones

where plasticity is fully developed and where the
flow is similar to the flow of liquids. Zones with
flowing particles are illustrated by so called flow
patterns. Especially two flow patterns are important for this discussion. One is Pipe Flow where
the moving particles form a pipe above the inlet
in a way that the particles at the surface will be
the first to get out of the silo. The other is Mass
Flow, where all particles move during discharge,
but where the cylindrical part of the silo contains an
elastic (rigid) body moving downwards. Where such
rigid zones are moving in contact with the wall any
irregularity of the silo wall forms an obstacle that
changes the load distribution in the silo (Askegaard
et al. 1971). While discharge normally takes place
as a quasi-static phenomenon where dynamic forces
play an insignificant role for the development of
loads on the silo wall, it may happen that very
serous impact loads are developed. The reason
for that is normally an internal collapse of rigid
parts of stored material formed above or around
flowing zones which, as discharge progresses,
reduces its support of the rigid zones (Nielsen
1984a).
Finally the particle approaches the outlet, contact
forces are released, and the particle drops down into
the bulk handling equipment.
COMPLEXITY SILO PHENOMENA
The following presentation of silo phenomena with

reference to the specification of loads in silos takes
its starting point in a description of the history of a
particle that passes through a silo.
2.1
The history of a particle
A look at the history of a particle which passes through

a silo reveals several phenomena (Nielsen 1998) which
may all play a significant role in developing the
loads in a specific silo and which therefore must be
understood if a proper design shall be achieved:
The bulk handling equipment at the inlet of the
silo leaves the particle to be filled into the silo
with a certain direction and speed, which, in
interaction with other falling particles and the air
resistance, determine the trajectory of the falling
particle.
After a possible impact with the wall, the particle impacts on stationary particles at the surface of
the stored material, after which it may bounce or
slide down the surface, or, in case of a powder
particle, float in suspension on the surface, until it
finally finds its position as a member of the stacked
particle assembly. It is important to notice that this
process forms the stack of the particles, and dependent on the shape of the inlet, the particle size, the
distribution of the particle sizes, and on the shape
and surface roughness of the individual particles,
the stored material may end up in being a inhomogeneous and anisotropic, denser or looser stored
material (Nielsen 1983, 1998).
As filling of the silo continues, the embedded particle participates in a consolidation associated with
the development of strength of the stored material. The consolidation may be associated with the
development of an interstitial air pressure.
During the consolidation process the contact forces
between the particle and its neighbours may be rearranged, especially in regions with relatively high
shear forces.
After the filling has stopped the rearrangement of
the contact forces between the particles continues
due to interstitial air flow and creep in the particles.
At the onset of flow, possibly assisted by air induced
near the outlet, a dramatic rearrangement of contact
forces takes place, and at a certain time the particle
normally will start move and follow a trajectory. It
may pass zones where it is in close contact to its
neighbouring particles (rigid body movement) or
zones with rapid reorganization of contact forces
(shear zones or shear planes). It is important to
note that the effective stiffness of the stored material at this stage may vary between being relatively
On this background some items are selected for further discussion with reference to the transformation
of scientific results into simplified load models for
practical design of silos:
Continuum versus discrete particle approach
Load perspectives in steel versus concrete silos
Experimentspressure cells versus wall strain
measurements
Experimentsmodel versus full scale
Pressure redistribution during discharge.
2.2
Seen in the light of the history of a particle, a discrete particles approach would be the natural choice
to a theoretical description of the physical behaviour
of stored particulate materials. Only a discrete particle approach can end up in a model for the creation
of the stack of particles in a silo, and only with a discrete particle approach is it possible to consider the
effect of particle contact forces on the silo structure
which may be necessary for a structure containing
very big particles. Finally, the size of the particles of
the stored material has been found to cause a silo size
effect on loads in silos with rough walls and Mass
Flow (Munch-Andersen 1986; Munch-Andersen &
Nielsen 1986). The reason is that a rupture plane,
as typically formed in dense stored materials, has
50
Continuum versus discrete particle approach
2.3 Load perspectives in steel versus

concrete silos
a thickness of a specific number of particles. This

means that the volumetric expansion associated with
shearing in the boundary layer between the rigid
cylindrical part of the stored material and the wall
gives rise to different horizontal strains in silos with
different diameters and therefore different pressure
regimes.
However, so far the discrete particle approach has
not produced realistic results except for very special
cases (Chen et al. 1998a, Holst et al. 1999b). The limitations for this approach seem primarily to arrive from
difficulties in handling the number degrees of freedom
in the stack of particles, first of all the number of particles, of parameters to describe a realistic shape of each
particle (wheat grains or a sand particles), of the spatial orientation in the stack of stored material, and of
the positions of contact points between the particles.
Furthermore, the orientation of the particles and the
positions of contact points vary with time, especially
during discharge.
Therefore discrete particle approaches have so far
mainly be seen as research tools.
In spite of their shortcomings, continuum based
theoretical approaches therefore seem to be the best
choice for practical results. Among those are the
classical theories of elasticity, plasticity, etc.
The continuum assumption normally implies that
the stored material just after filling is taken as the
starting point. As described above this continuum may
be inhomogeneous as well as anisotropic which again
means that closed solutions are only available in few
cases.
Finite element simulations based on continuum
approaches have therefore been developed as a tool
for practical design.
One of the great challenges in this approach is to
find a realistic set of constitutive equations which can
still be dealt with in the numerical analyses (Nielsen &
Weidner 1998).
Although promising, finite element simulations,
based on continuum approaches, still show limited
ability to give realistic results (Chen et al. 1998a, Holst
et al. 1999a).
Recently, a validated model for filling pressures
in square vertical walled metal silos has been published (Goodey et al. 2006). The flexibility of the silo
walls makes the load-structure interaction significant
in this case, which together with complex constitutive laws for the stored material means that accurate
simple models are not available. To the extent that the
filling condition is the most serious loading case this
is an example of finite element models being able to
support practical design.
The considerations related to a continuum versus
a discrete particle approach appear also in relation
to experimental studies based on model laws, see
section 2.5.
Load perspectives are very different when seen from a

concrete silos point of view or from a steel silos point
of view (Rotter et al. 1986).
When concrete silos are not too large the design
challenge mainly is to ensure an adequate horizontal reinforcement in order to resist the maximum
horizontal pressure from the stored material. Nonsymmetrical components of loads are of interest in
relation to ensuring a sufficient bending strength of
the wall.
Thus, for concrete silos the main questions of concern are how big may the horizontal load be, and to
which extent is it associated to bending moments in
the walls?
In steel silos the design challenges mainly are to
ensure a proper development of membrane forces
and to avoid local buckling of the shell structure due to (vertical) compression (Rotter 1983;
2006; Song et al. 2004). Large horizontal pressures
support the structure and make it stronger. Nonsymmetrical components of loads are of interest in
relation to evaluating their additional contribution to
the compression membrane forces which may lead to
buckling.
Thus, for steel structures the questions of concern
are which magnitude of the horizontal pressure can,
on the safe side, be assumed to be present in combination with the critical compression stress in the wall,
and which load pattern creates the critical compression
stress (Gillie & Rotter 2002).
2.4 Experiments pressure cells versus wall
strain measurements
There are basically two ways to measure loads on silo
walls, a direct measurement of wall pressure, using
pressure cells, and an indirect, using strain gauges to
measure the load effect as strains in the wall.
Accurate measurements with pressure cells are only
possible with an installation of cells which are stiff
enough to avoid a local pressure relaxation and which
are mounted flush with the wall so that no local
imperfection disturbs the pressure distribution when
the stored materials moves along the wall (Askegaard
et al. 1971; Askegaard & Nielsen 1977).
In concrete silos it is relatively easy to fulfil these
requirements because the pressure cells can be built
into the wall (Askegaard & Nielsen 1986).
In principle the readings of a pressure cell only
represent the area of its active surface. Furthermore,
it has been revealed that very big pressure gradients
may appear during discharge (Rotter et al. 1986).
Therefore many pressure cells may be necessary and
readings from wall strain measurements may be used
51
argued. This also means that full scale experiments are

of special interest.
Most experiments have been carried out in
laboratory scale models or small full scale silos, in
most cases without a proper reference to model laws.
The simple approach has been to compare experimentally determined loads with theoretical results
for the pressure distributiontypically Janssens theory (Janssen 1895). By doing so, all assumptions
on which Janssens theory is based, one being the
continuum approach, are automatically built into the
interpretation.
to support the interpretation concerning loads on the

silo wall.
The pressure cell technology is more difficult to
apply in steel silos. Furthermore, steel silos are subject to higher wall strains than concrete silos, and the
strains are therefore easier to measure accurately.
The challenge for using strain measurements as
a basis for load assessment has been the interpretation, because it is difficult to determine details in the
load patterns from measured strains, especially in shell
structures.
A procedure of inferring circular silo wall pressures
from wall strain measurements has been developed by
Chen et al. (1996; 1998b). For thin plate structures,
this method is claimed to offer a cheaper determination of load patters than based on pressure cell measurements. The method has the advantage that those
local pressure fluctuations which are insignificant to
the structural response are automatically filtered out.
Furthermore, the outcome is easier to transform to
simple yet realistic load models for practical use,
because the measured strain is more relevant to different design situations, buckling being one (Chen et al.
1998b).
2.6 Pressure redistribution during discharge

Everybody having performed tests in silos has
observed variations and oscillations in the pressure
readings.
During filling, the pressure gradually develops until
the silo is full.
At the start of discharge is often seen a significant
change in pressure level and, especially with pressure
cell measurements, it is followed by large oscillations.
As discharge develops, redistributions of significant
magnitudes may occur with larger pressures appearing
first at one place and later at other places (Nielsen &
Andersen 1981, Hartln et al. 1984).
This means that, while, in a symmetric structure,
a symmetric pressure distribution may be found as an
average over time, there may be periods with significant non-symmetrical load distributions. It also means
that, especially in dealing with pressure cell measurements, it is tempting to look at time average to get rid of
insignificant local fluctuations. However, that must be
done with caution because significant non-symmetric
load patterns may disappear.
Altogether this means that in some silos many, very
different, load distributions occur from time to time,
especially during discharge.
However, most classical theories only offer one
pressure distribution for filling and/or one for discharge.
2.5 Experiments model versus full scale

Phenomena related to real silos have mainly been
discovered and studied experimentally. By the interpretation of experimental results it is important to
know to which extent a test in a silo does represent
tests in similar silos of other sizes. Or more precise:
Which are the test requirements that allow for a transfer of results according to a scale law in a way that the
scale errors are negligible? A set of test requirements
and the corresponding set of scale laws are called a
model law.
Nielsen (1977) has for various conditions described
different types of model laws with reference to
silos. The study considers a continuum as well
as a single particle approach and it discusses the
influence of interstitial air flow on the model law.
Among the test requirements are also discussed
the use of an artificial field of gravitycentrifuge
testing.
The study shows that scale errors shall in general be expected. The challenges of modelling have
been discussed (Nielsen 1998) for coarse grained
stored materials as well as powders and for three
scales of silos: full scale, a laboratory scale, 1:10,
and a centrifuge model, scale 1:100. The conclusion is that different silo phenomena call for different model approaches, and that the magnitude of
scale errors in many cases is not known (Nielsen
1984b).
Any interpretation that involves statements valid for
similar silos of other sizes must therefore be carefully
In practical silo design it would be very un-economical

to ask each designer to handle the complexity as
described above.
The task for code-writers is therefore to transform
this complexity into simple, safe load models.
In Europe a main line of the development of load
specifications may be drawn from the German code,
DIN 1055, via ISO/TC98/SC3/WG5 to the present
CEN standard, EN 1991-4 (EUROCODE 1actions
on structures, Part 4: Silos and tanks) (Nielsen et al.
1992).
52
SIMPLICITY SPECIFICATION OF LOADS
against buckling call for a load model which produces

large vertical stresses in the wall and a small horizontal
pressure to support it.
A criticism for a too strong orientation towards concrete silos in the DIN was therefore one of the main
points in Rotter et al. (1986).
The present EUROCODE, EN 1991-4, is based on a
philosophy where loads as well as strength parameters
for the structure are considered stochastic variables
with a mean value (most likely) and a stochastic deviation. Characteristic values of loads and strengths are
then formed by a mean value plus or minus (as relevant) a proportion of the stochastic part in a way that
the probability of exceeding the characteristic value is
kept at a given low value. The safety margin is then
achieved by the application of different partial coefficients on loads and strength parameters, dependent on
the type of load and the construction material.
In this way it is easier to maintain the scientific basis
for the specified loads as well as the general principle
of structure independent specification of loads.
By choosing one set of high or low characteristic
values, as appropriate, for the stored material parameters, it is possible to arrive at a high value for the
wall pressure to be used for the specification of reinforcing steel bars in a concrete wall, and with another
set of characteristic values to get a safe (low) value
of the horizontal load to be used in the design as
the magnitude of the support to a wall part subject
to buckling.
The process of load specification involves assessment and simplification of many different types of
silo phenomena which are not all fully understood.
Some of the important items to be dealt with are the
following:
General principles in load specification
Deterministic versus stochastic treatment of loads
in silos
Variability of structures
Variability of stored material
Design for flow versus design for strength
Theoretical versus empiric rules.
3.1
General principles in load specification
The principles in load specification have historically

been different from country to country. However, it
is always so, that there is an intended safety margin
between the effects on a structure from a few specified
loads, and the corresponding strength of the structure,
if correctly designed and build.
The idea is then that the specified loads represent
the real loads in a way that the load effects on the
structure are bigger than the effects from all real loads.
Over time, the philosophy concerning the relation
between the specification of the safety margin and
load specification has changed. DIN 1055 was, as
most standards of that time, based on a deterministic approach, where the load was specified a little on
the safe side with reference to an assumed critical load
effect. The safety margin was then mainly obtained by
a reduction of the strength of the construction material to something named permissible stresses. In this
way load models as well as the strength of structures
are considered deterministic parameters in structural
design.
In specifying the load a little on the safe side it
was assumed that this should be a high horizontal
load, more or less covering the envelope of maximal
pressures as they might appear on the wall during the
discharge period. The tool to arrive at such a load was
to manipulate the physical parameters for the stored
materials. By doing so a considerable part of the scientific justification got lost. First of all the bending
moments in the wall were underestimated (Nielsen &
Andersen 1981) and the horizontal support to wall
parts subject to buckling was overestimated. Furthermore, the load model was not adequate for estimating
the critical buckling stresses in silo walls.
As already discussed above, the critical load effects
may be very different in concrete and steel silos (Rotter
et al. 1986). In concrete silos the critical load effects
normally are bending moments and tension in the wall
while in cylindrical steel silos the critical load effect
normally is buckling of the wall. Safety against tension failure calls for a big horizontal load while safety
3.2 Deterministic versus stochastic treatment

of loads in silos
Even if great effort is put into repeating all details concerning stored material, filling method, discharge rate,
etc., results from two tests often show considerable
differences in the way in which the pressure develops,
especially during discharge (Pham et al. 1986).
This means that although we strive at accurate deterministic descriptions of silo phenomena, loads in silos
must to some extent be considered a stochastic phenomenon with a certain probability of deviating with
a specific magnitude from a mean value.
In some cases it is even so that a phenomenon is
recognised to have a deterministic influence on the
load, but, in relation to the structural impact, it is considered too complicated to include a description in the
load model, so, for simplicity, the influence of that
phenomenon is considered part of the stochastic deviation. The silo size effect (Munch-Andersen & Nielsen
1986) may be seen as an example.
By doing so, the scatter of the stochastic part
becomes bigger. As a consequence the characteristic loads as specified in standards will become more
extreme, leading to a more uneconomical design than
if a better scientific background was available.
53
Finally, some phenomena have, at the design stage,

to be considered stochastic although the corresponding load component in a given case is deterministic. One example is geometrical imperfections which
may cause pressure redistributions during discharge
(Askegaard et al. 1971). However, the size and position of such imperfections are not known until after
construction.
From the discussion above it can be summarised that
in the development of load models three contributions
to stochastic deviations from a mean value shall be
considered:
Observed deviations which cannot be explained

Minor deterministic influences which are considered too complicated to become included in the
rules
Deterministic influences from parameters which are
not known at the time of design or kept open for
flexibility in running conditions.
It also follows that more economical designs can be

achieved if the stochastic part can be kept low. This can
be done by including more phenomena in the deterministic part a more complicated designor by better
control of the constructionsmaller imperfections in
the wall geometry.
3.3
Variability of structures
Load models are intended to be valid for as many types

of silos as possible. In the following is presented some
of the considerations behind the prescription of load
models for different types of silos.
Silo size
The diameter of a silo may vary from less than a
meter to more than 50 m. This has two implications. One is that there, as discussed above, might
be a size effect on the phenomena taking place in the
silos. As stated above that effect is treated as part
of the stochastic variation. The other implication
is that there is a big difference in the economical balance between effort put into better load
assessment and savings on the costs of the structure. EUROCODE has therefore introduced three
load assessment classes with the highest degree og
simplification for the smallest silos.
Height to diameter ratio
In silos with small height to diameter ratios, the
silo effect is insignificant and load models based on
theories for retaining walls are more realistic.
Shape of cross sections
Seen from a theoretical point of view a circular cross
section is in many ways optimal and easy to deal
with. However, in practise many other shapes are
used, such as rectangular or star cells. It is important
that load models also cover these silos, which puts
3.4 Variability of stored material

In silo design, physical parameters play a role, as
well on the structure side as on the load side. These
parameters are always subject to some variation.
On the structures side there is a long tradition for
handling this, and it is well known that the variation of
54
severe restrictions on the theories available to be

used as the starting point for load models.
Eccentricities of inlet and outlet
Non-symmetrical load patterns are more critical
than symmetrical load patterns. Even in notional
rotationally symmetric silos a stochastic nonsymmetric load component is to be expected. However, the non-symmetrical component increases
significantly if inlet or outlet is placed eccentric.
Especially, for large circular silos with eccentric
inlet or outlet it is important that the load assessment
is realistic. The redistribution of pressure during
discharge in silos with eccentric discharge depends
on the shape of the flowing material which so far
cannot be predicted reliably (Munch-Andersen &
Nielsen 1990, Chen et al. 2006). Therefore the
design must be robust for all possible flow patterns.
In the EUROCODE three representative shapes are
prescribed.
Inserts
Inserts are built into silos mainly in order to promote flow. They change the flow regime and thus the
pressure distribution. Very little is known in general
about the pressure condition in such silos and standards do normally not give rules for loads in such
silos. This is an area for finite element calculations
and experimental verifications.
Flexible/non-flexible walls
Flexible walls give rise to pressure redistributions in
a way that decease the loads on wall parts that move
away and increase the loads on other wall parts. This
is an example of structure-load interaction. Such
interaction makes in general load specification complicated and detailed rules are normally not given in
standards. For silos with rectangular cross sections
the problem has been studied in details (Goodey
et al. 2006).
Internal ties
Silos with internal ties are even more difficult to
deal with than silos with flexible walls. The ties
themselves are subject to loads from the flowing
stored material, and the tension forces in the ties as
well as the local loads on the walls, depend on the
curvature of the loaded tie and the movement of the
wall as a balance between a pull by the tie, and a
push by the load. Load specifications for such silos
are limited to types of silos where documentation
for proper performance is available, and has so far
not been considered mature for standardisation.
with very cohesive stored materials are not given in

standards.
Powders
Fine grained materials in silos may contain interstitial air in a way that the effective stresses in the
particulate material disappear and the stored material acts like a fluid which has to be considered an
additional loading case.
the modulus of elasticity for steel is small, while the

strength of concrete varies considerably due to less
control of the aggregates and the production process.
On the loading side it is more complicated, and not
until the introduction of the EUROCODE a rigorous
treatment of this subject has been introduced.
Physical parameters for the stored material are used
in the load models. Because structural safety considerations were previously directly combined with the
specification of the material parameters to be use,
these parameters did not necessarily represent real
behaviour, which made it almost impossible to use the
standard for stored materials not mentioned in the
standard.
Nielsen & Colymbas (1988) proposed the use of
well defined test methods to determine stored material properties for load specification in standards, and
Rotter et al. (1998) described how the characterisation
of the physical parameters of a stored material may
be done.
For simplicity the present version of EUROCODE
prescribes for each material one value (best estimate
or average) for each parameter (continuum approach).
Besides that, a rule is given to calculate upper and
lower characteristic values for each parameter in order
to cope with systematic and stochastic deviations.
By using upper and lower characteristic values for
the stored material parameters and by combining those
in an adequate way in the rules for load calculation,
upper and lower characteristic values of loads come
out. The critical loads may be used by the designer as
appropriate in the actual design situation.
The variability of the stored materials depends on
several factors:
3.5 Design for flow versus design for strength

Many silos are built as part of a process line where the
flow behaviour is the essential design criteria. These
silos are typically designed to become Mass Flow silos.
Special expertise has been developed for this purpose
with procedures dedicated to test stored materials for
the ability to flow and with design criteria for outlet
diameter and hopper shape, see various sections in
Brown & Nielsen (1998).
The parameters determined this way cannot in general be used for load assessments, mainly because they
are determined at a low pressure level (near outlet in
a steep cone) while load assessment calls for parameters determined at the maximum pressure level in
the actual silo (Nielsen & Kolymbas 1988).
3.6 Theoretical versus empiric rules
As far as possible it is preferable to maintain a theoretical background for load specification. In the case
of silos there exists one general applicable theory
valid for filling of a cylindrical silo, Janssens theory
(Janssen 1895).
When it comes to discharge, a similar simple, universal theory is not available. DIN 1055 did use the
same formulas, but, as described above, changed the
stored material parameters in a way that produced a
higher discharge pressure. The parameters hereby lost
their relation to physics, and the rules may be considered empirical in the sense that they reflect something
intended in a specific perspective, this perspective
clearly being concrete silos.
Nielsen & Andersen (1981) and Hartln et al.
(1984) described a series of observed features in relation to discharge pressures which were not represented
realistically by the given rules which just increased
the horizontal load but maintained symmetry in symmetric silos. The most important observation was the
existence of many different instantaneous local loads
which makes it difficult to choose the representative
critical loading case.
It was proposed to avoid the manipulation with
the discharge load and instead introduce a patch load
which shall be carried in the most critical position for
the structure.
However, for shell structures the structural response
to patch loads is not simple to derive from a given
Working conditions
A process silo in a chemical production line may
during its lifetime receive only one type of material,
very well defined with controlled water content etc,
while a storage silo at a harbour facility may receive
many different materials.
Method of filling
For coarse grained particles, different ways of filling may cause different patterns of anisotropy and
inhomogeneity (Nielsen 1983), which for simplicity
are dealt with as variability.
Pressure level
The values of physical parameters of the stored
material depend to some extend on the pressure
level. In general this is dealt with as variability.
However, for materials which are subject to
developing a high level of cohesion, the stress history has a major impact on the strength of the stored
material at a certain time.
The strength of the stored material is so important for the magnitude of the pressure redistribution
during discharge that general load models for silos
55
The overall conclusion is that there is still a big need

for silo research and for a transfer of new knowledge
into engineering applications.
load pattern. Gillie & Rotter (2002) have done a

parametric study which may serve as guidance in
choosing the design patch loads for thin-walled steel
silos.
The magnitude of the patch load as introduced in
the EUROCODES has been prescribed on an empirical
basis. It serves two purposes. One is to have a load
which ensures a certain structural robustness for not
evenly distributed load. The other is to substitute for a
proper theory for discharge pressures.
In both cases the patch load shall be seen as a redistribution of the filling pressure and thus dependent
on the potential for stress redistribution in the stored
material. The redistribution potential may be seen as
relation between the active and passive pressure at
a given pressure level, i.e. the stronger the material
the bigger the redistribution potential (Nielsen and
Andersen 1981).
The present EUROCODE has introduced a patch
load of a magnitude which increases with increasing
strength.
Impact, as seen in some silos, has so far been
considered too difficult for simplified rules in the standard. Therefore, silos for the most difficult materials
are not covered. Difficult materials are those which
may develop a great strength during the process in the
silo and thus be able to create a considerable resistance to be broken down in the discharge process.
These materials with extreme redistribution potentials
are characterised by a high internal angle of friction
and an extreme ability to develop cohesion, such as
cement clinker and soya flour.
The hopper pressures were in DIN 1055 purely
empirically based. In the EUROCODE the corresponding loads are based on the theory of Walker (1966)
which maintains equilibrium and thereby makes the
structural design more consistent.
REFERENCES
Ansourian, P., Rotter, J.M. & Trahair, N.S. 1983. Stability Problems in the Structural Design of Steel
Silos. International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation. Newcastle, Australia 2224 August 1983. 312316. The Institution of
Engineers, Australia National Conference Publication
No. 83/7.
Askegaard, V., Bergholdt, M. & Nielsen, J. 1971. Problems
in connection with pressure cell measurements in silos.
Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser, nr. 2.
Askegaard, V. & Nielsen, J. 1977. Measurements on silos.
B.S.S.M./I.C.E. Joint Conference: Measurements in Civil
Engineering. 58, September, 1977, Newcastle, England.
Askegaard, V. & Nielsen, J. 1986. Instrumentation of reinforced concrete silos. Int. J. Storing Handling Bulk Mater.
V6, pp. 893897.
Brown, C.J. (ed.) & Nielsen, J. (ed.). 1998. Silos. Fundamentals of theory, behaviour and design. London. E & FN
Spon.
Chen, J.F., Rotter, J.M. & Ooi, J.Y. 1996. A rigorous statistical
technique for inferring circular silo wall pressures from
wall strain measurements. Engineering Structures. V18,
4, pp. 321331.
Chen, J.F., Rotter, J.M. & Ooi, J.Y. 1998a. A review of numerical prediction methods for silo wall pressures. Advances
in Structural Engineering, V2, 2, 119135.
Chen, J.F., Rotter, J.M. & Ooi, J.Y. 1998b. Statistical inference of unsymmetrical silo pressures from comprehensive
wall strain measurements. Thin Wall Structures. 31, 13,
117136.
Chen, J.F., Rotter, J.M., Ooi, J.Y. & Zhong, Z. 2006. Correlation between flow pattern and wall pressures in a full
scale silo. Engineering Structures. V29, 23082320.
Gillie, M. & Rotter, J.M. 2002. The effects of patch loads on
thin-walled steel silos. Thin-Walled Structures. V40, 10,
835852.
Goodey, R.J., Brown, C.J. & Rotter, J.M. 2006. Predicted
patterns of filling pressures in thin-walled square silos.
Engineering Structures, 28, 1, 109119, ISSN 0141-0296.
Hartln, J., Nielsen, J., Ljunggren, L., Mrtensson, G. &
Wigram, S. 1984. The wall pressure in large grain
silosInventory, pressure measurements, material investigations. Swedish Council of Building Research, Document D2: 1984.
Holst, J., Mark, F.G., Ooi, Jin Y., Rotter, J. Michael & Rong,
Graham H. 1999a. Numerical Modelling of Silo Filling. I:
Continuum Analyses. Journal of Engineering Mechanics.
January. 94103.
Holst, J., Mark F.G., Rotter, J. Michael, Ooi, Jin Y. & Rong,
Graham H. 1999b. Numerical Modelling of Silo Filling.
II: Discrete Element Analyses. Journal of Engineering
Mechanics. January. 104110.
Janssen, H.A. 1895. Versuche ber Getreidedruck in
Silizellen.
Z. Verein Deutcher Ingenieure. V39,
10451049.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Considering the complexity of silo phenomena it is a

continuous challenge to develop simple and economic
feasible load models for standards.
The present rules shall be seen as only rough
estimates to real loads in silos, with a level of simplification which in some cases implies a considerable loss
in economy and in other cases may compromise the
intended safety level. Furthermore, the present level
of simplicity has only been achieved by excluding difficult cases, i.e. certain silo shapes and certain stored
materials.
Therefore, designers are advised to maintain a substantial background knowledge about silo phenomena
and use the standards with caution.
56
Jumikis, P.T. & Rotter, J.M. Buckling of Simple Ringbeams for Bins and Tanks. International Conference on
Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation.
Newcastle, Australia 2224 August 1983. 323328. The
Institution of Engineers, Australia National Conference
Publication No. 83/7.
Munch-Andersen, J. 1986. The Boundary Layer in Rough
Silos. Second International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation. Wollongong
79 July, 1986. 132137. The Institution of Engineers,
Australia National Conference Publication No. 86/6.
Munch-Andersen, J. & Nielsen, J. 1986. Size effects in slender grain silos. Int. J. Storing Handling Bulk Mater. Vol 6,
pp. 885889.
Munch-Andersen, J. & Nielsen, J. 1990. Pressures in slender grain silosMeasurements in three silos of different
sizes. CHISA90, Praha, 2631 August.
Nielsen, J. 1977. Model laws for granular media and powders
with a special view to silo models. Archives of Mechanics,
Warszawa. V29, pp. 547560.
Nielsen, J. 1983. Load Distribution in Silos Influenced by
Anisotropic Grain Behaviour. International Conference
on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation.
Nielsen, J. 1984a. Pressure Measurements in a Full-Scale Fly
Ash Silo. Particulate Science and Technology, 2(3), pp.
237246.
Nielsen, J. 1984b. Centrifuge Testing as a tool in silo research.
Symposium on the application of centrifuge modelling
to geotechnical design (Ed. W.H. Craig), pp. 475483.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Nielsen, J. 1998. Pressures from flowing granular solids
in silos. Philosophical Transactions. Royal Society of
London. Series A, (356), 26672684.
Nielsen, J. & Andersen, E.Y. 1981. Loads in Grain Silos.
11th working session of the IAAS Committee of pipes and
tanks, Wroclaw, Polen, 16 Nov.
Nielsen, J., Eibl, J. & Rotter, J.M. 1992. EC 1: Silos and tanks.
IABSE Conference Davos 1992. Structural eurocodes.
Report. Zrich. IABSE. (IABSE reports vol. 65). pp.
97103.
Nielsen, J. & Kolymbas, D. 1988. Properties of granular media relevant for silo loads. SilosForschung und
Praxis, Tagung88, pp. 119132, Universitt Karlsruhe,
Germany, 1011 Oct.
Nielsen, J. & Weidner, J. 1998. The choice of constitutive
laws for silo media. In Silos. Fundamentals of theory,
behaviour and design. Brown, C.J. (red.); Nielsen, J.
(red.). London. E & FN Spon. 1998. pp. 539550.
Pham, L., Nielsen, J. & Munch-Andersen, J. 1986. Statistical Characteristics of Silo Pressure Due to Bulk Solids.
Second International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation. Wollongong 79 July,
1986. 132137. The Institution of Engineers, Australia
National Conference Publication No. 86/6.
Rotter, J.M. 1983. Effective Cross-Sections of Ringbeams
and Stiffeners for Bins. International Conference on
Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation.
Rotter, J.M. 2006. Elephants foot buckling in pressurised
cylindrical shells. Stahlbau, 75, 9, 742747.
Rotter, J.M., Munch-Andersen, J. & Nielsen, J. 1998. Properties of the stored granular solid. In C.J. Brown (ed.) &
J. Nielsen (ed.), Silos. Fundamentals of theory, behaviour
and design. London. E & FN Spon, pp. 650672.
Rotter, J.M., Pham, L. & Nielsen, J. 1986. On the specification of Loads for the Structural Design of Bins and Silos.
Second International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation. Wollongong 79 July,
1986. 241247. The Institution of Engineers, Australia
National Conference Publication No. 86/6.
Song, C.Y., Teng, J.G. & Rotter, J.M. 2004. Imperfection sensitivity of thin elastic cylindrical shells subject
to partial axial compression. International Journal Solids
Structures, 41, 71557180, ISSN 0020-7683.
Walker, D.M. 1966. An approximate theory for pressures and
arching in hoppers. Chemical Engineering Science. V21,
975977.
57
Experience with funnel flow

M. Kaldenhoff
HHW + Partner, Braunschweig, Germany
ABSTRACT: This article describes the experience with flow funnel in large silos with large discharge
eccentricity. Some in-situ measurements were undertaken (full-size experiments) and the results are shown
here. As a consequence of these considered silos the funnel flow model of the Eurocode has been incorporated
in the new DIN 1055 Part 6.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Description of the silos
The considered two silos are two circular concrete silos

(non-prestressed), which are identical in the construction. The silos are 75.60 m high (level bottom plate
to level roof parapet), the load volume of each silo is
12,600 m3 . The bins are 54.66 m high, have an inside
diameter of 18.00 m and a wall thickness of 30 cm.
The silo has been made by concrete B55 in the upper
section (+8.34 m until 23.00 m), the rest of the silo
by concrete B45.
Both silos have an inner cone, made by prefabricated concrete parts. The inclination of the wall of
these inner cones is 60 against the horizontal, the
height of these cones is 11.00 m (Figure 1).
Both silos are filled centrically at the top with a
bucket elevator. At the bottom of the inner cone are
6 2 horizontal outlets. The aerating segments of the
silo bottom in front of the outlets are being operated
pair wise for roundabout 10 min. clockwise (Figure 2
and Figure 3). The aim of this method is, to fluidise the
bulk solid in the area of the section (tangential aeration
system).
This method of discharging leads to a distinctive
funnel flow. Figure 4 shows the principal funnel flow,
but it is clear, that the relations in this situation are
much more complicated than as shown in Figure 4.
It is obvious, that because of the changing outlets
(10 minutes clockwise) more than one funnel flow will
exist. It is also obvious that the cross section area of the
flow channels will not be constant above the height.
A view from the top of the silo to the bulk solid surface while discharging shows no sign of funnel flow,
the surface sunk down evenly. That means that the
cross section of the funnel flow increases to the whole
Figure 1.
cross section of the silo above the height (like a trumpet, Figure 5). It is also assumed that the outer shape
of the funnel flow is not vertical above the height. It is
more likely that the shape of the flow channel is more
like a helix.
59
Main dimensions of the silo.
Figure 2.
Top view on the cone, showing the sections for aeration.
Figure 3.
Cross section, showing the outlet of the cone.
BULK SOLID
The used bulk solid in the silo was a kind of raw

meal (preliminary product for cement). In the static
calculation for the silo it was assumed, that the properties for the bulk solid were the same as cement
and were take from DIN 1055-6:1987-05. Later the
bulk solid properties were experimental tested by
SCHWEDES + SCHULZE SCHTTGUTTECHNIK GmbH, Germany. Table 1 shows the assumed
properties for the static calculation and the properties
as experimentally tested.
3
3.1
Figure 4.
shell (Figure 6). The silos were filled at this time

with about 13,000 t of the raw meal. Because nobody
knew in which condition the whole concrete shell was
(especially at the inside of the shell) and the statical
calculation did not investigate the funnel flow problem, the first aim was to reduce the main load on the
shell. Furthermore the operator of these silos did not
want to stop the operating of the silos, because in this
case the whole production had to be stopped.
MEASUREMENT/MONITORING
Motive
While the silos are in use, the service engineer found

some alarming cracks at the outside of the concrete
60
Flow channel (taken from Rotter 2001b).
Figure 5.
situation.
Table 1.
Figure 6.
shell.
Assumed shape of the flow channel in this
from the inside of the silo wall. Further it is problematic to install sensors at the inside of the silo wall. The
installed sensor at this location will create a kind of
imperfection (Hering et al. 1996) and the measured
figures will be influenced by this imperfection.
To realize the given aim and to have a redundant
system, two different sensor types were chosen: strain
gauges and crack sensors. To get more information,
two measurement levels were chosen, one at 26.80
m and on at 36.80 m (Figure 1). Figure 7 shows the
arrangement of the used sensors at 26.80 m, 3 crack
sensors to measure the changing of cracks against the
time and 4 strain gauges to measure the changing of
strains against the time. The frequency of the measurement was fc = 0.20 Hz. Parallel to this the surface
temperature was measured to exclude the influence of
the temperature (sensor PT 100). The measurement of
the surface temperature shows, that the temperature is
nearly constant about the measuring time. Because of
this, the temperature will not be considered anymore.
Comparison of solid properties.

Used properties
in the statical
calculation
Experimental
tested
properties
13,00
14,00
K=
0,65
0,380,48
0,50
0,670,75
27
37 44
Solid properties
Weight [kN/m3 ]
Lateral pressure
ratio [-]
Wall friction
coefficient [-]
Angle of internal
friction [ ]
To achieve a reduction in load it was intended to

change the way of operating the aeration sections. To
evaluate the result of this change it was necessary
to measure the loads caused by the original way of
aeration and afterwards the loads caused by the revised
way of operation.
3.2
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
4.1 Theoretical key points of the flow

channel model
Measurement equipment
Because there was no way to install measuring sensors

on the inside of the silo shell, it was necessary to find
a method to get reliable data without the information
Rotter 1986 published an independent theoretical

model to analyze the funnel flow problem. In the
61
Cracks with break outs at the out side of the silo
Figure 7.
Arrangement of the sensors.
flow channel silo wall: phce Kzoc (1 e

dead zone silo wall: phse = phf
transition silo wall: phae = 2 phf phce)
Figure 8.
z/zoc
(1)
(2)
(3)
Cross section of the funnel flow model.
get a solution, Rotter used the horizontal equilibrium,

the slice-element-method (Rotter 1986), according to
Janssen 1895.
course of time Rotter improved this model more and

more (Rotter 2001a, Rotter 2001b). Finally this model
was adopted in the Eurocode 1 part 4 as a model to consider discharge with great eccentricities (e/d 0.25).
The new DIN 1055-6:2005-03 is more or less a translation from the Eurocode. That means that the funnel
flow model in the DIN is the same theoretical model
as the model in the Eurocode. Some corrections to
the model have be done and published in DIN 1055-6
Berichtigung 1 (s. chapter 5).
Rotter assumed that the funnel flow has parallel vertical walls (requires to write the resulting pressure in
closed form). The cross section is shown in Figure 8.
Further it is assumed, that the bulk solid at the wall is
sliding along the wall. The flow/no-flow boundary of
the flow channel is constantly subject to changes. To
4.2 Measurement results and interpretation

The results of the strain gauges and the crack sensors
show similar results. Because of these similar results
in the following only the results of the crack sensors
will be presented.
Figure 2 shows the position and the numbering of
the aerated sections and the position of the sensors on
top view, Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the results of
the measurements. The analysis above the complete
measuring period at the height of 26.80 m shows that
the cracks opened and closed all the times with the
62
Figure 9.
Results of the measurement by clockwise aeration.
Figure 10.
Same as Figure 9 but mean values were shown.
the aeration sections. It is assumed, that the flow channels, which were created undoubtful by operating the
outlets, have a shape more like a helix than a cylinder, as it is considered by Rotter 1986, 2001a, 2001b.
The reason is, that Rotters approach is based on a
non-moving outlet. The analysis of the results at the
level 36.20 m shows, that there is only a insignificant
influence of the any flow channel. That means that
the cross section of the flow channels extends with the
height like a trumpet, peak at the bottom. At the end
all the flow channels will be merged together at the
height of 36.20 m.
same procedure. At first the cracks are reduced by

about 0.04 mm, after resting the cracks closed again
by about 0.08 mm. The cracks rested in this situation
for about 850 s (depending on the aeration time of the
sections). After this rest the cracks opened nearly to the
initial position. This procedure reruns approximately
after 1 h. The bars in these diagrams show the section
aeration time. This aeration procedure has the same
period (about 1 hour) as the cracks opening and closing
procedure on the silo wall.
On the other hand, it is not possible to create an
unambiguous correlation from the crack procedure to
63
Figure 11.
Results of measurement after changing the system of aeration.
Figure 12.
Same as Figure 11, but mean values were shown.
4.3
same effects occurred as the initial method, but already

at the lower height.
Consequences of the measurement results
One idea to reduce the loads on the wall was to change

the aeration system of the sections. The volume of the
air was decreased and the sequence of aeration of
the sections was changed. At the initial situation all
the sections were 100% aerated clockwise. Now the
Sections 01 and 05 were operated at the same time,
but Section 01 only with 75% of the air volume. Then
the Section 02 and 06 were activated but Section 02
only with 75%. Figure 11 shows the results of the measurements. It can be seen that already changing the
aeration procedure leads to a drastic reduce of the wall
loads. This can be explained by a merger of the flow
channels now at a lower height and because of that the
Nevertheless the silos were calculated according to the

DIN 1055-6:2005-03 or to the Eurocode 1 part 4 by
using the funnel flow model and the Finite ElementMethod. By this calculation of these silos some areas
to be discussed were detected by applying the funnel flow model in the form as it is presented in these
standards.
64
CHANGES TO THE FLOW CHANNEL

MODEL
Figure 14.
Equilibrium.
these changes are closed linked to the new DIN

1055-6:2005-03.
All the following considerations have been made
under the condition, that z = . The force z is given to

cos phce d + r
z=r
Figure 13. Relationship between rc /r, c and ph , s. also

Rotter 1986.
+r
The draft of the Eurocode version, which was the
basis for the new DIN, presents the ratio of the radius
r of the silo to the radius rc of the flow channel with
three values: rc /r = 0.20/0.35/0.50. The use of the
three given ratios leads to minimal forces, which are
much lesser, than the results of the measurements
showed. But if the ratio is increased to rc /r =
0.90, the forces increase to a not realistic order of
magnitude.
It was also noticed that the horizontal equilibrium
never could be satisfied, not even rudimental. This
leads to big bending moments at the base point. At the
end, an anchorage system would be necessary and that
is not realistic.
Figure 13 shows the relations between the rc /r ratio
and the angle c and the horizontal pressure. In the
extreme situation, where rc /r = 1.00, the complete
cross section of the silo is the flow channel. That
means, the Janssen-equation must be fulfilled. In the
case of Janssen phce = phae = phf . In the diagram
of Figure 13 one can see, that this only in case of
= m/ tan = 1.0 ( is the wall friction coefficient
and i is the angle of internal friction) works. The
value of the angle c does not really increase if is
close to 1.
To fix these inadequacies in a first step, Ruckenbrod & Kaldenhoff 2005 developed a factor and
limits, which were published in the correction of
the DIN (DIN 1055-6 Berichtigung 1). On this way,
/2
cos phse d
cos phae d
(4)
z
= [phce sin ]0 + [phae sin ]2
r
/2
+ [phse sin ]2
(5)
The horizontal equilibrium leads to

phse r = z
(6)
phse = phce sin + phae (sin 2 sin )

+ phse (1 sin 2)
(7)
1 = sin + (sin 2 sin )

+ (1 sin 2)
(8)
sin 2 sin
phae
=
phse
sin 2 sin
(9)
phae
zoc
=
phse
z
with
65
2
( )G 2 + G sin( )
+ G( )/
(10)
by varying aeration of the bulk solid. Because of

this discharge system flow channels in the bulk solid
occurred. To get more information about the loads on
the vertical silo walls, which were caused by the funnel
flow, measurements (so called full scale experience)
were done. It was shown, that by changing the system of aeration, the loads on the silo wall could be
significantly decreased.
REFERENCES
Janssen, H.A. 1895. Versuche ber Getreidedruck
in Silozellen. Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher
Ingenieure 39 (1895), 10451049.
Hering, K., Hardow, B., Kaldenhoff, M. 1996.
Einbauten in Silos, Abschlussbericht zum Fors
chungsvorhaben, Teilprojekt Messungen im
Braunschweiger Siloversuchsstand, I/66 020,
Volkswagen-Stiftung.
Rotter, J.M. 1986. The Analysis of Steel Bin Subject
to Eccentric Discharge, Second International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and
Transportation, Wollongong, 79 July 1986.
Rotter, J.M. 2001a. Pressures, Stresses and Buckling
in metal Silos containing Eccentrically Discharging Solids, Festschrift Richard Greiner, TU Graz,
Austria, October 2001, pp. 85104.
Rotter, J.M. 2001b. Guide for economic design of
Circular Metal Silos, Spon Press 2001.
EN 1991-4, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures, Part 4:
Silos and tanks, Draft Q.
DIN 1055-6:2005-03: Einwirkungen auf TragwerkeTeil 6: Einwirkungen auf Silos und Flssigkeitsbehlter.
DIN 1055-6 Berichtigung 1 (2006-02): Einwirkungen auf TragwerkeTeil 6: Einwirkungen auf Silos
und Flssigkeitsbehlter, Berichtigungen zu DIN
1055-6:2005-03.
Ruckenbrod, C., Kaldenhoff, M. 2005. Fliekanalradien, Working paper Unterausschuss SILOS NA
005-51-02 AA Einwirkungen auf Bauten, Braunschweig, Karlsruhe 2005, not published.
Figure 15. Relationships phae /phse with the correction of

the DIN 1055-6:2005-03
G = rc /r
(11)
But this solution is not perfect. One disadvantage

is, that the consideration is valid only under the condition that z = but for a real silo z < in any
case! That means that the equilibrium is not fulfilled.
Another point is, that under the condition z = also
the equilibrium could not fulfilled in any point, see
Figure 15. These extreme situation appears for example, if c 60 , G 0.90 and 0.25. To take
care that these situation does not appear, the following
corrections were introduce into the standard:
= / tan 0.8
(12)
rc = 0.35r
(13)
rc = 0.50r
(14)
rc = 0.65r
(15)
CONCLUSION
Two concrete silos for raw meal showed cracks on

the outside of the silo. The discharge system works
66
Shock loads in an iron ore train loading bin

A.W. Roberts
Centre for Bulk Solids and Particulate Technologies, The University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia
ABSTRACT: This paper examines the cyclical shock loading effects on a iron ore surge bin and its structure
due to rapid discharge whilst flood loading train wagons which are in continuous motion. The paper is based on
a case study involving a 2000 t bin loading 120 t capacity wagons at an average cycle time of 50 s per wagon.
During the first few seconds of each wagon loading cycle, the flow rate increases rapidly to just over 60,000 t/h
before reducing to a steady rate of approximately 7000 t/h for the remainder the load out cycle. The initial
discharge surge in flow rate combined with the flow patterns resulting from the bin and flood loading chute
geometry cause quite severe impact vertical and lateral loads on the bin and its structure. The dynamic loads and
corresponding swaying motion of the bin and its structure are calculated, the results comparing quite closely to
actual observed values. The paper reinforces the need to examine, as an integral part of bin design, the dynamic
loads acting in bins due to high load out rates and varying flow patterns.
state flow rate due to the rilling action as the wagon

becomes progressively filled with ore. The maximum
discharge flow rate during the initial transient phase
is several times the magnitude of the steady state flow
rate. Each wagon holds 120 t of iron ore and the fill
time is nominally 50 sec. The bin handles two types of
iron ore, a fine ore less than 6 mm in particle size range
and a coarse ore with particles ranging in size from
6 mm to 30 mm. As a result of the impact loads due
to the high initial load out rate, shaking of the bin and
associated structure occurred during the load out operation when handling the coarse ore, the problem being
more pronounced when the bin is one third full or less.
The problem was less significant when handling the
fine ore.
INTRODUCTION
In mining operations, it is common practice to employ

flood loading surge bins to load bulk ore into train
wagons for overland transport. During the train loading operation, the train is in slow, continual motion
as each wagon is filled via a flood loading chute, the
commencement and completion of filling operation
being controlled by the opening and closing of a gate.
At the commencement of the wagon filling cycle, the
flow rate increases quite rapidly until sufficient ore is
in the wagon to limit the discharge rate to a steady
value due to the rilling action as ore progressively
fills the wagon. The initial surcharge in discharge flow,
which is several times the magnitude of the steady
state flow, causes quite sever impact loads on the bin
and its structure, the magnitude of these loads being a
function of the bin flow patterns and chute geometry.
The influence of these loads on the bin and its support
structure needs to be considered as part of the design
process.
To illustrate the impact load effects due to flood
loading, a case study example of the iron ore train
loading bin shown in Figures 1 and 2 is considered.
The bin has a nominal capacity of 2000 t and is of
expanded flow geometry with the upper cylindrical
section operating under funnel-flow, the flow being
expanded through the lower mass-flow hopper. The
bin discharge is controlled by a propriety, inclined
load out chute which incorporates a clam shell gate.
As each empty wagon moves under the chute, the
gate opens, the flow rate increasing rapidly over the
first few seconds, then throttling back to the steady
Figure 1.
67
Train load-out bin.
12000 Dia
and more recently by Roberts (2005). Wall friction

measurements were obtained for the iron ore fines
at 8% moisture content in contact with DuaPlate, the
measurements being made with sliding both parallel
to, and across the ridges. The results are reproduced in
Figures 3 and 4. It can be seen from Figure 3 that the
wall friction angles are appreciably higher with sliding
across the ridges than with sliding in the direction of
the ridges. In effect, in the case of the fine ore, the
ridges trap a boundary layer of the ore so that flow is
due to internal shear. In the case of the coarse ore, even
though this ore is relatively free flowing, the lump size
is approximately equal to the pitch of the ridges causing particles to lock in to the wall with shear being
by internal friction.
The influence of this lining configuration with
respect to mass-flow hopper geometry is illustrated
in Figure 4 which shows the variation of hopper halfangle as a function of hopper opening dimension
for the fine ore. These results are for conical hoppers
which are relevant to the train load-out bin. Referring
to the bin geometry in Figure 2, the hopper-half angles
for mass-flow are compared with the measured results
in Table 1.
BIN CAPACITY
825 m^3 100%
7935
649 m^3 78.6%
309 m^3 37.5%
4177
40o
4955 Dia
60 m^3 7.3%
10895
4768
o
15
2404 Dia
1766 Sq
o
10
1950
25 o
7.4 m^3 0.9%

ec = Eccenticity of
Flow Channel
0%
Pivot Point for Swing Chute
Pivot Point for Clamshell
Trim Level
Top of Rail Wagon
45
Train load-out bin geometry.

Wall friction angle (deg)
Figure 2.
This paper investigates the discharge flow patterns

and associated cyclical dynamic loads experienced by
the bin and its structure during the loading of trains.
The complexity of the loading pattern in the bin, combined with the variation in the properties of the ore
that can occur from time to time, makes it difficult
to determine precisely the magnitude and frequency
of the dynamic loads. However, the load values presented in this paper are believed to provide a good
estimate of the loads being experienced during train
loading operations.
DuaPlate Across Ridges

DuaPlate Parallel to Ridges
40
35
30
0
4
6
8
Normal stress (kPa)
10
12
Figure 3. Wall friction angles for DuaPlate and iron ore

fines at 8% mc.
14
HOPPER DESIGN PARAMETERS

Hopper half-angle a (deg)
The bin design specified DuaPlate lining for the lower

mass-flow hopper section and the upper expanded
flow transition hopper section. DuaPlate is a
toughened steel lining with uni-directional raised
weld/ridges spaced at equal pitches. The lining had
been incorrectly installed with the weld/ridges running horizontally against the flow instead of vertically
as specified in the design drawings. As a result,
flow along the walls of the hopper is prevented and
mass-flow could not occur.
The flow properties of the iron ore and associated bin geometry parameters have been obtained
following the procedures established by Jenike (1961)
10
8
6
DuaPlate Across Ridges
DuaPlate Parallel to Ridges
4
2
0
Outlet opening dimension B(m)
Figure 4. Hopper half-angle versus outlet dimension for

conical hopper lined with DuaPlate for iron ore fines at
8% mc.
68
12
Table 1.
Hopper
section
Lower
hopper
Upper
hopper
Hopper half angles for iron ore fines.
Opening
dimension
(m)
Halfangle
as constructed
Mass flow
half-angle
duaplate
flow
parallel
to ridges
Mass flow
half-angle
duaplate
flow
across
ridges
1.766
10
10
2.404
15
11
7.5
Eccentricty of
Flow Channel

Top of Rail Wagon
Figure 6.
Eccentricty of
Flow Channel
Figure 5.
Trim Level
Flow pattern when bin is near full.
FLOW PATTERNS
In view of the foregoing discussion, the hopper section

of the train load-out bin is likely to operate under
funnel flow or possibly intermediate type flow with
a central, rapid moving flow channel as depicted in
Figures 5 and 6. The outer boundary layer of ore in the
hopper will be mainly stationary in the case of funnelflow or moving more slowly in the case of intermediate
69
Flow pattern when bin is less than 30% full.
flow. Since the load-out chute has an inclined surface

as indicated, there will be some eccentricity in the flow
pattern. This is exacerbated by the action of the clam
shell gate. The result is to impose both lateral and vertical dynamic loads on the bin and structure. The rapid
movement of the ore in the vertical flow channel will
also impose dynamic loads and moments due to the
eccentricity of the flow channel.
Figure 5 shows the flow pattern when the bin is
initially full and flow has just been initiated. The ore
funnels from the top surface and flows rapidly down
the central flow channel as indicated. The flow channel slopes away from the hopper outlet at an angle
which depends on the effective angle of internal friction as presented by Roberts (2005). For = 50
the corresponding angle = 5 . The flow channel
is quite tall in this case and offers some restraining
stability to the ore funneling inward from the free
surface.
As the level in the bin reduces as illustrated in
Figure 6, the height of the flow channel also reduces
and there is less restraint to control the inward flow
of ore as it sloughs off the upper transition cone of
the bin. This would account for the observed dynamic
load being worse when the bin is only partially full.
Top of Rail Wagon
Trim Level
Case 2 Ore discharges by funnel-flow for which

= = 5 and the effective opening is
B = 1.478 m based on the discharge chute
geometry.
ff = 1.2 and ffa = 2.2.
FLOW RATES DURING TRAIN LOADING
The dynamic loads on the bin and its supporting structure during train loading requires a knowledge of the
cyclical variations in the discharge flow rates and corresponding load-out patterns. These matters are now
discussed.
4.1
The results are presented in Figures 7 and 8. Figure 7

shows the velocities and accelerations, while Figure 8
presents the flow rates and total tonnage discharged.
As indicated, the flow reaches steady state conditions
after approximately 3 s.
The results are summarised as:
Discharge flow rates
The analysis of mass-flow hopper discharge flow rate

presented by Johanson (1965) is relevant to this case.
When the gate at a hopper outlet is suddenly opened
and discharge is initiated, the bulk solid is subjected
to the following acceleration:
av =

ff
dv
2v2 (1 + m) tan
=g 1
dt
ffa
B
Case 1 Maximum acceleration = 4.86 m/s2 ; vav =

3.49 m/s; Qav = 84, 600 t/h
Case 2 Maximum acceleration = 4.46 m/s2 ; vav =
4.34 m/s; Qav = 81, 900 t/h
(1)
5
Q = Av
Velocity (m/s) and Acceleration (m/s^2)
where ff = critical flow factor defining minimum

opening dimension for arching based on flow property tests; ffa = actual flow factor based on the
major consolidation stress corresponding to the actual
hopper opening dimension; m = 1 for conical hopper; B = hopper opening dimension; v = discharge
velocity; = hopper half-angle.
The discharge rate or throughput is given by
(2)
A = area of outlet; = bulk density.

For a given hopper opening dimension, the acceleration reduces to zero and the velocity becomes constant
during steady state discharge. Under these conditions,
the steady state discharge velocity is given by

vav =
ff
ffa

Bg
2(1 + m) tan
Acceleration (m/s^2) - B = 1.766 m

Velocity (m/s) - B = 1.766 m
Acceleration (m/s^2) - B = 1.478 m
Velocity (m/s) - B = 1.478 m
0
0
Figure 7. Velocities and accelerations during transient

phase of discharge.

(3)
Throughput (t/h*10^3) & total discharge (t)
and the steady state throughput is

(4)
4.2 Transient analysis

To compare the performance of the train loading bin
under mass and funnel flows, the transient flow is
examined for the condition when the discharge gate is
suddenly fully opened. This is performed by solving
equation (1).
Two cases are considered as follows:
Discharge Rate (t/h*10^3) - B = 1.766 m

Total Discharge (tonne) - B = 1.766 m
Total Discharge (tonne) - B = 1.478 m
Discharge Rate (t/h*10^3) - B = 1.478 m
80
60
40
20
0
0
Case 1 Ore discharges by mass-flow for which

= 10 and the outlet B = 1.766 m square
ff = 1.2 and ffa = 2.38
Figure 8.
70
Time (s)
100
Qav = A vav
2
3
Time (s)
Throughput and total discharge.
80
60
Velocity
Discharge rate
40
Total Discharge
20
Gate in Open
Position
load are as depicted in Figure 11. The corresponding discharge velocities from the bin are shown in
Figure 12.
5.2
Velocity (m/s)
Discharge rate (t/hX10^3) & total discharge (t)
100
Dynamic load on chute
For the gate opening of 5 s, the maximum load-out

rate is estimated as 60,000 t/h with the corresponding
velocity of 3.6 m/s. The combination of this load-out
0
0
Zone 1
30 t
3.5 sec
10
Time (s)
Figure 9.
Discharge performance for 5 s gate opening time.
Zone 4
16.5 t
13 sec
Zone 3
57 t
27 sec
Zone 2
16.5 t
6.5 sec
VT
Transient flow when gate is ramped open

Figure 10.
During the bin load-out operation, the clam shell gate

was observed to open in approximately 5 s. The transient discharge performance during the gate opening
phase is now examined. In this case funnel-flow is
assumed with = = 5 . As the opening dimension
B increases from the critical arching dimension based
on the bulk strength of the fines to the fully opened
condition, the actual flow factor ffa increases from the
critical value of 1.2 to 2.2.
The variation in ffa is obtained from the Flow Function graphs produced for the iron ore. The value of ffa is
based on the major consolidation stress corresponding
to the actual hopper outlet dimension.
The results of this analysis are shown in Figure 9. As
indicated, steady state is reached after approximately
6 seconds. After 5 seconds when the gate has reached its
open position the discharge is almost fully developed.
Estimated load-out pattern for wagons.

140
Load out rate (t/h x 10^3)
70
60
Load-Out Rate (t/h)
120
50
Total Load (tonne)
100
40
80
30
60
20
40
Qaverage = 8.64 x 10^3 t/h
10
20
0
50
0
0
10
20
30
Total discharge (t)
4.3
40
Time (s)
Figure 11.
Cyclic behaviour during loading of wagon.
LOAD-OUT CYCLE AND DYNAMIC LOADS
3.5
5.1
Load-out cycle
3
Velocity (m/s)
The information in Figure 9 shows the potential for

very rapid discharge rate from the bin when the discharge is unimpeded. This will only occur for a very
short time interval during the initial phase of filling the
empty wagons. The flow very quickly becomes constrained by the choking action as the level of ore in the
wagon rises to limit the flow rate of the ore. Based on
a 50 s loading cycle, the estimated form of the loading
pattern for each wagon is as indicated in Figure 10.
Zone 1 represents the unrestricted loading zone,
Zone 2 is the transition to steady state, Zone 3 is steady
state loading and Zone 4 represents the final steady
state loading followed by the gate closure. For this
loading pattern, the estimated load-out rate and total
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
20
30
Time (s)
40
50
Figure 12. Variation of bin discharge velocity over the

load-out cycle.
71
2.5
rate and velocity give rise to a dynamic impulsive force

on the sloping surface of the discharge chute.
Referring to Figure 2, the discharge chute has a
sloping surface at approximately 25 to the vertical.
At the point of contact, the horizontal and vertical
components of the impact force are
FV = Qv cos
FH = Qv sin
downward
horizontally
D
hs
Vs
(5)
S
Vm
Vav
(b) Velocity Profile
With Q = 60,000 t/h = 16.67 t/s, v = 3.6 m/s and

= 25 , the maximum dynamic loads are
FV = 54.4 kN and FH = 25.36 kN

(a) Forces Acting on Moving Plug
The worst case would occur if the gate

denly opened with a peak discharge rate
84, 600 t/h = 23.5 t/s at a velocity of v =
(see Section 4.2). The corresponding
loads are
was sudof Q =
3.49 m/s
dynamic
Figure 13.
The resultant dynamic force is

FD = kd (W S), that is
FV = 73.3 kN and FH = 34.7 kN
Loads acting on moving core in flow channel.

D
W
4kh/D
FD = kd
1e
hs
h
4k
VARIOUS DYNAMIC LOADS
(8)
A major contributing factor to the dynamic loads

experienced by the bin is the rapid acceleration and
deceleration of the central flow channel during the
loading cycles combined with the loads due to slumping. The following analysis provides a basis for
estimating the dynamic loads.
where = g = bulk specific weight, kN/m3 ; =

bulk density, t/m3 ; h = height of moving mass, m;
k = pressure ratio = 0.4; kd = dynamic load factor;
= friction coefficient; hs = surcharge head, m.
Since shear at the boundary is due to internal
friction, it is assumed that slip and hence failure corresponds to the maximum shear stress. It follows from
Mohr circle analysis that
6.1
= sin
Analysis of loads due to central core
Referring Figure 13, it is assumed that during

discharge the central channel acts as a dynamic
mass moving under accelerated flow. The driving
force is the weight of the material in the channel, the downward movement being resisted by shear
around the boundaries of the flow channel. Since the
angle is small, its influence is neglected in the
analysis.
The weight of material in the flow channel is
W =
2
D h
4
The dynamic load factor depends on the elasticity of the impact during the deceleration phase. For
a suddenly applied load, kD = 1. The acceleration is
given by
a=
(6)
(10)
FD = 120 kN
for D = 2.0 m and
FD = 236 kN
for D = 2.5 m
Referring to Figures 5 and 6, the flow channel is

eccentric to the centre line of the bin. Based on the
(7)
72
FD g
W
Figure 14 shows a plot of FD and a versus flow

channel height h for two flow channel diameters 2 m
and 2.5 m. As shown, the dynamic load reaches the
following asymptotic limits:
The shear force acting around the boundary is

1
D
hs
S = W 1 (1 e4kh/D )
h
4k
(9)
difficult to determine with a high degree of certainty

the magnitude of the lateral impact load.
Estimates of the maximum likely loads, as depicted
in Figure 15, are outlined below.
Acceleration down slope, a = 0.274 g = 2.69 m/s2
Velocity vo = 3.83 m/s
Velocity components at impact point, vex =
2.46 m/s and vey = 12.9 m/s
Impact Forces, Fix = 62 kN and Fiy = 48 kN
The impact forces are calculated assuming a
slumping mass flow rate of 25 t/s
250
Dynamic load FD (KN)
Dynamic Load FD - D = 2.5 m

Acceleration- D=2.0m
Acceleration-D=2.5m
150
5
4
3
100
Acceleration (m/s^2)
Dynamic Load FD - D = 2 m
200
2
50
1
0
10
15
6.3 Influence of conveyor discharge
20
Height of central flow channel h (m)
Figure 14.
channel.
The belt conveyor delivers ore to the bin at the rate

of 9000 t/h and speed of 5 m/s. Since the impact plate
in the discharge casing absorbs the major component
Dynamic load and acceleration for central
outlet geometry of the bin and the geometry of the

pivoting discharge chute, the eccentricity of the flow
channel is estimated as ec = 0.4 m. The dynamic
moments or torques are therefore
TD = FD ec = 48 kNm
TD = 94 kNm
6.2
for D = 2.0 m
for D = 2.5 m
Loads due to collapsing of slumping mass
During the initial impulsive load out rate estimated at

60 t/h as illustrated in Figure 11, the rapid downward
movement of the central core in the flow channel can
create an initial void which is then refilled. Based on
Figure 11, it is assumed that the make-up mass is 25 t
and, for a flow channel diameter of 2.5 m, the corresponding height of fall is taken to be 1.7 m. Assuming
the ore sloughs off the sloping surface of the upper
funnel-flow section of the bin with zero vertical velocity, the impact velocity due to the slumping mass is
5.8 m/s. For an assumed impact time of t = 1 s, the
impact force is
= 50
Vo
Fiy
Vex
Fix
Fvi = 145 kN
Vey
If this force acts vertically down, it will give rise

to a moment or couple due to the eccentricity of the
flow channel. That is,
Tvi = 58 kNm
Depending on the manner in which the ore slides off
the upper surface during the sloughing operation, there
will be a lateral component of the impact load particularly if the sloughing occurs predominately from one
side. Due to the random nature of the slumping, it is
Top of Rail Wagon
Figure 15.
73
Possible side impact loads.
of the discharge velocity, it is assumed that the initial

vertical velocity of the discharging ore is, say, 1.7 m/s.
Assuming also that the height of drop is 12 m when
the bin is at or below 30% full, then the impact velocity
of the ore on the free surface is v = 15.4 m/s. For
Q = 9000 t/h, the vertical impact force is
to swaying. The natural frequency of the system as a

whole is

1
k
(11)
fn =
2 M
where k = stiffness of the support structure for the
relevant vibration mode; M = total mass of bin and
its contents.
For each mode, the natural frequency of the bin
when full is significantly less (probably about 50%
less) than the natural frequency when empty.
Fic = 38.5 kN
The corresponding moment or torque is
Tic = 38.5ex kNm
7.2 Swaying motion
where ex = eccentricity of conveyor discharge with

respect to bin centre line.
6.4
Information provided by the bin designers regarding

the lateral stiffness and period of oscillation is as
follows:
For one nominated direction
Belt conveyor structure
The belt conveyor structure is supported on the top of

the bin by a double hinge arrangement to reduce the
lateral loads. However, significant vibrations of the
structure were observed, particularly due to the changing tension in the belt during start-up and stopping as
result of the bin filling cycle. It is highly probable that
lateral loads on the bin are induced in this way and
could contribute to the swaying motion of the bin.
k = 46,729 kN/m
T = 1.23 s
The corresponding natural frequency is
fn = 0.81 Hz
From equation (11), the vibrating mass is
7
7.1
VIBRATION EFFECTS
M=
Natural frequencies of bin structure
(12)
Hence, for fn = 0.81 Hz, M = 1804 t.

This calculation suggests that the frequency fn =
0.81 Hz corresponds to the bin approximately two
thirds full. With this assumption and noting that the
capacity of the bin when full is nominally 2000 t, then
the natural frequency of the full bin is estimated as
fn = 0.69 Hz and corresponding period is T = 1.44 s.
When the bin is empty, the natural frequency is fn =
1.6 Hz and the corresponding period is T = 0.63 s.
When the bin undergoes lateral or swaying type
vibrations, the amplitude of the lateral inertia force
at the centre of mass is
Schematically, the bin and its support structure may be

represented by the mass/spring diagram of Figure 16.
While the dynamic loads and moments may induce
vertical oscillations, the most likely effect is that due
Swaying
Motion
Vertical
Motion
k
4 2 fn2
Fi = 4 2 fn2 XM
(13)
where X = lateral amplitude.

Taking the case of M = 1804 t and fn = 0.81 Hz,
then for 1.0 mm amplitude,
Figure 16.
Fi = 46.73 kN/mm
This value can also be obtained from Fi = kX .
It is noted that when the bin is undergoing lateral vibrations due to shock loads, the total lateral
Schematic of bin.
74
movement is 2X . For example if 2X = 5 mm, the

corresponding lateral force is 117 kN at the centre of
mass. This assumes minimum damping which is quite
likely in this case.
It also needs to be noted that lateral vibrations of the
bin may be induced by movement of the foundations
and support piles. Even though such movement may
be imperceptibly small, the movement is amplified
by the support columns. However, it is not uncommon for dynamic loads caused by bin discharges to be
felt, in some cases, a distance of some 1000 m from
the bin.
7.3
Tic
Fic
TD Tvi
Slip-stick type flow-silo quaking effect
y
Tp =
vs
Fiy
FH

FV
(14)
Trim Level
Top of Rail Wagon
where y = average particle size; vs = slip

velocity.
Usually the shock loads caused by this action occur
at the lower velocities where the bin discharge is
controlled by a feeder. Based on the foregoing analysis,
the velocity of discharging ore at the bin outlet during
the steady state phase of the discharge is estimated
as approximately 0.4 m/s. The corresponding velocity
at the boundary of the flow channel is estimated to be
0.2 m/s.
For the coarse ore for which y = 30 mm., the
period of pulses is T = 0.15 s. The corresponding frequency of vibration is then f = 6.7 Hz. This frequency
is significantly higher than the natural frequencies of
the bin, which means that silo quaking is unlikely to
be a problem in this case.
8
Fix
Fvi FD
As the ore discharges, the flow of material at the

boundary of the flow channel may give rise to vibrations due to silo quaking, particularly in the case of
the coarse ore. Silo quaking is known to occur in
a wide variety of single and multiple outlet bins of
varying geometry and flow pattern Roberts (1996 &
2003). The period of the vibrations in this case is
predicted by
Figure 17.
Estimated dynamic loads on bin.
8.2 Loads due to central core dynamics

FD = 120 kN
for D = 2.0 m
FD = 236 kN
for D = 2.5 m
TD = 48 kNm
for D = 2.0 m
TD = 94 kNm
for D = 2.5 m
8.3
SUMMARY OF DYNAMIC LOADS
Loads due to slumping mass
Fvi = 145 kN
Tvi = 58 kNm
The maximum shock loads experienced by the bin as

depicted by Figure 17 have been estimated and are
summarized below:
8.4 Impact loads on wall of flow channel
8.1 Impact loads on chute
Fix = 62 kN
FV = 54.4 kN
FH = 25.36 kN for estimated peak
load-out rate of 60,000 t/h
8.5 Impact loads due to conveyor discharge
FH = 34.7 kN for maximum peak

FV = 73.3 kN
load-out rate of 84,000 t/h
Tic = 38.5ex kNm,

Fic = 38.5 kN
where ex = eccentricity of discharge
75
Fiy = 48 kN
8.6
along the wall is severely limited. It is quite likely that

the problem will diminish with time as the ridges wear
down and the hopper sections become polished.
In view of the flow patterns developed during discharge as depicted by Figures 5 and 6, the central flow
channel is one cause of the problem. The magnitude
of this load does not change from the condition when
the bin is less than 30% full to the full condition.
However, there is a greater possibility for slumping of the ore to occur from the upper funnel-flow
section of the bin when the bin is operated at low fill
levels.
The dynamic loads are of sufficient magnitude to
induce a perceptible level of swaying motion such as
that experienced by the bin. Since the evidence indicates that the level of swaying motion is less when the
bin is full or near full, it is recommended that the bin
be operated at or near its maximum fill level.
As an overall comment, the case study example
presented in this paper, highlights the dynamic load
problems than can occur due to rapid load-out rates
such as those experienced during flood loading operations. Such loads and the dynamic effects need to be
considered in bin design.
Side loads due to conveyor structure dynamics
In addition to the foregoing loads, the flexing of

the conveyor system will induce significant lateral
dynamic loads on the bin and its structure. These loads
have not been determined in the present analysis.
8.7
Swaying motion of bin
a. Natural frequencies
fn = 0.81 Hz for bin approximately two thirds full.
For a full bin fn = 0.69 Hz and for an empty bin
fn = 1.6 Hz.
b. Lateral stiffness
k = 46,729 kN/m
c. Lateral inertia force per unit amplitude
For fn = 0.81 Hz,
Fi = 46.73 kN/mm
9
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The train loader bin is of expanded flow geometry with

the upper section funnel-flow and the lower section
designed for mass-flow. The advantage of expanded
flow is that the required bin capacity can be achieved
without the bin being unduly high. However, for
rapid load-out rates as in flood loading of trains,
expanded flow has the potential for causing dynamic
loads due to the slumping of the ore from the upper
funnel-flow section to the lower mass-flow zone. Ideally, a total mass-flow bin is preferred, but the need
for additional height to achieve the required capacity
raises practical difficulties. Accepting that expanded
flow is the best practical solution, special attention
needs to be given to the design detail to ensure that
slumping effects are minimized.
It is quite apparent that the DuaPlate lining, being
installed with the ridges horizontal was a major cause
of the shock loading and consequent swaying motion
of the bin. Since the pitch of the welds forming the
ridges of the DuaPlate is approximately the same as
the maximum particle size of the coarse ore, sliding
REFERENCES
Jenike, A.W. 1961. Gravity Flow of Bulk Solids. Bulletin
108, The University. Of Utah, Engineering Experiment.
Station, USA.
Johanson, J.R. 1965. Method of Calculating Rate of Discharge from Hoppers and Bins, Trans. Society of Mining
Engineers, Vol. 232, (pp. 6980).
Roberts, A.W. 1996. Shock Loads in Silos, The Silo Quaking Problem. Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 16, No. 1.
(pp. 5973).
Roberts, A.W. 2005. Characterisation for Hopper and Stockpile Design, Chapter 3, Characterisation of Bulk Solids,
Ed D. McGlinchey, Blackwell Publishing, (pp. 85131).
Roberts, A.W. 2003. Review of the Silo Quaking Problem
in Bins of Various Geometrical Shapes and Flow Patterns. Task Force Quarterly, Academic Computer Centre
in Gdansk, Poland, Vol. 7.
76
Studies of buried pipe behaviour

I.D. Moore
GeoEngineering Centre at Queens RMC, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
ABSTRACT: The study of shells interacting with particulate and other solids is not confined to investigations
focused on silo structures. The mechanical response of buried pipes is governed by the shells interaction with
the surrounding solid, rather than the material contained within. The authors studies over the past decade include
projects examining the limit states of flexible and rigid buried pipe undergoing deterioration, as well as pipes
installed, replaced, or repaired using trenchless technologies. An overview of these projects demonstrates the
variety of issues to explore, and a series of problems in nonlinear mechanics influencing the service load response
and stability limits of the pipes and the soil that surrounds them.
INTRODUCTION
infrastructure, Figure 1. Recorded here are examples

of the authors research over the past ten years examining the mechanics of buried pipes to develop better
understanding of:
Buried pipes and conduits provide us with water, gas,

electricity, and communications, and remove storm
and waste-water from our communities. Though out
of sight and largely neglected for decades, the public
is now becoming aware of the need for engineers to
replace and upgrade our increasingly inadequate pipe
i. The stability of deteriorated structures like

a. Rigid pipes influenced by erosion voids, and
b. Metal culverts experiencing corrosion;
ii. Pipe repair using polymer liners considering
a. Buckling under external fluid pressure, and
b. Bending induced by earth loads;
iii. Pipe replacement using bursting resulting in
a. Uplift at the ground surface, and
b. Pulling force and disturbance to adjacent pipes;
iv. Pipe installation using directional drilling where
a. Axial pipe stress distributions vary with time
b. Mud pressures are limited to prevent mud loss.
a. Fractured Clay Sewer in Toronto.
The mechanics of gravity flow sewers and culverts

has been well explained in the twentieth century, with
contributions on rigid (e.g. Marston and Anderson,
1913) and flexible (e.g. Spangler, 1956) structures,
and rational analyses developed since the 1960s that
explain how pipe stiffness relative to the surrounding ground influences the stability limit states (e.g.
Hoeg, 1968). While there might seem little need for
further research, the processes by which the stability of pipes change over time are only now being
b. Corroded metal culvert in Eastern Ontario
Figure 1.
Typical damaged structures.
77
DETERIORATED PIPE STRUCTURES
studied (e.g. Tan and Moore, 2007; E1 Taher and

Moore, 2008), considering the roles of pipe deterioration (fractures in rigid structures, Figure 1a, and
corrosion of flexible metal structures, Figure 1b), as
well as soil erosion. Figure 2a shows an erosion void
visible beside a metal culvert, developing after wall
perforation. Similar voids develop besides rigid pipe
structures (Spasojevic et al., 2006).
Two recent studies are perhaps the first to explore
the resulting effects on pipe stability. First, Tan and
Moore (2007) used finite element analyses to examine
the stresses within a rigid sewer pipe as voids grow at
the springline. Figure 2b shows a typical mesh, with
three different sized circular zones at the springline
modeling the progress of void growth, Figure 2c. The
geometrical feature found to dominate tensile bending stresses and pipe fracture at the crown, invert and
springlines (Figure 2b) is the angle of void contact
on the external pipe surface (not, for example, the
void width). Idealizing the fractured pipe using four
quadrants, Figure 3, the analysis was then extended to
calculate deformations (decreases in vertical diameter

DV and increases in horizontal diameter DH ),
Figure 4.
Following comparison with the kinematics of fractured pipe deformation (Law and Moore, 2007), it was
found that the fractured pipe responds much like a
flexible pipe. Flexible pipe theory can therefore be
used to estimate the fractured pipe deformations.
For example, a pipe of internal diameter IDpipe and
thickness tpipe has DH given by
DH /IDpipe 1.6
1+
2tpipe
IDpipe

(1)
for pipe with outer diameter ODpipe Finite element

analyses of fractured pipe deformations have also been
conducted examining the increase in pipe deformations as erosion voids like those seen in Figure 2b
develop at the springlines. These calculations are being
used to interpret soil condition from pipe geometry
visible in Closed Circuit Television images obtained
during sewer inspections, Moore (2008).
t/D=11.34% (Full-Slip)
t/D=0% (Full-Slip)
Idealized Flexible Pipe Theory
40
b. Mesh with void contact angles
30
Pipe Deformation (mm)
Figure 2. Finite element analysis considering erosion voids

(after Tan and Moore, 2007).
DH
where overburden stress v , lateral earth pressure ratio

K, constrained modulus Ms and Poissons ratio of the
soil s all influence the response, and the expression
1.6 is based on K = 0.45, and s = 0.3. Other combinations of K and s result in values ranging from 1.4
to 1.7. The kinematics of pipe deformation can then
be used to provide a relationship between changes in
vertical and horizontal diameters:

2tpipe
(2)
DV = DH 1
ODpipe
90 60 30
a. Springline void.
V
MS
D
DVV
20
Horizontal
10
20
-10
60
40
Applied Pressure (kPa)
80
Vertical
-20
-30
Figure 4. Fractured pipe deformation versus overburden

(finite element analysis and flexible pipe theory), Moore
(2008).
Figure 3. Four segment hinge mechanism for rigid pipe

deformation after fracturing (Moore, 2008).
78
Finite element studies of corroded metal culvert stability have recently been reported by E1 Taher and
Moore (2008). Corrugated metal culverts of three different diameters have been considered, each composed
of 152 mm 52 mm corrugated steel plate, Figure 5a.
Initial pipe thicknesses satisfy current North American
design requirements defined by AASHTO. Reductions
in wall thickness are modelled with three different
angles of uniform thickness steel loss across the invert,
Figure 5b.
Figure 6 presents changes in factor of safety against
yield at the junction between the corroded and uncorroded sections (where thrust in the corroded section
is greatest) as a function of the amount of plate thickness that remains. The governing factor of safety is
the lesser of this and the factor of safety at the location of maximum thrust (the springline). For all cases
considered, the factor of safety just below the junction
decreases linearly with wall thickness. This reflects
the fact that the hoop thrusts in the structure barely
change as the wall corrodes (the culvert is already
FOSY Corroded/FOSY Intact
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
100
75
50
25
% t left
Figure 6. Reduced factor of safety for yield at the top of

corroded zone, E1 Taher and Moore (2008).
Ncr, FEA Corroded/Ncr, FEA Intact
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
100
90 Invert Corrosion H=3.0m D=4m

75
50
% t left
25
Figure 7. Reduced factor of safety for buckling due to

corrosion, E1 Taher and Moore (2008).
flexible in bending compared with the surrounding soil

and wall loss has no significant effect on arching, i.e.
the maximum compressive thrust).
Figure 7 summarizes the effect of corrosion on culvert buckling strength. These indicate that there is little
change in resistance to buckling until less than half of
the thickness remains. After that point, stability reductions accelerate. As expected, reductions in buckling
strength are greater for the case where wall thickness
loss extends from springline to springline. However,
for these culverts with good soil support, yield is the
governing limit state.
Unless the surrounding soil degrades, the increases
in structural deformations or decreases in buckling
strength that occur are not important. Work is therefore underway to study the effect of soil erosion beside
metal culverts (like that in Figure 2a) on metal culvert
stability and serviceability.
a. Geometry of the circular metal culverts

original design thickness
3
thickness reduction due to corrosion
3.1 Liners and their performance limits

A variety of techniques have been developed to repair
buried gravity flow and pressure pipes using polymer
liners. Two liner types are illustrated in Figure 8.
Two performance limits need to be considered when
designing polymer liners within gravity flow pipes, as
illustrated in Figure 9. First, the liner needs to be able to
support the external fluid pressures in the surrounding
ground without buckling, Figure 9a (Moore and Law,
b. Extent of uniform wall loss across the invert
Figure 5. Deteriorated culvert problems considered by E1

Taher and Moore (2008).
79
SEWER PIPE REPAIRS
1.00
Pcr/E x 103
Glock
Glock (1977)
(1977)
2.2
Pcr
== E (t/
(t/D)
D) 2.2
cr
0.10
7 x Levy(1884)
Levy (1884)
a. Clay sewer after repair
Figure 8.
b. Slip-lining of corroded metal

culvert in Northern Ontario.
Aggarwal
Aggarwaland
andCooper
Cooper(1984)
(1984)
0.01
10
DR (D/t)
100
Damaged pipe repair using liners.

Figure 10. Test data of Aggarwal and Cooper (1984) versus
calculations based on linear and nonlinear buckling theory.
External
Pressure
Flexible
Liner
Earth Load
Flexible
Liner
Fractured
Host Pipe
a. External ground water
the test data. The buckling of a ring within a ring

is a nonlinear phenomenon where the shell has to
contract circumferentially before it can buckle. Imperfections become key, and the tests of Aggarwal and
Cooper (1984) were influenced by variable sized initial gaps between the two shells caused by shrinkage
of the polymer liner, Moore (1998). The nonlinear
buckling solution of Glock (1977) matches the trend
of the data (at almost a slope of 2.2 on this log-log
plot), and does not need artificial magnitude increase
to be close to the measured pressures, though the tests
were performed on liners clamped at the ends to external cylinders with length to diameter ratio L/D of 4,
and end effects resulted in somewhat higher critical
pressures despite the effect of imperfections, Moore
(1998).
Fractured
Host Pipe
b. Earth loading
Figure 9. Performance limits for liners within gravity flow

sewers, Moore (2008).
2006; E1 Sawy and Moore, 1997). Second, the liner

needs to withstand tensile bending strains at crown and
invert as the vertical diameter of the fractured sewer
decreases under the influence of the earth loading,
Figure 9b (Law and Moore, 2003).
3.2
3.3 Finite element analyses of buckling strength

and design considering imperfections
Measurements of buckling strength, linear,

and nonlinear buckling analyses
An assessment of typical sewers requiring liners

and the characteristics of the different liner processes
lead E1 Sawy and Moore (1997) to consider systematic and characteristic imperfections of three different
kinds (Figure 11):
Almost at the outset of liner installation to repair

damaged sewer pipes, it was understood that external groundwater pressure could lead to buckling of a
shell placed within a shell. Experiments by Aggarwal
and Cooper (1984) summarized in Figure 10 clearly
showed that the critical external water pressure Pcr was
significantly higher than the value for an unsupported
circular shell placed inside that fluid, Levy (1884),
over a practical range of diameter to thickness ratios
D/t. For the next two decades, an empirical enhancement factor of 7 was used for design, given that this
brings the calculated buckling pressures up to the base
of the test data (e.g. ASTM F1216-93).
Similar buckling tests performed in North America subsequently raised questions about the scatter in
a. oval shape (where DH

= DV due to the initial or
fractured sewer geometry)
b. initial gap d between the external surface of the
inner polymer shell and the inner surface of the
rigid sewer
c. initial waviness in the liner of amplitude (e.g.
where the liner passes over a fracture or other
longitudinal feature).
E1 Sawy and Moore (1997) used nonlinear finite element analyses of these three different geometrical
issues to develop reduction factors Rq , R , and Rd to
80
3.4
Dvv
The last decade has seen much debate concerning the

potential effect of earth loads on liners placed within
damaged sewers (e.g. Law and Moore, 2003). Influenced by the importance of buckling under external
fluid loading, the standards have considered buckling
resistance of the polymer liner to earth loads as well (in
the absence of any other performance limit established
as being important), and have used buried pipe buckling theory as though the structure were buried directly
in the surrounding soil (e.g. ASTM F1216-93).
Law and Moore (2003) therefore conducted tests to
examine interaction between the liner, the old sewer,
and the surrounding soil, Figure 12. They demonstrated that the compressive hoop thrusts associated
with earth loads are carried by the segments of old
sewer (provided these remain in contact), and that it is
not buckling under thrust but tensile stresses caused by
local bending that need to be considered during design,
Figure 13. Since the liner has a negligible effect on
the stiffness of the repaired pipe system (deformations
are primarily resisted by the surrounding ground), the
strains in the liner can be effectively calculated using
the solution for a ring under parallel plate loading
subjected to diameter decrease DV :
Dhh
d
Figure 11. Oval, gap, and wavy liner imperfections.
aid in calculating buckling pressures. For example,

critical pressure for close fitting liners is

Pb = 1.0Eliner
tliner
Dliner
2.2
Rq R
(3)
cr = in =
where the liner has effective modulus Eliner , thickness

tliner , diameter Dliner , and Rq and R are correction
factors used to account for pipe ovality q defined as
DH
DH DV
q=
DH + DV
IDpipe
DH
IDpipe
(4)
2
1+
2tpipe
IDpipe
1
Many strain
Gages
around
Circumference
of Liner
=e
=
2.139Dv c
2
Rliner
(7)
HDPE Liner
Displacement
Transducer
Transducer
Measuring
Measuring
Horizontal
Horizontal
Deflection of
the Host Pipe
Measure
Rq R = eq/0.18 e0.56/tliner
DH /0.18IDpipe
(5)
where IDpipe is the internal diameter of the uncracked

sewer. The expressions for reduction factors quantified
by E1 Sawy and Moore (1997)
0.28
Dv c

2
2Rliner
where the liner has mid-surface radius of Rliner , and c is

the distance from the liner mid-surface to the extreme
fibre responding in tension (half the thickness for plain
liners). Here, change in vertical pipe diameter Dv is
assumed to take place in some sections of the sewer
after the liner is inserted. The value of Dv determined
from a CCTV inspection of the deformed pipe prior
to lining should be used if, at the time of liner construction, there is a possibility of similar amounts of
and small wavy imperfections.

If the liner drapes over a fractured rigid sewer at the
invert, wavy imperfection amplitude is given by
0.5IDpipe
Explanation of earth load effects and design

for local bending
IDpipe DH
tliner IDpipe
2
Concrete
Host Pipe
(6)
Fractures
can then be used to estimate the magnitude of reduction

in resistance to external fluid pressure (see Moore,
2008 for further details).
Figure 12. Sample for liner-host pipe-soil test, Law and

Moore (2003).
81
a. Pipe bursting equipment in use in Ottawa, Ontario
P
Pulling force
Old pipe
Burst head
New pipe
b. The pipe bursting process, Nkemitag and Moore, (2007).
Figure 13. Thrusts pass through segments of the old sewer;

local bending at liner crown and invert (Law and Moore,
2003).
Figure 15.
Pipe replacement by static pipe bursting.
Laboratory Measurements
Finite Element Analysis
Ring under Parallel Plate Load
1.0%
0.8%
0.6%
0.4%
0.2%
0.0%
Vertical Liner Deformation (mm)

6
8
10
12
14
a.Test pipes and their location
16
-0.2%
-0.4%
-0.6%
-0.8%
-1.0%
Figure 14. Design and computer calculations of local

bending strain versus measurements, Law and Moore (2007).
b. Placement of foundation soil.
soil deterioration behind segments of unfractured pipe,

Moore (2008). Finite element analysis of the problem
supports the efficacy of this design approach, Law
and Moore (2007), since strains calculated using [7]
match both the finite element results and the measured
strains, Figure 14.
4
c. Concrete sewer
PIPE REPLACEMENT USING BURSTING
Figure 16.
Pipe bursting is a 30 year old technology where a conical expander is pulled through an old pipe to break
it into fragments, push these aside, and pull a new
(usually HDPE) pipe into place, Figure 15.
Medium and large scale laboratory tests at Queens
(e.g. Figure 16, Cholewa et al. 2008) have been used
Pipe bursting test, Cholewa et al. (2008).
to develop data on the associated surface movements

(e.g. Figure 17) and pulling forces (Lapos et al. 2004),
for evaluation of computer models and evaluation
82
d. Adjacent PVC water pipe
Pressure applied
on the high
stiffness ring
Figure 17.
maximum surface heave/ D
a.Treatment of internal boundary condition, Fernando and

Moore (2002).
Surface uplift, Cholewa et al. (2008).
of the parametric solutions that have then followed

(Nkemitag and Moore, 2006, 2007).
While British Gas developed and used proximity
charts for protection of infrastructure in the vicinity
of pipe bursting operations (see Chapman and Rogers,
1991), further design procedures are now being developed to allow geotechnical and other consultants to
directly estimate the response of the adjacent pipeline,
Cholewa et al. (2008).
Figure 18 reports on finite element calculations of
surface uplift during static pipe bursting in dense sand,
Nkemitag and Moore (2006). A key to the analysis
is correct treatment of the internal boundary, which
needs to left free to move upwards and maintain vertical force equilibrium. Fernando and Moore (2002)
proposed use of a high stiffness ring under internal
pressure for this purpose, Figure 18a. Figure 18b
shows four measured values of surface uplift reported
by Lapos et al. (2004) as well as finite element
calculations. Maximum surface uplift normalized by
the increased diameter D for the soil cavity resulting from the action of the conical expander is plotted
against the magnitude of that cavity expansion relative to initial diameter D0 . Results for three different
burial depths h/D0 are presented. The experimental
data implies the calculations are reasonable estimates
accounting for the effects of initial pipe geometry,
expander geometry, and pipe burial depth. Further
studies of static pipe bursting include the development
of finite element procedures to calculate the pulling
forces required as an aid in equipment selection,
Nkemitag and Moore (2007).
F.E.A.
test
h/D0 = 6
h/D0 4.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
6.9
5.9
8
8.9
12
1
D/D0
b. Uplift calculations for bursting in dense sand (Nkemitag and
Moore, 2006) with the measurements of Lapos et al. (2004).
Figure 18.
0.5
Finite element calculations of uplift.
Pipe
Pipe
R 200 m
40.1
200 m
136.6 m
200 m
62.4 m
Figure 19. Dimensions of an example river crossing using

directional drilling, Chehab and Moore (2008).
importance elsewhere, involves drilling a preliminary

borehole under the river or other obstruction being
tackled, enlarging that hole using a reamer and pulling
a new HDPE, steel or other pipe into place, Figure 19.
Typically the borehole is stabilised with drilling mud,
which is also used to lubricate the pipe and return soil
cuttings to the ground surface.
Recent work includes the development of a soilpipe interaction model to permit calculation of pulling
forces on polymer or steel pipes being installed,
Chehab and Moore (2008). Figure 20 shows calculations of axial force distribution at the end of
installation, immediately thereafter, and over time
as the ends are released, where the HDPE pipe is
allowed a period of length (viscoelastic strain) recovery before it is tied to the objects it is connecting.
INVESTIGATIONS OF HORIZONTAL
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
The fourth approach to pipe burial that is under examination is that of horizontal directional drilling. This
procedure, common in North America and growing in
83
0.9
0.8
0.7
1.4
ends released
ends fixed
7.5 hrs after fixing
100
150
200
250
1
0.8
Blowout
0.6
Xia & Moore, 2006, 2m

Delft solution, 2m
Delft solution, 4m
Delft solution, 6m
0.4
Location on Pipe (m)

0.2
Figure 20. Axial force stress distributions calculated along

the HDPE pipe at various times, Chehab and Moore (2008).
Hydraulic Fracturing
1.2
end of installation
Pressure ratio, Pmax

max/P
/P00
8
HDPE pipe
7
OD 400mm
6
thickness=10mm
5
4
3
2
1
0
50
-1 0
0
0.3
0.65
1
1.35
1.7
2.05
2.4
Lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest, K00
2.75
Figure 22. Maximum mud pressure as a function of K0 ,

cohesive soil with cu /v = 0.1, Xia and Moore (2006).
a. Blowout (plastic flow)
Figure 21.
various other industrial and government sponsors.

The contributions to this work of colleagues Richard
Brachman, Kerry Rowe, and Andy Take and current
and former graduate students Abdul Chehab, John
Cholewa, Khaled E1 Sawy, Mohamed E1 Taher, Viji
Fernando, Matt Kennedy, Brian Lapos, Michael Law,
Michael Nkemitag, Zheng Tan, Hongwei Xia, and
Charles Zhang are gratefully acknowledged.
b. Hydrofracture (tensile fracture)
Mud loss mechanisms, Kennedy et al. (2007).
This work first required extensions to the viscoelastic

and viscoplastic models of Zhang and Moore (1997)
for HDPE to permit successful calculation of strain
reversal, then detailed consideration of the drag associated with movement of the pipe along the ground
surface, through straight and curved sections of the
borehole, as well as the drag induced by the viscosity
of the drilling mud as it flows past the pipe.
Another important issue during drilling projects
is the potential loss of drilling mud if the soil fails
by either blowout, Figure 21a, or hydrofracture,
Figure 21b. Computer modelling (Kennedy et al.
2007) and new closed form solutions (Xia and Moore
2006) have been developed to quantify the stress conditions under which these two mechanisms govern,
and to extend existing cavity expansion solutions (e.g.
Arends et al. 2003) to include the effect of coefficient
of lateral earth pressure and produce more accurate (less unconservative) calculations of maximum
allowable mud pressure, Figure 22.
REFERENCES
Aggarwal, S.C. & Cooper, M.J. 1984. External pressure
testing of Insituform lining, Internal report, Coventry
Polytechnic.
Arends, G. 2003. Need & possibilities for a quality push
within the technique of hor. dir. drill. No-Dig 2003, Las
Vegas.
ASTM F1216. 1993. Standard practice for rehab. of existing
pipelines & conduits by the inversion and curing of a resinimpregnated tube, ASTM Int., West Conshohocken, PA.
Chapman, D.N. & Rogers, C.D.F. 1991. Ground movements
associated with trenchless pipelaying operations, 4th Intl.
Conf. on Gr. Mov & Struc., Cardiff, Pentech Press,
91107.
Chehab, A.G. & Moore, I.D. 2008. Polymer pipes in trenchless applications: HDPE pipe response during pulled in
place installation, Geoamericas 2008, Cancun, Mexico.
Cholewa, J.A., Moore, I.D. & Brachman, R.W. 2008.
Response of a PVC water pipe during concrete sewer
replacement by bursting, NASTT 2008 No-Dig Conf,
Dallas, E-3-04, 8pp.
E1 Sawy, K. & Moore, I.D. 1997. Param. study for buckling of liners: effect of liner geom. & imp. Boston ASCE
416423.
E1 Taher, M. & Moore, I.D. 2008. Finite element study of
corroded metal culvert stability, (to appear, Transp. Res.
Rec.).
Fernando, V. & Moore, I.D. 2002. Use of cavity expansion theory to predict ground displacement during pipe
bursting, Pipelines 2002, ASCE, Cleveland, 11pp.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, my sincere thanks to Michael for shared
learning experiences regarding shells and shell-solid
interaction, and many enjoyable drives discussing life
and engineering mechanics.
The work reported here was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and
84
Hoeg, K. 1968. Stresses against underground structural

cylinders, J. Soil Mech & Fnd. Eng, ASCE, 94, (4),
833858.
Glock, D. 1977. Uberkritisches verhalten eines starr
ummautelten kriesrohres bei wasserdruck von auen und
temperaturdehnung; Der Stahblau, 7, 212217.
Kennedy, M., Skinner, G. & Moore, I.D. 2007. Limiting
drilling slurry pressures to control hydr. fracturing during directional drilling operations in purely cohesive soil,
TRR. 1976, 172180.
Lapos, B., Brachman, R.W.I. & Moore, I.D. 2004. Laboratory measurements of pulling force & ground movement
during a pipe bursting test. No-Dig 2004. New Orleans,
B-1-04.
Law, T.C.M. & Moore, I.D. 2003. Behaviour & design of
sewer liners for earth load, Int. No-Dig., Las Vegas, 15pp.
Law, T.C.M. & Moore, I.D. 2007. Numerical modeling of
tight fitting flexible liner in damaged sewer under earth
loads, Tun. & Undergr. Space Tech., 22, 655665.
Levy, M. 1884. Mememoire sur un nouveau cas integrable
du problem de lelastique et lune de ses applications,
J. Math. Pure et Appl., (Lioville), Series 3, 10, 542.
Marston, A. & Anderson, A.O. 1913. The theory of loads on
pipes in ditches and tests on cement and clay drain, tile and
sewer pipe, Eng. Exp. Stn, Iowa State College, Bulletin 31.
Moore, I.D. & El-Sawy, K. 1996. Buckling strength of
polymer liners used in sewer rehab. Tr. Res. Rec. 1541
127132.
Moore, I.D. 1998. Tests for pipe liner stability: What we can
and cannot learn. No-Dig 98, Albuquerque, 444457.
Moore, I.D. 2008. Sewer & culvert deterioration & its implications for design of liners. Keynote, Tr, Aus., Sydney,
12pp.
Nkemitag, M. & Moore, I.D. 2006. Rational guidelines for
expected ground disturbance during static pipe bursting
through sand, Paper E-2-01, No-Dig 2006, Nashville, 9pp.
Nkemitag, M. & Moore, I.D. 2007. Longit. progr. burst head
dur. pipe burstg: cal. pull. forces. Tr. Res. Rec. 1018
203210.
Spangler, M.J. 1956. Stresses in pressure pipelines and
protective casing pipes, J. Str, Eng., ASCE, 82, 133.
Spasojevic, A., Mair, R.J. & Gumbel, J.E. 2007. Centrifuge
mod. effects of soil loading flex. sewer liners, Got. 57
331341.
Tan, Z. & Moore, I.D. 2007. Effect of backfill erosion on
moments in buried rigid pipes, TRB Conf, Wash. 29pp.
Xia, H. & Moore, I.D. 2006. Estimation of max. mud pressure
in purely cohesive mat. dur. dir. drill., Geom & GeoEng,
1, 311.
Zhang, C. & Moore, I.D. 1997. Nonl. Mech. response HDPE:
Part II-Uniaxial const. mode. J. Pol. Eng. & Sc. 37,
414420.
85
Progressive pressure measurements beneath a granular pile

with and without base deflection
J.Y. Ooi, J. Ai, Z. Zhong, J.F. Chen & J.M. Rotter
School of Engineering and Electronics, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper describes an experimental investigation to measure the pressure distribution underneath a conical pile of granular material as the pile grows. Several factors have been suggested to explain the
pressure dip observed under the apex of a pile but the relative significance of these factors is far from clear.
This study was conducted using quite round rough particles in a relatively large scale experiment to avoid
the possibility that particle scale effects would mask the macroscopic pressure distribution. A reproducible pressure profile with a significant central dip was observed in each test, which confirms that at macroscopic scale,
the pressure dip is a stable and robust phenomenon when the pile is formed from a localised jet. The normalised
data provide quantitative information on the vertical force redistribution away from the central zone. The results
also show that base deflection is not a prerequisite for the pressure dip, but that it enhances both the magnitude
and the width of the dip.
between the many mathematical models of this apparently simple system, and quite contradictory results are
often claimed. Several factors have been suggested to
explain the pressure dip observed under the apex of a
pile. These include the presence of a base deflection
(Savage 1997), the pile construction history (Geng
et al. 2001, Vanel et al. 1999), formation of a granular skeleton (Savage 1997), particle shape (Zuriguel
et al. 2007) and reduced local density due to increased
filling rate (Smid & Novosad 1981). However neither
the relative importance nor the interplay between these
factors is at all clear and a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon remains elusive. This paper
describes experiments used to investigate the base
pressure profile under a granular pile of approximately
spherical particles, with and without base deflection.
INTRODUCTION
Granular materials are in abundance in nature and are

also estimated to constitute over 75% of all raw material feedstock to industry (Nedderman 1992). They
have been extensively studied by both the scientific
and engineering communities, and yet they sometimes
display behaviour that is counter-intuitive and a full
understanding remains elusive. One classic granular
mechanics problem is that of a humble sandpile in
which a significant dip in the vertical pressure on the
base is observed underneath the apex of a poured pile,
at the location where a simple interpretation might
expect the maximum pressure. This sandpile phenomenon is relevant to the bulk handling of industrial
solids because many different bulk solids are commonly stored in open stockpiles, particularly in the
mining industry (Fig. 1). The design of a gravity
reclaim system for a stockpile requires knowledge of
the base pressure distribution underneath the stockpile. The same phenomenon must also occur in silos
that are filled from a point source which might be
expected to result in increasing the silo wall pressures
near the highest wall contact. But this phenomenon is
not recognised at all in the silos experimental literature.
The sandpile problem has been the subject of
many analytical, numerical and experimental studies
and good reviews of the problem can be found elsewhere (e.g. Atman et al. 2005, Cates et al. 1998,
Savage 1997). There is little consensus on the fundamental physics and mechanics assumptions made
Figure 1.
87
A typical stockpile in industry.
A variety of measurement techniques have been

used to measure the pressure distribution on the base
of a granular pile, including pressure cells (McBride
2006, Smid & Novosad 1981), registering the load on
articulated base strips (Lee & Herington 1971), strain
gauges mounted on base plates (Jotaki & Moriyama
1979), elasto-optical method (Brockbank et al. 1997),
and photoelastic methods using the gradient of the
light intensity (Geng et al. 2001, Zuriguel et al. 2007).
The majority of these experiments were relatively
small scale or suffered from significant fluctuations
in the deduced pressures, sometimes of an order comparable with the magnitude of the dip being measured
(e.g. Lee & Herington 1971), or required the averaging
of many repeated experiments (e.g. Geng et al. 2001,
Zuriguel et al. 2007) before the pressure dip could be
seen as a mean phenomenon. These results have led
some to believe that the pressure dip beneath a conical
pile is not a securely reproducible phenomenon and its
formation can be sensitive to numerous factors. In this
study, relatively large scale granular pile experiments
were conducted in which the base pressure can be measured relatively accurately. The measurements show
a high degree of repeatability with relatively small
scatter. The experiments also captured the progressive development of the base pressure form as the pile
grew.
The overall experimental plan involves a series of
relatively large scale granular pile tests to investigate several factors affecting the base pressure profile.
These factors are the base deflection, construction
history (pouring jet dimension and drop height), particle shape and size variation. All these factors have
been speculated by others to be probable causes of
the pressure dip, as outlined above. In this paper, the
granular pile experiments using a concentrated pouring jet with and without base deflection are reported
and discussed.
Mini iron ore pellets.
Figure 3.
Askegaard free-field pressure cell.
to significantly enhance the pressure dip when compared with circular particles (Zuriguel et al. 2007). The
pellets also have the added advantages that they have:
i) a high density, allowing a greater sensitivity in pressure measurement; and ii) a relatively uniform bulk
density that is insensitive to packing (the loosest and
densest bulk densities achieved in control tests being
2260 and 2370 kg/m3 ) thus minimising the effect of
bulk density variation during pile formation. Density
variation should therefore not be a key part of any
explanation for the phenomena observed here. Using
a direct shear tester, the internal angle of friction for
the pellets was measured to be 34 .
Free-field pressure cells have been widely used
to observe pressures in granular media (Askegaard
1978, 1981, 1986, Munch-Andersen 1982). The cells
were designed and manufactured by Askegaard (1989)
using well established procedures that are described in
detail elsewhere. Figure 3 shows the Askegaard pressure cell used in this study. It has a diameter of 75 mm
which is 25 times larger than the mean particle size,
giving more than 400 contacts on each cell face. This
makes the measurement effectively independent of the
EXPERIMENT SETUP AND TEST

MATERIAL
In the tests reported here, the granular particles were

small and approximately spherical iron ore pellets
which had a very rough surface (Fig. 2). These pellets
were relatively uniform in size with a mean diameter of dp = 3.0 mm and a size range of 2.5 <
dp < 3.8 mm for 10% to 90% passing in particle size analysis by dry sieving. These particles are
interesting because they are approximately spherical
but sufficiently non-spherical to destroy the degenerate symmetry observed in spherical assemblies. This
choice allows a comparison to be made with a recent
study involving elongated particles, which are thought
88
Figure 2.
force chain structure in the solid. The cell face is very

stiff (face flexibility 102 m/kPa). Each cell was calibrated with the cell embedded in a stiff granular solid
in a specially designed calibration chamber.
In the experiments, the pressure cells were first
placed carefully at fixed positions along a radial line on
the flat wooden base plate. A layer of pellets approximately 25 mm thick was then spread evenly so that the
pressure cells were firmly embedded, with a thin layer
covering over each cell face. The top surface of this
layer was taken as the nominal base and the pressure
cell readings were taken as zero at this point. The granular pile was then constructed using a concentrated
pouring jet with a radius Rj = 16 mm (Rj /dp = 5.3)
located centrally at 674 mm above the base. The pressures resulting from this process were recorded during
the pile formation. A schematic diagram of the granular pile test showing the positions of the surface profile
measurement is given in Figure 4. The symbols used
in this paper for the various parameters describing the
pile geometry and the base pressure profile are shown
in Figure 5.
RESULTS AND DICUSSION
3.1 Rigid base

Five repeat tests were conducted with a stiff base producing piles with a mean radius of Rp = 554 mm
and a coefficient of variation (CoV) of 2.6%. These
five tests can thus be taken as repetitions of the same
configuration. The surface profile may be characterised by a parabolic crown with a linear conical slope
(Fig. 5). Figure 6 shows the final surface profiles for
the five tests. The angle of repose had a mean value
of = 29.0 with a CoV = 2.3%, determined from
the middle of the conical slope and away from both the
apex and the tail of the slope. Figure 7 shows the vertical pressures measured at the end of pile formation
on the base at seven radial positions, plotted against
the normalized radius (relative to the mean base
radius Rp deduced from diametral measurements). The
measured vertical coordinate z of the surface of the
pile at six radial positions is also shown for reference.
The results show a robust and reproducible pressure
profile with a significant dip under the apex, rising
steadily from a minimum pressure at the centre to a
Measured sandpile height (mm)
350
Test No1
300
Test No2
Test No3
250
Test No4
Test No5
200
150
100
50
0
-600
-400
-200
200
400
600
Horizontal coordinate (mm)
Figure 6.
Surface profile measurements for 5 repeat tests.
6.0
330
Pouring jet Rj=16mm
Normal pressure (kPa)
5.0
Pouring jet
Surface profile description:

transition from constant
slope to parabolic crown
Rj
Pressure profile
description
Rdip
height za
Test 1
275
Test 2
Test 3
4.0
220
Test 4
Test 5
3.0
165
2.0
110
1.0
55
0.0
Height (mm)
Figure 4. Sketch of the granular pile showing the positions

of surface measurement.
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Normalised radius r/Rp
Pmax
Pdip
Figure 7. Measured vertical pressure profiles and the surface profile against normalised radius for 5 repeat tests with
a concentrated jet Rp /Rj = 36 (dotted lines denote surface
profiles, solid lines are the normal base pressure).
Pile base radius Rp
Figure 5.
Description of surface and pressure profiles.
89
peak at the radius of r 0.3Rp , before falling off

towards the edge of the pile. The pressure profile is
very similar in form to the smaller conical pile results
of Vanel et al. (1999) and the much larger gravel pile
of McBride (2006). The results support the commonly
stated proposition that an arching effect of some kind
results from the formation process and causes a significant part of the weight of solid in the central zone
to be supported by an annular zone at larger radii.
The pressure dip under investigation is best explored
by comparing the measured base pressure with
the hydrostatic value z associated with the local
vertical distance from the nominal base to the pile
surface z. The vertical coordinate of the surface profile z has also been normalised using the mean base
radius of the pile Rp . The mean and the standard deviation of the normalised pressure and normalised surface
profiles for the same five tests are shown in Figure 8.
The central pressure minimum is seen to fall below
50% of the hydrostatic value and remains below the
hydrostatic value(unity) throughout the central zone
up to a radius of r 0.6Rp . For vertical equilibrium,
the vertical pressure must exceed the hydrostatic values in the outer zone to account for the much reduced
pressures in the central zone: this is evident from this
normalised plot. The error bars plotted in Figure 8
represent one standard deviation from the mean:
the large error bar for the last pressure measurement
near the pile edge is caused by the very small magnitudes of pressure measured there. Elsewhere, the
standard deviations of the measurements are all quite
small, indicating the good repeatability of the pressure
measurements.
The results of these tests thus confirm that the base
pressure under a conical pile with a central local minimum is a robust event that occurs naturally when the
pile has been constructed using a concentrated pouring jet. The proposition that size segregation during
pouring is a main cause for the pressure dip is not supported here since the size variation in these pellets is
0.6
4.5
0.5
0.4
1.5
Pressure
0.3
Height
1
0.2
0.5
37
74
111
148
185
Test 1 (Pouring jet Rj=16mm)
4
3.5
Pressure (kPa)
Pouring jet Rj=16mm
Normalised height
Normalised normal pressure
2.5
too small to permit significant size segregation. The

proposition that elongated particles, which can form a
preferential anisotropic packing structure upon pouring, may be essential for a significant pressure dip is
also not supported by this study. However it is still
likely that elongated particles with strong orientation
effects exaggerate the dip effect (Zuriguel et al. 2007).
A key aspect of the pressure distribution beneath
the pile is its progressive development. The evolution
of the base pressure profile recorded during the construction of one pile is shown in Figure 9. There is
little evidence of a significant dip when the pile is
small. This may indicate that the relationship between
the width of the jet and the pile diameter may play a
significant role in affecting the depth of the pressure
dip. It may be noted that Vanel et al. (1999) showed
that no pressure dip occurred when the pouring jet was
as wide as the base radius.
As the pile grew bigger, the pressures in the outer
zone continued to increase slightly faster than the reference hydrostatic pressure value. The pressure in the
central zone also increased, but at a much slower pace,
so that the pressure dip became steadily more pronounced. This supports the proposition that, for any
macroscopic granular pile where the pile dimension
is much larger than the dimension of the concentrated
pouring jet, a robust pressure profile with a central
dip is a natural formation which occurs reproducibly.
By contrast, some published results (e.g. Brockbank
et al. 1997, Geng et al. 2001, Zuriguel et al. 2007)
show considerable fluctuations and a much less well
defined pressure dip even after a considerable amount
of averaging over many repeated experiments. It is thus
probable that these fluctuations are caused by the relatively small ratio of pile size to particle size in those
experiments.
For this set of experiments, the central pressure dip
began to emerge when the pile outer edge reached
r/Rp 0.3 which corresponds to a base dimension
of about 55 dp where dp is the mean particle size. This
indicates that with a pouring jet of width 5.3 dp used
0.1
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 8. Mean one standard deviation for pressure

and surface profiles (vertical base pressures normalised by
v / z r , heights normalised with z/Rp ).
Figure 9. Evolution of base pressure during a granular pile

formation.
90
275
Test 19
Flexible base
Test 20
220
Rigid base
165
110
55
Height (mm)
Normal pressure (kPa)
to avalanching down the conical slope of the pile

during formation, does appear to be an important
factor. These aspects are being further investigated
using both this experimental setup and discrete particle
computational studies.
330
Surface profiles
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by UK EPSRC grant
GR/T23541 and J. Ai was further supported by a University of Edinburgh Scholarship. The iron ore pellets
were provided by LKAB Group, Sweden.
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 10.
Influence of base deflection on pressure profile.
here, the pile had to grow to a base radius of about

10 times the pouring jet dimension before a dip could
be clearly seen. Further explorations are planned to
investigate the importance of the two length ratios: the
pouring jet width Rj and the pile radius Rp relative to
the mean particle size dp in affecting the formation
process that leads to a pressure dip.
3.2
REFERENCES
Askegaard, V. 1978. Stress and strain measurements in solid
materials, Report No. 92. Structural research laboratory,
Technical university of denmark, Lyngby.
Askegaard, V. 1981. Design and application of stress and
strain cells with small measuring errors. NDT international 14, 271277.
Askegaard, V. 1986. Consequence of loading history on the
measuring error of embedded stress cells. Proceedings
of the second international conference on bulk materials handling and transportation Institution of Engineers,
Wollongong, Australia, pp. 138142.
Askegaard, V. 1989. Three component pressure cells for
steel model silo, Report S.8817. Department of Structural
Engineering, Technical University of Denmark.
Atman, A.P.F., Brunet, P., Geng, J., Reydellet, G., Claudin, P.,
Behringer, R.P. & Clement, E. 2005. From the stress
response function (back) to the sand pile dip. European
Physical Journal E 17, 93100.
Brockbank, R., Huntley, J.M., & Ball, R.C., 1997. Contact
force distribution beneath a three-dimensional granular
pile. Journal de Physique I 7, 15211532.
Cates, M.E., Wittmer, J.P., Bouchaud, J.P. & Claudin, P.
1998. Development of stresses in cohesionless poured
sand. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical
and Engineering Sciences (Series A) 1998, 25352560.
Geng, J., Longhi, E., Behringer, R.P. & Howell, D.W. 2001.
Memory in two-dimensional heap experiments. Physical
review. E, Statistical, nonlinear, and soft matter physics
64, 060301.
Jotaki, T. & Moriyama, R. 1979. On the bottom pressure
distribution of the bulk materials piled with the angle
of repose. Journal of the society of Powder technology
Japan, 184.
Lee, I.K. & Herington J.R., 1971. Stresses beneath granular embankments. Proceedings of the 1st Australia-New
Zealand conference on geomechanics 1, Melbourne,
pp. 291296.
McBride, W. 2006. Base pressure measurements under a
scale model stockpile. Particulate science and technology
24, 5970.
Munch-Andersen, 1982. Measuring of internal stresses in
a granular media. Euromech 157: quality of mechanical observations on particulate media, Copenhagen,
pp. Y1Y4.
Flexible base
In the tests to explore base deflection, a 1220 mm

square thin plate was supported on its four corners
to permit the base to deflect into a dome shape. At
the end of pile formation, the vertical deflection of the
plate was 30.0 mm at the centre and 17.3 mm at the
edge of the pile. Thus the relative deflection of the base
beneath the pile was approximately 4.2 dp . The pressure profiles found for the rigid base and in two tests
using this flexible base are compared in Figure 10. It
shows that the base deflection reduced the pressure in
the central zone further and caused the width of the
pressure dip to increase. This base deflection therefore increases the arching effect in the granular solid,
causing even more of the weight to be carried on the
annular outer zone.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
These experiments explored the base pressure profile

under a conical granular pile that has been centrally
poured. They showed that this base pressure distribution, at the macroscopic scale, has a central dip
beneath the apex of the pile that is a repeatable and
robust phenomenon. The results also show that deflection of the base is not a prerequisite for this dip in the
pressure profile, such a flexible base does enhance
both the magnitude and the width of the dip. It has
also been shown that elongated particles and particle
size segregation are not pre-requisites for the pressure dip formation. However the construction history,
in the form of a concentrated pouring jet leading
91
Nedderman, R.M. 1992. Statics and Kinematics of Granular

Materials. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Savage, S.B. 1997. Problems in the statics and dynamics
of granular materials. Powders and Grains 97, Balkema,
Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp. 185.
Smid, J. & Novosad, J. 1981. Pressure distribution under
heaped bulk solids. Proceedings of 1981 Powtech. Conf.,
Ind. Chem. Eng. Symp., pp. 63.
Vanel, L., Howell, D., Clark, D., Behringer, R.P. &

Clement, E., 1999. Memories in sand: Experimental
tests of construction history on stress distributions under
sandpiles. Physical Review E 60, R5040.
Zuriguel, I., Mullin, T. & Rotter, J.M. 2007. Effect of Particle Shape on the Stress Dip Under a Sandpile. Physical
Review Letters 98, 028001.
92
Developments in the design of rectangular planform silos

C.J. Brown
School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper presents some of the research, and its consequences for the design of rectangular
silos that has been undertaken over a period of several years by the author and others. Based on existing data, the
paper outlines the importance of specialized experimental technique in the field, and some new interpretations
of the results are presented. The advantages and limitations of a simplified finite element models are explored
through application to filling pressures in hoppers. The benefits of examining the behaviour of silo structures
with systematic variation in stiffness are suggested, and some of the remaining challenges identified.
INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with some developments in the

research and subsequently design of rectangular silos
that have been undertaken over a period of several
years, reviews achievements and identifies some key
questions that remain to be answered.
In general, storage structures are used to provide
temporal or spatial offsets. Often it is a requirement
that a material or product is readily available for use,
but may not be needed immediately; this application
would predominate in the process industry. In agriculture, the time between harvest and use may be
significant, and silos can provide a good way of storing
and preserving product.
Large silos are more common in circular planform
than in rectangular planform. Circular planform steel
silos are used most frequently for large capacity systems due to the apparently simple pressure regimes
and the resultant structural efficiency. The use of
hoops to retain internal pressures in containment structures has been well understood for many generations,
and the concept of internal pressures from granular
solids retained by hoop tensions in circular silos is
a simple one. Circular planform silos support their
loads mainly by membrane actions (Trahair et al, 1983;
Rotter, 1987a, b; Rotter, 2001), although great care is
needed with internal or other discontinuities that may
introduce bending into the shell.
Rectangular silos can offer particular advantages
in terms of utilisation of space and in fabrication
costs, and may be more effective as small to medium
sized storage structures. Rectangular silos usually support their loads by a combination of bending and
membrane actions and as such may experience relatively large deformations of the wall (Brown, 1998).
The most common visible example of flexible walled

rectangular storage structures has come from the
enormous increase in the use of FIBCs (Flexible Intermediate Bulk Containersor bulk bags) over the last
decade. Here there is negligible flexural wall stiffness, and while wall deformations are large, the ratio
of weight of stored material to weight of structure is enormous. It is possible therefore that in
situations where wall deformation is less critical,
more economic rectangular silo designs might be
designed by using moderately flexible silo walls that
use greater membrane action and less bending action.
The moment-rotation capacity of the panel connections needs careful consideration, as does the shear
stiffness of the panels. Nevertheless the potential to
achieve reduced wall thickness deserves attention.
A typical small rectangular silo/hopper is shown in
Figure 1 while the one used in a series of experiments
described below is shown in Figure 2. The notation and
conventions used in this paper to describe rectangular
planform silos are consistent with the current European Standard (EN 1991-4, 2005). A rectangular silo
will have a parallel sided section (often called the bin)
and a hopper to enable discharge of material. While
it is possible to use different wall plate thickness, for
un-stiffened structures the geometry commonly tends
to square, and walls of the same thickness are used.
For stiffened structures the panels are mainly used to
transfer load to the primary structure, and these planar elements may have a somewhat different function.
Structural efficiency is always an important requirementalthough the tendency to design rigid concrete
silos predominates for rectangular planform. However
the use of lightweight steel silo can be efficient and
economic for small and intermediate structures. Large
rectangular steel silos are rare.
103
DESIGN RULES
While FIBC (bulk bags) undergo large deflections and

have negligible flexural or shear stiffness, yet still work
effectively, this should not be a basis for the design of
permanent structures; structural design should ascertain that users can have confidence in both the safety
serviceability and stability of the structure. Conversely
however, design guides for rectangular silos do not
make use of any of the potential membrane strength.
There are several codes for the design of rectangular
silos (e.g. DIN1055, ACI 313-77, and AS3774). Most
design guides for filling pressures are based on a theory proposed by Janssen (1895) in which the lateral
wall pressures are calculated based on the equilibrium of a horizontal slice of material; the well known
exponential relationship results:

z
r
r
phf =
1e
(1)
Figure 1.
A typical small rectangular bin and hopper.
Figure 2.
Experimental silo in BRE Laboratory.
The wall normal pressure at any depth z is phf , is

the bulk density of the stored material, is the ratio
of horizontal to vertical pressure and is taken as the
ratio of the average wall normal pressure to the average
vertical pressure along the span of the wall, and
is the coefficient of friction between wall and stored
bulk solid. The hydraulic radius, r, is defined as the
cross-sectional area divided by the internal perimeter
(A/U).
The wall normal pressure increases with increasing distance from the free surface at an initial rate of
dph f /dz = i.e. it follows the geo-static line. At
some depth, the value becomes asymptotic to ( r/)
as any further charge of material is supported by wall
friction.
While this paper will focus primarily on filling pressures, discharge pressures generally increase depending a little on the discharge patterns. The two main
distinctions in flow type are mass flow and funnel
flow; mass flow silos tend to be tall and have steep
hopper walls to ensure all material is discharged on
a first infirst out principle. Funnel flow however
tends to lead to a last infirst out pattern, as material from the top surface follows the central column
of flow to the outlet and further material slides off
the upper surface to follow it. Small and intermediate
silos may take either form, depending on the space
available.
Discharge pressureswhether for funnel flow or
mass floware often somewhat simplistically dealt
with for structural design by considering an overpressure factor on the filling pressure. For example, the
Eurocode (EN 1991-4, 2005) considers the horizontal pressures during the discharge condition to be a
multiple of those calculated for the filling condition,
irrespective of flow type. However, discharge may well
104
be the governing design case for wall instability in

funnel flow (Brown, 2001), and for wall pressures
more generally.
One of the key assumptions in Janssens equation is
that the mean vertical pressure and the mean horizontal
pressure at any depth may be related by a constant ratio.
The fact that there is no variation in horizontal pressure
at any depth is implicit in this relationshipalthough
Janssens original paper is reported to indicate a variation based on a slightly higher pressure at mid-span
(Roberts, 1995). A uniform pressure distribution at
any level may be entirely appropriate for stiff rectangular planform concrete silos, or for circular planform
silos where the high wall stiffness results in wall pressures that seem to be relatively invariant around the
circumference on any level. However, it may not be
appropriate for walls that carry load by bending. Furthermore, the approach is appropriate for tall silos
where full wall friction may be developed, and where
the support from the wall friction for the slice considered in the Janssen expression can offset some of the
vertical load. However in squat silos (and many rectangular silos tend to be squat) this may not be the case.
Assumptions about symmetry are often useful in
structural design, but great care must be taken when
using this assumption in silo design, as even if a silo is
geometrically symmetric there may be other features
that will affect the wall loadssuch as asymmetric
filling, or possibly un-symmetric structural behaviour,
even in apparently geometrically symmetric structural
systems.
Hoppers tend to have more complex rules associated with their design. EN1991-4 suggests that there
shall be two principal wall forces considered: the wall
normal pressure and the wall traction. Each of these
is, in turn, related to the vertical pressure in the hopper; the vertical pressure at any horizontal section is
related to the vertical pressure at the transition, and
the geometry of the hopper, the mobilized wall friction, and the bulk density of the stored solid. These
design rules have specific notes related to their use for
pyramidal hoppers, but there is no note of any variation of horizontal or tractive pressure on a horizontal
plane. While there are several assumptions built into
these design rules, none take account of the relative
stiffness of the wall and the stored bulk solid.
The remainder of this paper will examine studies
carried out by the authors and others that examine these
features, and conclude with design rules that give some
assessment of these parameters.
3
The first series of experiments was carried out in

conjunction with BRE at the large-scale testing facility at Garston, Watford. The tests have been reported
elsewhere (Jarrett, 1991; Jarrett et al, 1992; 1995;
Brown et al, 1996) but basically involved filling and
discharge of the silo shown in Figure 2. The silo was
un-stiffened steel construction for which the plate was
10 mm, and the bin was 2.0 m in all plan and elevation
dimensions. The hopper was 1.0 m deep.
Unaware of the critical importance of the use of
very specialist pressure measurement equipment at the
time, the original intention had been to use extensive
strain gauges to measure the response of the structure
to predicted wall pressures. However, further research
rapidly led to the conclusion that pressure measurement equipment suitable for determining pressures
in silos existed (although it was a high proportion
of the available budget) and this would be critical
to obtaining reliable and reputable results. In consequence, four sections of the wall of the silo were
drilled out (Figure 3) and sent to Prof. Askegaard at the
DTH in Denmark to manufacture cells from the wall
plate (Askegaard et al, 1971; Askegaard 1982; 1986;
1988; 1989). The plate was subsequently re-installed
in its original position in the silo wall. This had been
assessed as the only reliable instrumentation for wall
cells in existence. Additionally the project obtained
8 free-field cellscells that can be placed anywhere
within the granular solid mass to measure the normal
pressures (Figure 4).
The design and calibration (and hence user accuracy) of free-field pressure cells is critical to the
outcome of silo pressure measurement experiments,
and while there have been many attempts to develop
viable sensors (including a less than fruitful attempt by
the author) these have often resulted in instrumentation
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
The author, along with co-workers, has carried out two

major experiments on rectangular silosactually the
special case of square silos.
Figure 3.
105
Plate showing wall cell fitted in silo wall.
Figure 4.
Free field cells.
20
16
12
Janssen value
Figure 6a.
General configuration.
Figure 6b.
Four different hoppers on the pilot-scale bin.
4
Jarrett experiment
0
100
Figure 5.
outlet.
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Distribution of pressure at a level 1.6 m above
that is unreliableand hence that leads to uncertainty

in results produced from full-scale silo experiments.
However the work of Nielsen (1983; Nielsen and
Kristiansen, 1980), and of Hartlen et al (1984), in
full-scale tests, and subsequent interpretations by Ooi
et al (1990) has shown that reliable data are obtained
from using the cells designed by Askegaard.
The design of both the free-field pressure cells and
the wall cells has been developed over several decades.
Specialist calibration facilities have been used to give
well-determined stress fields that then enable an accurate calibration to be obtained that incorporates the
effects of pressures that are not normal to the cell
face. There still remains the matter of transferable
skillsthe placement of the cells in a large-scale
experimental rig. This requires significant care, as
results are strongly influenced by cell placement in
the solid, but with a little training it has been shown
(Askegaard and Brown, 1995; Garnier et al, 1999)
that good results are rapidly available. These free-field
cells are now being used on a series of significant silo
experiments by another well-known research group.
The development of a cell to measure both shear and
normal pressures simultaneously has been attempted,
and some preliminary results have been obtained, but

this has proved particularly troublesome when the
effects of lateral stress are taken into the calculations.
As far as the author is aware, this work is unfortunately
no longer ongoing.
106
The instrumentation described above has been used

in two silo experiments that have both demonstrated
the importance of the relative stiffness of the fill material and the wall. In the work completed by Jarrett,
(1991) the silo was filled following an extremely timeconsuming protocol to attempt to obtain a uniform fill,
and involved much manual labour to ensure a filler-box
was evenly filled and the resulting flow was regular.
The silo was filled in layers, and the free-field cells
introduced by removing the filler box, and placing the
cells on the upper free surface before continuing fill.
A key result, the horizontal pressure at any given
level obtained from wall cells and verified by freefield cells, is presented in Figure 5 and indicates that
the pressure distribution at any level where there is
significant wall deformation is far from the uniform
distribution predicted by Janssens equation. While
Janssens original work suggested that the pressures
at the mid-side of the walls would be slightly higher
than the average, in practice the reverse is the case. It
can be seen in Figure 5 that, while the stress at the corner has not been estimated, the area under each curve
will be very similar, indicating that while Janssens
expression may not be a good predictor of the stress
at any point, it is a good predictor of the average wall
stress at any level.
The second set of experimentsa joint project
with Professor Rotter at Edinburgh and supported
by the facilities at BREwas again carried out on
a square planform silo, but this time of even more
flexible proportions. Some of the results are available in published work (Lahlouh et al, 1995; Brown
et al, 2000). The free-field cells were again used,
Figure 7.
but the instrumentation in the walls was designed to

enable pressures at a number of different sites to be
assessednow with the added confidence that these
values could be checked against free-field cell readings. One of the other key features was the use of very
slender column supports. Using small cross-section
areas enabled strain gauging of the columns to reliably
measure the total load in the structure. A novel method
using what were effectively stacked strain gauges to
measure wall bending was developed, but was found
to be insufficiently reliable to report results.
The main objective was to examine the pressures
in the bin and hopper with a variety of different hopper configurations. To enable this to be carried out
cost-effectively, a stiffened ring-beam was used on
the bottom of the bin, and four different hoppers
designed to be used in turn (Figure 6). In addition the
tests were carried out with two materialsLeighton
Buzzard sand and pea gravel. The properties of these
two materials had some similarities, but also some
distinctive differences.
The first series of tests were carried out with the
concentric hopper, where we knew what might be
expected. However, while the measurements in the
majority of the bin were as expected, some were not.
The ring beam had been manufactured with perfect
symmetry so that the bin would remain in one position throughout the tests, and one wall of the bin
was extensively instrumented, but so that the hopper could subsequently be rotated to any one of the
four possible orientationsespecially important for
the hoppers with eccentric outlet (Figure 6b). The
tests were carried out with the hopper in different
Time vs. pressure discharge plot for bin with concentric hopper fitted.
107
orientations and both wall and internal pressures were

measured. Results for the distribution of wall pressures (Brown et al, 2000; Rotter et al, 2002) show
that there is a considerable non-uniform distribution
of pressure on the walls. Hopper results have not been
so extensively reported, but show that there is a significant variation of pressures in the hoppers. This is
discussed further below.
One important result that has been less-well
reported concerns pressure changes during discharge,
as both wall and internal pressures were measured;
a typical plot of pressure from the initiation of discharge is shown in Figure 7. These plots have been laid
out to match the wall cell positions 110 (Figure 6a).
The pressure varies quite steadily within a funnel flow
hopper, as there remains material in contact with the
cells; in the case of flowing material adjacent to the
cells the signal contains significantly more noise.
What is also quite interesting is the ratio between
the maximum discharge pressures to the maximum
static pressure in the bin, shown in Figure 8 for the
silo with the concentric hopper fitted. Where little
re-distribution has taken place, there is a small ratio
between discharge and filling pressures, while at midspan there is a much larger ratio. The ratio between
Figure 8. Ratio of peak discharge pressure to static filling

pressure at wall cell positions.
corner and mid-side lateral pressures is much greater

than any overpressure due to discharge reported here.
A simple comparison of the results shown in
Figure 5 and Figure 8 indicates that for structural
design purposes, an accurate prediction of the distribution of wall pressures may be at least as important
as the determination of discharge over-pressures.
4
There is no simple rule currently available that suggests how the distribution of pressures on a horizontal
plane in a rectangular silo might be predicted, although
the variation of pressure under elastic foundations is
well known, and therefore the phenomena associated
with arching or pressure relief are readily recognised.
To develop a simplified approach for design purposes, the finite element (FE) method was adopted
assuming the stored bulk solid to be represented by a
continuum with carefully chosen properties. A commercially available software packageABAQUShas
been used. Comparisons of results obtained by
ANSYS and ABAQUS have been presented elsewhere
(Gallego et al, 2004), and shows the need to be
particularly aware of all the properties to be defined.
The key objective has been to validate a simple FE
model based on the experimental evidence. Goodey
(2002; Goodey et al, 2003) made a significant contribution in this respect. The key results from his thesis
have been presented elsewhere, and have focused on
the application of the FE model to obtain comparisons
with pressures in the bin.
As with all FE modelling, the principal issues
do not relate to the method but the application and
assumptions about behaviour. Issues related to the
assumptions about base constraint conditions have
been raised by Goodey and Brown (2004). For rectangular silos, the key assumption about structural
behaviour relates to connectionsin this case the continuity between adjacent walls. The connection here
has been assumed continuous.
The material model uses an elastic-plastic constitutive model for the stored bulk solid, and the
possibility of large deflections is allowed in the structurealthough at the current stage of development
structures that are extremely flexible and allow really
large strains (e.g. FIBC described above) have not been
investigated. Nor is the model intended to allow large
strains in the stored solid (such as discharge flows)
to be simulated. It is intended to be an approximate
assessment of filling pressures.
The key element of the behaviour is the relative
stiffness of wall and stored solid. To model this, a
measure of the compressibility of the stored solid at
low stresses has to be made. The compressibility coefficient (labelled as log bulk modulus in ABAQUS
108
PREDICTIVE MODELLING
Wall normal pressure (kPa)
30
Experimental, Lahlouh et al(1995)
25
FEA, Goodey et al (2003)

20
Empirical,Rotter et al (2002)
15
10
5
0
0
Figure 9.
0.15
0.3
0.45
Distance from corner of bin (m)
0.6
0.75
Typical distribution of wall pressures.
data terms) is a key parameter that gives the relationship between the pressure and volume for an initial
porosity. Little published data is available, as most
measurements are made at higher strains than those
applicable to silo problems. Muir Wood (1999) gives
an excellent explanation, but data applicable at silo
pressures is limited. Ooi (1990) gives some insights.
The results for the rectangular bin have been extensively presented elsewhere (Goodey et al, 2001) but
are shown in Figure 9 to demonstrate the extremely
good correlations between the experimental and FE
model values. There is therefore substantial evidence
to suggest that the simple finite element model predicts
wall pressures very well.
It has been suggested (Goodey et al, 2006) that
a good prediction of the distribution of wall pressures at any level can be obtained from the hyperbolic
function:

2x
p = pm
cosh
(2)
sinh
d
where pm is the mean wall pressure, x is the horizontal distance from the centreline, d is the width of the
silo side and is a coefficient to be determined. The
mean wall pressure pm compares well with the Janssen
pressure. The two-parameter fit has the advantage that
it can be characterised simply in terms of a mid-side
and a corner value, or alternatively a mean value and
a maximum to minimum ratio. The ratio of corner to
mid-side pressure is given by cosh .
The value of has to be determined to predict the
distribution at any level, but a preliminary view (Rotter
et al, in preparation) suggests that a relatively simple
expression may be tractable. This may involve parameters not traditionally considered to be essential in the
prediction of wall pressures.
4.1
Hopper model
The same FE model can be applied to the hopper, and

indicative results for the solid property model applied
to the hopper are given in Figures 10 for the half
Figure 10a. Contours of normal wall pressuresteep wall

(symmetric).
Figure 10b. Contours of normal wall pressureside view

showing half eccentricity.
eccentric hopper shown in Figure 6b. Similar results

are obtained for the other hoppers. The results may
be compared to the experimental data, and generally
good agreement is found. For instance, in the case of
Figure 10a, the experimentally measured hopper wall
normal pressures varied almost linearly from 26.3 kPa
at the ring beam to 15.9 kPa at the outlet, while for the
shallow wall the pressures varied from about 18.0 kPa
at the ring beam to 18.1 kPa at the outlet, dipping to
about 17.1 kPa in between. On the side wall, the pressure varied from about 28.3 kPa at the ring beam to
19.2 kPa at the outlet. Similar trends are observed in
109
Figure 10c. Contours of normal wall pressure shallow

wall (symmetric).
other hoppers, but in the FE model of the fully 1-D

eccentric hopper there is a significant reduction in
the pressure at the middle of the shallow wall, giving
further evidence of arching in the solid.
It is possible that the parameters currently used
to model the solidin this case Leighton Buzzard
sandoverestimate the stiffness of the stored solid.
Alternatively it is possible that the FE model underestimates the stiffness of the hopper; sensitivity studies are
currently underway to investigate these possibilities.
In either case there is a need for better determination of properties associated with the low pressures
found in stored bulk solids, and only the work of
Ooi (1990) gives appropriate values of compressibility coefficients for a range of materials subject to
pressures less than 0.1 bar.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has shown that there is unmistakable evidence of a measurable re-distribution of horizontal
wall pressure within a bulk solid when stored in silo
structures, and that this re-distribution can be readily
modelled using some simple assumptions to represent
the solid and structural properties, and a suitable finite
element model allowing interactions between solid
and structure to be approximated. There is no suggestion that a similar model is appropriate for predicting
behaviour where large strains occur (e.g. discharge
conditions). Nevertheless, good agreement between
experimental evidence and numerical models has been
obtained in silos with internal flow. The re-distribution

has been significantly greater than the ratio between
peak discharge pressure and filling pressure at any
position.
The experiments that have substantiated these conclusions have been undertaken on a relatively simple
pilot-scale structure that has a uniform plate thickness
and no stiffeners; even with these laboratory conditions it has sometimes been challenging to fully
ascertain the structural behaviour. The choice of excellent pressure measurement technology has been a key
feature in obtaining confidence in results from the
experiments that have been carried out.
It is interesting to observe that, while many
researchers have focused on the more popular yet
challenging circular silos, rectangular silos offer particular insights because of their structural behaviour.
Although they are less widely used in industrial practice the systematic variation of wall deformation under
known loads would make them ideal to examine for
a scientific assessment of the interactions between
solids and structure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper has included work from a number of contributors. Professor Michael Rotter has been a constant
source of support and encouragement for this work for
over twenty years, and much of the work described
above has been the fruits of our joint efforts in the
field. My grateful thanks are due to Michael.
Researchers who have made significant contributions on the projects include Dr Neil Jarrett and
Dr Hachemi Lahlouh, and I would like to note my
thanks for their efforts. I am also indebted to Dr David
Moore, formerly of BRE, for his support in the early
days, and to Professor Vagn Askegaard for instrumentation. Finally I would like to thank Dr Richard
Goodey, a former researcher at Brunel University, now
Lecturer at City University, for his permission to use
some of the work presented above, and for his generous assistance in the production of Figures from the
Finite Element Modelling.
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111
Recent silo codes and still structural failure?

P. Knoedel
Dr Knoedel Engineering Consultants, Ettlingen, Germany
University of Applied Sciences, Augsburg, Germany
ABSTRACT: The present paper reviews some aspects of damages in metal silos, caused by buckling phenomena, with special regard to slender, thin-walled aluminium silos. Some of them can be explained or could have
been avoided by employing the recent codes applicable in this field. Others seem to be unexplainable. Special
considerations to imperfect cut are made.
INTRODUCTION
In the last years some new codes have been published,

which are concerned with the loads (EC1-4:2006) and
the structural design of silos (EC3-4-1:2007, EC3-16:2007, EC9-1-4:2007).
There are cases however, where we encounter presumed structural failure with metal silos, which does
not seem to fit in the pattern of possible failure modes,
against which we design a silo. Typically with aluminium silos we have buckles at about 80% of the bins
height, sometimes at a change of wallthickness.
There are different points of view from which this
structural failure might be looked at:
A silo specialist, who shall establish expertise on the
broken silo, wants to track down the reasons, which
caused structural failure in the specific case.
A silo manufacturers wants learn, why some silos
exhibit buckles during operation, although they seem
to have been designed properly according to the codes.
2
2.1
PHENOMENOLOGY
Figure 1. Postbuckling shape of silo with internal underpressure (photo: anonymus).
Buckling due to external pressure
In dealing with the question of what and who caused

the buckles the manufacturer tends to claim that there
would have been a negative operating pressure, which
was far below the one, the silo was designed for (see
Figure 1).
This question can be decided by the form of the
buckle: Evacuation of the silo causes buckles, which
develop longitudinal over a long range of the meridian. They should have a length, which yields from
the eave to the surface of the stored bulk solid.
They should have a circumferential half-wave-length,
which corresponds to Greiners prediction (1972) of

circumferential wave numbers

n = 2.74
113
R
T
(1)
where n should be big enough to satisfy

n2 = n2 1
(2)
and C is depending on the boundary conditions, with

C = 1.0 for radial restraints at both edges of the
subshell.
2.2
Buckling due to axial pressure
If the buckle is short in meridional direction, the reason is likely to be excessive meridional compression
(see Figure 2). This might be a local concentration of
compressive stresses as well, as caused by unintended
pointloading.
These buckles should have a size which corresponds
to the known classical chessboardpattern with a
circumferential halfwave length of
L = k
RT
2
3.456

4
12 1 2
k =
(3)
(4)
From the theoretical bifurcation load of a perfect

cylinder the load will be cascading down towards
a postbuckling minimum, if the cylinder is compressed further. As we know from the work of Flgge
(1982) and Esslinger (1970), the cascading coincides
with a stepwise rearranging of the buckling pattern,
where the longitudinal wave-numbers increase and the
circumferential wave-numbers decrease. In the meantime this highly-dynamic process can be simulated
by FEA (Ramm 2004). An imperfect cylinder would

snap-through from prebuckling path well below the
classical bifurcation load, meeting the postbuckling
path at a point, where the buckling pattern has a longitudinal wave-length well below the above chess-board
length, and the circumferential wave-number has possibly jumped to the next-lowest integer. A rough
estimate of the proportions of the diamond-buckles
hase been suggested by Kndel/Pfeiffer (1988)
R
Lx
= 1 0.000325
L
T
(5)
It should be mentioned however, that elastic buckles tend to be smaller in the presence of bulk solid.
Figure 3 shows a cylinder of diameter 1250 mm, which
has been experimental tested under axial compression
by the author (Kndel 1995). In Figure 4 you see a
cylinder of the same kind, which has been tested the
same way, while the specimen was filled with quartz
sand prior to the test. It can be seen, that the size of
the buckles is reduced to about 70% by the presence
of the bulk solid.
This can be explained by an elastic foundation
which the solid exerts on the shell, other than with liquids or gas pressure. Of course this coincides with an
increase of the buckling capacity of the shell, which is
not accounted for in our design codes so far. There are
investigations by Rotter & Zhang (1990) and Kndel
(1995), but since this situation would only be relevant
with top-discharging it has no meaning for most of the
silos.
2.3 Other buckling phenomena
In some cases we encounter a buckle, which is short
in meridional direction, but wide in circumferential
Figure 2. Postbuckling shape with local axial compression

(photo: P. Knoedel 2005).
Figure 3. Postbuckling pattern due to axial compression,

empty cylinder (Kndel 1995).
114
ph0 =
(7)
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.4/5.5) with = unit weight of

the granular solid; = wall friction coefficient; A =
cross sectional area of the cell; U = circumference of
the cell; K = horizontal / vertical pressure ratio; and
a limited growth function Y , growing the actual wall
pressure towards the limit value at infinite depth.

Y (z) = 1 e
z0 =
Figure 4. Postbuckling pattern due to axial compression,
cylinder filled with dry quartz sand (Kndel 1995).
z
z0
(8)
A
1
K U
(9)
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.6/5.5) denotes a characteristic

depth, where some 63% of the final pressure have been
reached.
The vertical frictional drag is given by
pwf (z) = phf (z) =
A
Y (z)
U
(10)
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.2). Summing up the frictional

drag from the surface to a given depth z we obtain the
meridional stress resultant in the wall
nx (z) = ph0 [z z0 Y (z)]
Figure 5. Buckle, which seems to be neither from axial nor

from circumferential compression (photo: anonymus).
direction (see Figure 5). This shape would correspond

to plastic buckling under meridional compression
(Kndel & Pfeiffer 1988), but should not happen at
a depth of z = 1.0dc of a slender silo.
3
3.1
LOADS
Filling and storing
As far as simple axisymmetric circular-cylindrical

slender bins are concerned, the radial wall-pressure
at a depth z below the surface of the bulk solid is
given by
phf (z) = ph0 Y (z)
(6)
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.1) where the pressure at infinite

depth is given by
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.7).

Special consideration should be given to the choice
of an appropriate friction coefficient , which will be
taken for the respective wall type if Table E.1 is used.
According to the definitions on wall types in Table 4.1
you could take D1 for an aluminium silo.
On the other hand it is common practice with some
silo manufacturers, to cut all blanks for the cylindrical
shell with identical length. With stepped wall thickness, this produces small contractions of the inner
cross section of the bin. Silo designers, which are not
very familiar with the habits in a shop, dont seem to
be aware of this fact or they seemed to decide, that the
effect is negligible. Does this reduction of the cross
section affect the calculated meridional compression
in the shell? Do the little steps on the inside along with
protruding welds allow the mobilisation of a much
higher drag than calculated for smooth walls? Can the
frictional drag grow to the values of a rough wall?
Can particulate solids be tested with on an aluminium
specimen with a lateral butt weld?
The above loads are given for the state of filling
and storing. They are based on the equilibrium of an
arbitrary horizontal slice of the bulk fill (Janssens
theory) and material parameters, which are determined
empirically or experimentally.
115
(11)
To account for unintended eccentricities in the bulk

solid a horizontal patch load is to be considered additionally to the above axisymmetrical wall pressure.
The patch load covers a ring-shaped area of the silo
bin, which is located in the upper half of the bins
height in the characteristical depth. The vertical length
s of the patch load is some dc /5. The patch load goes
cosine-shaped along the circumference of the bin with
a maximum value of
3.3 Other loads
ppf = 0.21 phf
There is no inexplicable failure to a silo structure, such

as rupture, known to the author. Strength problems
may therefore remain out of consideration in this paper.
(12)
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.8/5.9). The horizontal resultant

of the patch load is
Fpf = 0.5 s dc ppf
(13)
(see EC1-4:2007 eq. 5.15). Since the patch load goes

cosine-shaped along the circumference, it causes pure
global bending in the cylindrical shell, and produces
meridional stress resultants at the shell base, which can
be calculated from the momentum of the force Fpf .
3.2 Discharging
Loads for the discharging process are given in the
format
pe = C pf
(14)
(EC1-4:2007 eqn. 5.18/19) so that the above loads for

filling are increased by a factor C.
Typically for slender metal silos will be Ch = 1.15
for the horizontal wall pressure (EC1-4:2007 eqn.
5.21) and Cw = 1.10 for the frictional drag (EC14:2007 eqn. 5.22).
For patch loads we have Cp = 2, which can be
concluded from EC1-4:2007 eqn. 5.8/5.28.
As we see for a simple silo, i.e. axisymmetrical
charge and discharge, all these loads are clearly
deduced from Janssens mechanical model, material
properties and few empirical parameters.
The difference to the old codes (e.g. DIN 10556:1987) is not, that we have new mechanical models
or new material parameters, but we are understanding
the importance of looking at the fluctuation, which
the properties of the stored solids might have. Consequently, we have to do different sums with different
combinations of maximum and minimum properties
to get the maximum hoop tension for a strength verification or the maximum meridional compression for
a stability-check alternatively.
Loads like wind, internal depression, dust explosion,

seismic activitiy and others need not be discussed in
this paper.
4.1 Rupture
4.2 Radial pressure

Nonuniform external pressure from wind or internal
depression due to operating conditions do not cause
inexplicable failure as known to the author. Those need
not be discussed any further.
4.3 Uniform axial compression
Rules for the stability check of cylindrical shells
under uniform axial compression have been established for a long time (DASt 1980, ECCS 1988, DIN
18800-4:1990, EC3-1-6:2007). Different formats are
known:
A two-step format, where an elastic buckling resistance is determined in a first step under the assumption of infinite high yield strength. In a second step,
if required, the elastic resistance is reduced to the
actual yield strength.
A one-step format, where the buckling resistance is
gained directly from a --curve, as known from
the buckling design of beams.
For aluminium shells, no provisions were available
for many years (Mazzolani 2006, EC9-1-4:2007). The
designer had to make use of the steel-codes, assuming hopefully, that the patterns of residual stresses and
geometrical imperfections should be the same as with
steel structures.
Doing so, with a diameter of 3600mm, a wall thickness of 4 mm and EN AW-5754 (DIN AlMg3) with
fy = 80 N/mm2 , we receive a design resistance x,Rd =
23.6 N/mm2 (DIN 18800-4) or 16.8N/mm2 (EC3-16:2007, fabrication quality class B) or 29.5 N/mm2
(EC3-1-6:2007, fabrication quality class A) for the
unpressurized shell (see example below). For a general
discussion of shop quality see below.
Considering lower yield limits in the HAZ (heat
affected zone) may be generally left out of consideration for buckling analysis with e.g. EN AW-5754
O/H111 (DIN AlMg3) or EN AW-5083 O/H111 (DIN
AlMg4,5 Mn), which do not exhibit lower yield limits
116
STRENGTH AND STABILITY
in the HAZ according to the mechanical properties

given in EC9-1-1 Table 3.2a.
HAZ may as well remain out of consideration for
all alloys if designing against external pressure, since
common dimensions of the upper strakes of silos are
such, that circumferencial buckling resistances are
single-digit numbers in N/mm2 , so that a HAZ-yield
even of some 30 N/mm2 would be not significant.
With axial compression it depends on the geometry:
from the above example it can be concluded, that a
strake with a wall thickness of e.g. 8 mm will have a
buckling resistance, which goes into the vicinity of the
reduced HAZ-yield. In that cases the HAZ should not
be neglected with buckling analysis.
4.4
Concentrated axial compression
Many metal silos are elevated on columns, which

arises the task of introducing a very concentrated load
from top of the column into a very narrow proportion
of the shells wall.
There is a long list of suggestions on how to
deal with concentrated meridional loads in cylindrical shells, such as Teng & Rotter (1992), Rotter et al. (1993), Cai et al. (2003), Guggenberger
et al. (2003), Guggenberger & Wallner (2006). As
known to the author the suggestion of Knoedel &
Ummenhofer (1998) is the only procedure, which uses
an engineering model and thus does not need a preliminary FEA. It uses the design buckling resistance from
DIN 18800-4:1990 with reduced imperfection sensitivity, but could be adopted to EC3-1-6:2007 as well.
As known to the author, none of these procedures
is codified or incorporated in a accepted guideline at
present.
In engineering practice many designers are seemingly not aware of the above recommendations for the
handling of local loads, nor do they seem to have a
deep understanding of shell structures. In some cases,
they model the distribution of the concentrated load
with an angle of 2 30 , which could be by a factor
of 10 (!) too much for a silo (Kndel & Ummenhofer
1998). Sometimes designers use Greiners procedure
(1984), which was derived from the semi-membranehypothesis, and gives a more realistic view of the stress
pattern above the support. But in most cases there will
be no consecutive stability check carried out for the
concentrated stresses.
In Table 8.1 we have limits for the out-of-roundness

parameter Ur . These are for diameters >1250 mm
Ur,max = 0.007 (class A, excellent)
Ur,max = 0.010 (class B, high) and
Ur,max = 0.015 (class C, normal)
where Ur = (dmax dmin )/dnom , as given in EC3-16:2007 eq. 8.1.

Absolute limits for the accidental eccentricity
ea are given in EC3-1-6:2007 Table 8.2:
ea,max = 2 mm (class A, excellent)
ea,max = 3 mm (class B, high) and
ea,max = 4 mm (class C, normal)
Ue,max = 0.14 (class A, excellent)

Ue,max = 0.20 (class B, high) and
Ue,max = 0.30 (class C, normal)
(17)
where Ue,max = ea /t, as given in EC3-1-6:2007

eq. 8.4.
Values for dimple tolerances are given in EC3-16:2007 Table 8.4:
U0,max = 0.006 (class A, excellent)
U0,max = 0.010 (class B, high) and
U0,max = 0.016 (class C, normal)
(18)
where U0 = w/lg , with dimple depth w and gauge

length lg as defined in EC3-1-6:2007 section 8.4.4.
Across welds the gauge length is 25 t to a maximum
of 500 mm according to eq. 8.8.
Different values of the dimple parameter are given
in Table 8.5 for the purpose of global numerical
analysis.
For the appropriate quality class we receive a fabrication quality parameter Q from EC3-1-6:2007
Table D.2
Q = 40 (class A, excellent)
Q = 25 (class B, high) and
Q = 16 (class C, normal)
(19)
which gives us a fictitious strainless geometrical

normalised substitute imperfection amplitude
MANUFACTURING QUALITY
r
t
(20)
which in turn affects directly the reduction factor , x

in eq. D.14 for elastic buckling and thus is related to
the computed buckling strength.
117
(16)
Relative limits for the accidental eccentricity ea are

given in EC3-1-6:2007 Table 8.3:
wk
1
=
t
Q
In the recent buckling code EC3-1-6:2007 limits

for different geometrical imperfections determine the
appropriate quality class.
(15)
As example we will look at the upper part of a silo

with diameter 4000 mm and wall-thickness 4 mm. For
r/t = 500 we receive
wk
= 0.56 (class A, excellent)
t
wk
= 0.89 (class B, high) and
t
wk
= 1.40 (class C, normal)
t
(21)
To achieve quality class A, a silo manufacturer

should prove, that 0.007 = (dmax dmin )/4000 mm,
so the difference in the diameters should be 28 mm or
the radial deviation from the nominal shape should be
approximately 14 mm. Shure this is no problem for a
skilled staff, but how to measure? As long as the silo
lies in the return pulley support the measurement is
doubtful, because the rollers determine the actual circumferential shape. If the silo is mounted into its final
upright position, it is very difficult to measure from
the inside (you would have to have kind of a scaffold)
and even more difficult to measure from the outside
(you would have to have a big measuring rig).
Regarding the accidental eccentricity the limits are
2 mm and 0.14 t for class A, which would be 0.56 mm
for 4 mm wall-thickness. Again this should be no problem for a specialist welding shop. But how would you
measure half a millimeter under shop-conditions, if
you have a convex butt weld between the two plates?
Regarding the so called weld-depression we would
have a gauge length of 100 mm for 4 mm wall thickness. Again: how would you measure a limit of 0.6 mm
against the gage if you have a convex butt-weld under
the gauge? It is remarkable, that in the code all welds
are flat and the measuring pitch goes exactly to the
middle of the weld. Even for a specialist shop it
will be difficult to match this tolerance. When using
high-alloy austenitic stainless steels it could be even
difficult to match class B, according to nearly ten years
of experience of the author as welding engineer with
a steel-stack manufacturer.
In the authors opinion a specialised silo manufacturer should be able to achieve class A for all
the prescribed tolerances, which might be a very
challenging task especially with weld depression.
the above described wide-stretched buckle (Figure 5)

lead to considerations on imperfect cut.
With silo manufacturers it is known, that sometimes
the aluminium sheet does not coil off straight, but in a
slightly curved manner, which might be due to residual stresses from cold rolling and coiling. Depending
on the angle, under which the ends of this bananashaped strip are cut, you can get all kinds of irregular
similar-to-a-cylinder forms, in the best case you get
a straight circular truncated cone, if the ends are cut
perpendicular to the bananas end-tangent.
The above wide-stretched buckle seems, as if the
welding seam was shorter than the circumference of
the shell above and below. It is widely accepted,
that the rate of weld-shrinkage is quasi-axisymmetric
and therefore produces an axisymmetric indent and
a heart-shaped contour of the meridian (Rotter 1996,
Ummenhofer & Knoedel 1996). If this mechanism
would happen non-axisymmetric in a way, that only
a part of the weld had considerable more shrinkage
than the restunlikely, but possible from a welding
engineers point of view, the above described shape
of the buckle (Figure 5) could be the result.
Another point was to have a closer look on tackwelding during assembly. Assuming that you have a
blank, which is perfectly cut, and you mount this new
strake on top of the others, trying to achieve a constant
gap of some 2 or 3 millimeters at the circumferential
seam. Every tack you set produces a new asymmetric stress state in the shell. Different holding times
IMPERFECT CUT
Geometrical imperfections, i.e. radial deviations of

the actual geometrical form from the cylinders theoretical shape are mostly looked at with respect to
weld-shrinkage and residual stresses (Rotter 1996,
Ummenhofer & Knoedel 1996).
Damages suggest however, that the implication of a
perfectly cut blank, which only suffers shrinkage from
the welding process, might be inadequate. Especially
Figure 6. Vertical section of a shell with stepped wall thickness and strakes of equal length not to scale, welding
grooves only schematic.
118
We thought we should understand the mechanism

before using FEA, and built different paper models (see Figure 6). We thought that a circumferential
joint with nonuniform meridional shrinkage should
be equivalent to adjacent blanks with different shape
deviations along the circumferential seam.
For reasons, we are only beginning to understand,
we were not able to produce an inward horizontal fold
by shortening the adjacent strakes. Maybe it is owing
to our inaccuracy in paper-craft, which in turn would
be a confirmation of being a delicate problem and we
should look to parts-of-millimeter in the shop.
We succeeded the other way round (Figure 6) in
giving the adjacent strakes excess material. A sketch
of the cut is given in Figure 7. Obviously this produces a V-shaped meridian, which, if turned to the
inside of the cylinder, remains a horizontal fold even
if the cylinder is circumferentially strained by internal
pressure.
The data of the above paper model are: height
2 210 mm 2 5 mm; circumference 3 297 mm;
weight 80 gr/m2 ; length of the curved cut edges
110 mm; additional meridional length 2 1 mm;
Figure 7. Paper model of stress-free cylinder with imperfect
cut along circumferential seam (photo: I. Knoedel 2007).
Figure 8. Upper half of the cut (not to scale) for the model
in Figure 6.
with the welding arc produce different heat input at

the respective tack-welds. Different heat input could
produce different meridional shrinkage of the tackwelds while the shell has no radial restraint at the
upper edge. Thus strainless deformations are possible
even for higher harmonics, since the shell is very thinwalled and weak. A recent study shows, that during
tack-welding a deformation pattern is frozen into the
shell, which will not change significantly during the
subsequent executing of the complete circumferential
weld (Loose 2008).
Just to remember: we are talking about a shape deviation, which remains unregarded while the silo is in
the shop and on site, and only after filling the adjacent
cross sections straighten to a circular shape and a horizontal inward fold builds up along a small part of the
circumference.
Does a noticeable buckle indicate structural failure?

The answer is not trivial as we see from web-breathing
with welded steel plate girders.
With buckling under external pressure: does a
noticeable buckle indicate structural failure? It is well
known, that cylinders under external pressure exhibit
a very benign postbuckling behaviourKnoedel &
Ummenhofer (2004) found in a FE-study on tanks that
the external pressure could be increased by a factor of
1.79 after first buckling. Therefore external pressure
from excessive wind on a vented silo should cause
no problem, if the structural design has been done
reasonable.
With operating underpressure in an unvented silo
the answer is even more simple: the process of buckling is not controlled by the actual differential pressure,
but by the differential volume of medium drawn from
the silo. Since the postbuckling path is stable, the silo
is in a stable equilibrium at any time. If the discharging stops, the growing of the bulges stopsthe process
can be entirely reversed, if no plastic deformation has
occured with the edges of the bulges. Even with plastic deformations it is common practice to repair the
silo or tank by pressurising after consulting an expert.
In many cases the vessel can be operated afterwards
without any restrictions.
Buckles which result from axial compression indicate structural failure in the sense, that the shell has
less bearing capacity than without buckles. If buckling
occurred in the presence of bulk solid, a stable configuration is possible while the bulk solid is at rest,
119
STRUCTURAL FAILURE
i.e. even slender silos will not collapse, as long as

discharging is stopped. If discharging continues, the
axial folding of the shell is a volume-controlled process, where we have a stable configuration at any
intermediate state, as long as the bin does not bend
markedly (Kndel 1995). It seems, that the bulk solid
exerts higher frictional loads on the inclined faces of
the buckles. Therefore rehabilitation of a silo can only
be achieved by inducing additional strength and stiffness to the damaged shell, like with an metal-bandage
around the damaged part.
Horizontal folds due to imperfect cutor equivalent asymmetric tack-welding as described aboveare
difficult to assess. Even if the buckle did not originate from an axial overload by compressive stresses, it
might be, that the inclined face of the fold allows the
attack of much higher friction forces, than predicted by
analysis for that elevation of the silo. Therefore the fold
can initiate a successive overload by meridional compression. There is no further positive experience available with the author. The author asks all colleagues to
kindly share their experiences on that matter.
Summing up we can say, that it is difficult to decide
on which definition of structural failure should be used
to assess buckling phenomena on silos. Only with
buckling due to axial compression we clearly have
structural failure.
8
8.1
EXAMPLE
Description
As an example for unexplainable structural failure we

shall have a closer look to the structure in Figure 5.
As stated before, the shape of the buckle does not
seem to originate from external pressure nor from
axial compression. As well, it does not look very
much like the buckle of the paper model in Figure 6,
although it might be in connection with some kind of
imperfect cut.
Data of the silo:
Structure:
diameter 3600 mm; height 24 m; wall thickness
of both strakes adjacent to the buckle 4 mm; EN
AW-5754 (DIN AlMg3) with fy = 80 N/mm2 ; 4
local supports; from the photograph it can be taken,
that the circumferential seem with the buckle is
some 4 m below the eave.
Fill:
plastic pellets or meal, unit weight 6 kN/m3 , the silo
has been designed for 10 kN/m3 ;
8.2
Circumferential compression
8.3 Axial compression

Cross section of the bin
A=
(22)
Possible weight of the fill above the buckle

kN
F = A h = 10.2 m2 4 m 10 3
m
F = 407 kN
(23)
Metal cross section of the bin

A = d t = 3600 mm 4 mm
A = 452 cm2
(24)
Possible axial compressive stress in the bin

k =
407 kN
N
= 9.0
2
452 cm
mm2
(25)
Buckling safety (see section 4.3)

=
N
16.8 mm
x,Rd
2
=
= 1.87
N
k
9.0 mm
2
(26)
The actual buckling safety is much higher, because the

unit weight of the bulk solid should only be 6 kN/m3 ,
only a part of the filling weight is introduced into the
bins wall, the buckling resistance according to DIN
would be about 30% higher, . . .
Buckling is not explainable.
8.4 Global bending
Above the indentation in Figure 5 you can see a
catwalk; mark, that the catwalk is not on the same
meridian as the centre of the buckle, but fairly aside.
According to the manufacturer the catwalk should
be loose to one of the silos, no horizontal reaction
should be possible. Arbitrarily we assume that we have
high friction between catwalk and silo roof, producing
a horizontal force of 100 kN.
Bending moment at the level of the buckle
Mk = 100 kN 4 m = 400 kNm
(27)
Section modulus of the bins circular cross section

W = r 2 t = (1800 mm)2 4 mm
W = 40, 700 cm3
(28)
Global bending stress in the extreme meridian
The author suggests to drop circumferential compression, because this really does not look like a buckle
from external pressure.
k =
120
d = (3.6 m)2 = 10.2 m2

4
4
400 kNm
N
= 9.8
3
40,700 cm
mm2
(29)
Buckling safety (see section 4.3)

N
16.8 mm
x,Rd
2
=
=
= 1.71
N
k
9.8 mm
2
(30)
To produce a friction force of 100 kN the catwalk

should have a support reaction of some 300 to 500 kN,
which seems to be very unrealistic.
Buckling is not explainable.
8.5
Local supports
The buckle is located between two local supports.

Experience with local supports shows, that the load
concentration goes straight along the meridian.
Local Supports were therefore not considered.
8.6
Summary
It can be seen, that the possible failure causes can be

either excluded for seemingly obvious reasons or do
not provide stresses, which are high enough to explain
buckling.
It should be mentioned however, that the author did
not investigate this failure as an expert, neither the
structural analysis nor the shop drawings are on hand.
The data we used in the above calculations might therefore be erroneous, e.g. due to confusion of the wall
thickness, flexible foundation.
Maybe the reason is imperfect cut indeed and maybe
it is no structural failure in the above sense, meaning,
that the shell has still enough strength and stiffness to
bear all loads it should have been designed for.
The author is a strong supporter of deterministic models in structural engineering. Furthermore the
author is convinced, that an expert could find one or
more rational reasons for the buckle if investigating
this structure. Such an investigation could take the
expert some 50 to 80 hours of work. By contrast you
will be able to buy the structural analysis for this silo
for less than 500 EUR on the German market-after all
it is only an ordinary class 2 silo.
It seems to the author, that inspite all the recent
codes mentioned above an ordinary silo remains a
very complex structure. It happens much too often
from the manufacturers point of view, that the operator discovers buckles after some months of operating
the silo. Typically the manufacturer will not be able to
blame the operator for wrong operating conditions, so
the manufacturer will have to do some costly rehabilitation although he is convinced, that all the technical
staff involved did a good job and followed best practice. The manufacturers are willing to change their way
of designing a silo, they are even willing to invest in
research, if only someone told them how and where.
A metal silo is a very complex structure at the border

between civil and mechanical engineering. On the
contrary to e.q. wind engineering, where we deal
with fluid-structure-interaction as well, it is questionable, if we are able to describe the dynamics of
bulk solid in an adequate way. That is at least what
deterministic approaches are concerned.
We encounter buckling phenomena, which do not
seem to match buckling due to axial compression,
circumferential compression or even shear.
Some discussion on imperfect cut, which could
explain the unknown buckle shapes, is given above.
Special situations with tack-welding could yield
results, which are equivalent to imperfect cut.
Some discussion on aspects of the definition of
structural failure with silos is given above.
The code on silo loads does not seem to be very
matured in some points:
how should a designer develop a certain degree of
confidence, if for the position of the eccentric flow
channel of a class 3 silo we hear the parameters 0.50,
0.75 and 0.90 at first (DIN 1055-6:2005, which is
the German adoption of EC1-4:2006), which are
then amended to 0.35, 0.50 and 0.65 (Amendment
2006), while we have 0.25, 0.40 and 0.60 in EC14:2006.
Still on heavy inconsistencies in EC1-4:2006:
in the range of application chapter 1.1.2 (10) it is
stated, that circulation is not within the scope of
this code; later on in chapter 5.5.2 (2) a statement is
made on fluidisation with circulation.
The complexity of the matter pushes the idea,
that only certified engineers should be permitted
to design silos. This has been discussed already
20 years ago at a silo-conference in Karlsruhe
(comp. Eibl 1988). It seems to be a reasonable
idea from technical point of view, but would not
be compatible to German Building Law. To be positive on EC1-4:2006: the inscrutable regulations on
silos with large eccentricities and the lacking of a
chance for any assessment by hand leave only very
few, who are able to do the job. On the other hand:
lacking of hand-methods means lacking of checking possibilities: who is then able to verify ones own
or an external FEA?
I would like to have an additional sentence in
EC1-4:2006 chapter 1.1.2 like this: Designing
a silo requires particular knowledge/skills and
experience/know-how in this field. We had such a
sentence as preamble of a German code on structural
welding.
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122
Some unresolved problems in the design of steel cylindrical silos

Francisco Ayuga
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
ABSTRACT: Not so long ago was the centennial of the publication of Janssens famous equation, which could
be regarded as the first scientific work dealing with the calculation of the pressures exerted by the material in
silos. Despite the effort made during the twentieth century to understand the structural phenomena involved in
the design of silos, it has as yet been impossible to give a completely satisfactory answer to many of the uncertainties that are observed in practice. Over these more than one hundred years of history, there have been many
types and materials used to construct these storage structures. For their cost and simplicity of implementation,
the commonest and most widespread are cylindrical steel silos. In industrialized countries in particular, these are
the preferred structures. Nevertheless, they present some unique problems in addition to those that are common
to all types of silo. The systematic in-depth presentation of the current state of knowledge, and of the needs for
future research with respect to all types of silos, has been extensively published elsewhere (Brown & Nielsen
1998). The present communication is merely intended to present a brief overview of recent work addressing
those unresolved problems, focusing on cylindrical steel silos, and suggesting some lines of approach that might
be helpful for future researchers to look into. There stands out in this field the research conducted in the past
25 years by Professor Rotter and his numerous collaborators. They have given an impulse to a major modernization of the standards, increasing our understanding of the phenomena involved, and providing guidelines for
the rigorous implementation of testing and calculation procedures.
THE STANDARDS FOR STEEL SILOS
The standards for the calculation and design of silos

have always faced major uncertainties that have to be
overcome as best as possible. In the mid twentieth century it became clear that there was a need for official
regulation of the procedures for the design and calculation of structures to ensure their reliability, and to
reduce the number of accidents that had been occurring. It was realized that silos posed special difficulties
in being complex structures in which granular materials interact with walls made of a variety of building
materials, and furthermore that these difficulties were
in practice resolved with unconventional geometric
shapes.
A first problem that had to be dealt with was what
was to be the scope of the standards. While the silo
manufacturing industry customarily works in the international arena, very many silos are actually built in
situ with local materials and procedures. The first
standards on silos were national, and focused on the
pressure of the stored material on the structure. But
soon there was a move to the international field, and
to norms that also considered the structural calculation
itself.
There currently exist two basic standards at the
international level for determining the pressures of
the material stored in silosISO 11697 (1995) for its

many member countries, and Eurocode 1 Part 4 (ENV
1991-4 2005) for countries belonging to the European Committee for Standardization. The ISO norm is
briefer and simpler than the Eurocode, which is more
elaborate and takes into account more recent contributions from different research groups. Although in
practice these standards are widely used by the industry, the truth is that how compulsory they are depends
heavily on the particular country. In addition to these
multinational standards, there exist numerous national
regulations, some of them extensively used even outside their own area. Examples are the North-American
ANSI/ASAE EP 433 (1998) and ACI 313-97 (1997),
and the Australian AS 3774 (1996).
There are at present considerable differences
in the results from applying the different standards.
Manufacturers (who usually work in the international
market) therefore do not normally design their silos
according to some one specific norm, but tailor them
to the country of destination. If this country does not
have its own regulatory standards, the first thing the
manufacturers do is to negotiate with the customer
whether any set of standards is to be followed, and, if
so, which of them.
In addition to the norms for calculating pressures,
there also apply to cylindrical steel silos all the design
123
standards for membranes or shells, and some others

for the struts and joints. Since these national or international standards refer to any type of structure, in
many cases they are difficult to interpret for the case
of silos, although there do also exist specific standards
for steel silosPart 4.1 of Eurocode 3 (ENV 1993-4.1
2004), or Frances AFNOR P-22 630 (1992).
Following the beginning of publication of these
standards, there have been many research works
seeking to complement, discuss, or nuance them
(Rotter 2001). Even so, these have still not been
enough because many practical problems have yet
to be covered, or the relevant studies used excessive
oversimplification. However, it is possible to find
commentaries on the standards overall (Ayuga et al.
2000, Martnez et al. 2002, Rotter 1998), and other
works that have focused on some aspect in particular (Vidal et al. 2005, Juan et al. 2006, Morn et al.
2005).
Special mention is merited by the standards that
consider seismic action. These will be dealt with
separately in a later section of the present paper.
The following sections present the principal
remaining problems that will need to be incorporated into the standards as international consensus is
progressively achieved.
ON THE METHODS FOR CALCULATING

THE PRESSURES OF THE STORED
MATERIAL
Traditionally, the pressure of the material stored in

silos was calculated analytically. This required simplifying assumptions to be made, and equilibria of the
masses of material as if a non-disaggregated solid were
being dealt with. The analytical methods originally
proposed (the best known being Janssens method,
Janssen 1895) have been widely used in the design
of steel silos. Indeed, Janssens method is still at the
heart of most of the official standards for calculating
the pressures in silos, such as the ISO or Eurocode 1
norms.
These methods have the advantage of simplicity,
and that their results have been validated in practice
over many years of application. In the development
of these models and their practical applications, there
have been various advances or modifications, such as
those proposed by Caquot (Caquot 1957), Reimbert
(Reimbert & Reimbert 1959), or Drescher (Drescher
1991). The Reimbert brothers equation, for example,
was for a time the focus of considerable attention. It
was the subject of an interesting international debate
(Briassoulis 1991), and Eurocode 1 currently proposes
it for the calculation of intermediate slender and squat
silos.
Modern engineering tools, however, allow us to

have recourse to more precise procedures to determine the pressures. The grain inside a silo behaves as
a disaggregated solid that can be simulated using the
finite element technique. There is abundant literature
on the subject, since some of the earliest civil applications of this technique were to the calculation of silos
(Rotter 1986, Jofriet et al. 1977). Subsequently, different dynamic situations or models of the behaviour
of the stored solid have been incorporated (Eibl &
Hussler 1984, Ayuga et al. 2001a), creating increasingly complex models (Ayuga et al. 2005) (Fig. 1).
This procedure provides possibilities for analysis that
are far superior to those of the previous methods. But
it is not without its difficulties.
There are problems of convergence of the solutions
as the models become more complicated. (Guaita
1995)
There is a decisive influence on the results of some
of the methods internal parameters that have little
physical meaning, and that therefore are difficult to
fit with trials. (Couto 2000)
Disaggregated solids do not form a continuous
material. This leads to discrepancies with some real
situations, particularly at the geometric discontinuities (this problem will be discussed in more detail
in a section below). (Aguado 1997)
The choice of the model for the materials mechanical behaviour, and understanding its evolution
during movement, are very important. (Tejchman
2007, Eibl & Hussler 1984).
All these problems have been subjects of research in
the last few decades, but they have yet to be satisfactorily resolved. It is therefore difficult to say outright
that these procedures are superior in the practical
solution of engineering designs.
The finite element method (FEM) allows for the
dynamic analysis (emptying situation) of silos. Since
the work of Reimbert (Reimbert & Reimbert 1959),
Platonov (Platonov & Kovtun 1959), and Jenike
(Jenike & Johanson 1969), it has come to be recognized as of the greatest importance in design. But there
are major difficulties in implementing this possibility of dynamic analysis to simulate reality since the
Figure 1.
124
Wall pressures analysis using FEM.
stored solid still behaves as a continuum. The studies of

Rombach (Rombach & Eibl 1995), Vidal (Vidal et al.
2006), and Gallego (Gallego et al. 2004), for instance,
highlight the capacities of the method, but also point
out its deficiencies. To simulate filling and emptying
situations, transient analyses can be performed, and
also successive layers can be used, by applying such
options of FEM software as the creation and death of
elements. Nonetheless, these possibilities have as yet
to be sufficiently tested.
With this lack of a complete and reliable FEM-based
protocol, attention began to turn to the possibility of
using Cundalls discrete element method in silo design
(Cundall & Strack 1979). This method individualizes
every particle of material, endowing it with movement and the capacity for collision, rotation, friction,
etc. As the number of equations grows, so does the
computational capacity needed. Indeed, since most
particles that are stored in silos are small and irregular, the number of elements to consider becomes too
great for practical calculations. The earliest work with
this technique applied to silos consisted in simulating
the flow of granular materials in a silo (Nguyen et al.
1979), and soon came to focus on trying to evaluate
the pressures during emptying (Langston et al. 1995,
Masson & Martnez 2000, Goda & Ebert 2005). In
this field, there stood out the international collaboration of very many teams to establish a comparison
of both finite element and discrete element models
(Rotter et al. 1998, Holst et al. 1999). It seems that
the most promising results for practical applications
have come from the development of hybrid models
in which certain areas of the materials are simulated
using discrete components, while the rest is modeled
with finite elements (Lu et al. 1997, Jofriet et al. 1997).
This obviates the difficulty in considering more than
even 100 000 individual particles with todays processorsa ridiculously small quantity for a conventional silo.
However, the number of parameters that need to
be considered in these models is considerable, and
still poorly understood. There also needs to be a better
definition of the modes of behaviour of the particles
in collisions (considering different rigidities) or in
contact, or the internal anisotropy, etc. In sum, it will
be needed an increased research effort on the materials involved, and on the development of generally
accepted, comparable, and reproducible procedures
for their calculation (Balevicius et al. 2007).
3
MODELS OF THE MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR,

AND LABORATORY TESTING
In describing the problems associated with the different procedures for calculating the pressures exerted
by the stored material, it was noted above the need
for suitable models of the materials behavior. These

models should be of that kind which also allows
the corresponding parameters to be determined in
a straightforward and well-tested fashion for each
specific material.
The first attempt to model the behaviour of granular
materials was due to Coulomb (Coulomb 1773). He
established the concepts of friction and cohesion that
are fundamental to the behaviour of granular materials.
However, his model can only be correctly understood
in association with the representation of the state under
stress of a Mohr solid (Mohr 1900). This model of
behaviour is in part used by the traditional analytical
methods.
Other models later came into use, such as that of
Drucker-Prager (Drucker & Prager 1952) and modifications of both that and Coulombs model, for
example by limiting the maximum stress (cap models)
(Brandt & Nilsson 1999), or the Lade model that
smoothes out the discontinuities of the Mohr-Coulomb
model (Lade 1977). There have been great strides in
this area in recent years with proposals of models of
far greater complexity, both conceptually and in terms
of their implementation, which more closely reflect
the mechanical behaviour of disaggregated solids.
Two examples that have been proposed for the calculation of silos are the hypoplastic (Kolymbas 1989)
and the endochronic models (Xu et al. 1996).
All these models, except those of Mohr-Coulomb
and Drucker-Prager, are still in the process of being
implemented in commercial FEM packages. This
complicates their practical use in the real design of
steel silos.
But this is not the only difficulty presented by the
application of these models. There is also the lack of
information required about the parameters of each
material. Although in most cases these parameters can
be obtained by conventional laboratory geotechnical
tests (Moya et al. 2002, Moya et al. 2006, Molenda
et al. 2006) (Fig. 2), or by some specific and fairly
uncomplicated trials, the fact is that determinations
have been made for only some of the commonest cases,
such as maize, wheat, or soybeans (Zhang et al. 1986,
Molenda et al. 2002b). Most of the granular materials
that are stored in silos need to be studied in greater
depth to determine these parameters. Moreover, it is
not enough to perform just some isolated experiments,
but there has to be a statistically significant number of
trials that allow researchers to obtain the means and
variances required by modern standards.
In turn, the new discrete element calculation procedures will need simplified models and revised determinations of the grain parameters, in this case with
more elaborate procedures, many of which are yet
to be established, but that will allow a better understanding of the flow and of the dynamic pressures
(Campbell 2006).
125
still face practical difficulties when considering these

effects.
Considered within the group of asymmetries caused
by emptying are those caused by devices placed inside
the silo to improve the flow (noses, cone inserts, etc.).
Various studies have focused on investigating the
mechanical effects of these emptying systems
(Wojcik et al. 2007, Ding et al. 2003, Molenda
et al. 2007), but the subject remains open to new
contributions.
5
Figure 2.
Laboratory tests of particulate materials.
PATCH LOAD AND OTHER

ASYMMETRIC LOADS
In the design of cylindrical silos, the maximum

demand on the walls is the simple tensile stress due to
the symmetric internal pressures of the stored material. Steel sheets resist these stresses with very small
thicknesses, even for large silos. No real silo, however, is exempt from the emergence of asymmetric
loads. These give rise to the appearance of bending
moments in the wall and local buckling which force
the thicknesses to be increased (Briassoulis 2000).
There are many causes of asymmetric loads. One
is evidently the wind (Briassoulis 1986). This is particularly important when the silo is empty, and for
its upper zones. Its treatment demands a painstaking
study of the design of the wall, and for which there
still has been found no definitive form of solution.
But the manner of construction and assembly of silos
itself leads to patch loads, as has been studied by several researchers, outstanding being the contribution
of Rotters group (Chen et al. 1998, Gillie & Rotter
2002). These loads produce dangerous effects, especially in the walls of cylindrical steel silos if they are
not included in the calculations (Song 2004). There is
still no certainty as to their position or value, so that
the norms proceed with the utmost caution in their
evaluation.
There are also asymmetrical loads produced by the
different forms of filling and emptying (Rotter 1986,
Molenda et al. 2002a, Zhong et al. 2001, Vidal et al.
2006a), the wall stiffeners (Vidal et al. 2006b), thermal loads (differential warming on opposite walls)
(Prusiel & Lapko 2007), and seismic pressures (which
will be returned to in a separate section below). The
real values of all these asymmetric loads are poorly
known, and are still the subject of extensive research.
It is likely that the finite element method will help
determine their values, but for now silo designers
Closely related to the phenomenon of asymmetrical

loads is the question of the experimental measurement
of the pressures of the material stored in a silo. For
years there have been attempts to measure the pressures of the materials to check against the calculation
models, but they have had little success. Sometimes,
the small size of the experimental silos meant that the
goodness of the results was in doubt for application to
real silos. Making the relevant measurements in large
silos is expensive, however, and not without its own
difficulties. The sensors are difficult to design and
install, and are subject to major variability and measurement errors (Askergaard 1981). To obtain reliable
results, the sensors need to be distributed down the
height of the silo, and around it. The number of sensors
that need to be installed is therefore so large that the
investment in equipment for research becomes excessive. For this reason, there are few literature references
to measurements in silos, and the generalization, standardization, and reproducibility of the trials is still very
poor (Nielsen 1998, Ooi et al. 1990) (Fig. 3).
The study conducted by the Edinburgh group (Chen
et al. 1998) on cylindrical metallic silos reveals many
of the weaknesses of the experimental measurements.
Greater investment and more trials are needed in order
to reliably validate numerical models. Nevertheless,
one should not lose sight of the influence of the
materials mechanical parameters on the results of the
numerical methods, for which reason all the factors of
variability should be appropriately taken into account
in before drawing conclusions from the results. There
is no point in improving the systems of measurement
of pressure and increasing the number of sensors, if
we do not have reliable data on the mechanical characteristics of the stored material for comparison with
the results of numerical or analytical models.
The experiments performed to validate discrete
element methods do not use real silos, since the
number of particles would exceed current computational capacities. Instead, they are essentially based
on validating pressures and flows in small-scale models. In many case, they have transparent faces to allow
126
EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENT
OF PRESSURES
depending on the size of the silos, the stored material,

and the type of installation.
4 - ways valve
Elevator EP-20
Level 3
Shear Cell
Normal Cell
Level 2
Level 1
Outlet hopper
Figure 3. Silo test facilities in Universidad Politcnica de

Madrid (Spain).
the flows to be recorded with high-speed cameras

(Sielamowicz et al. 2005), and then to compare the
recording with the numerical simulations.
6
SEISMIC ACTION
The effects of seismic events on cylindrical steel silos,

in addition to those common to any type of structure
(on pillars, foundations, etc.), involve overpressure
on the wall (Rotter & Hull 1989). The publication of
Part 4 of Eurocode 8 (ENV 1998-4 2007), which refers
specifically to seismicity for silos, has been of great
help to silo designers who previously had faced major
difficulties in the practical application of safe standards. There remain, however, many as yet unresolved
issues to determine with precision how a silo will
respond to seismic activity under different operating
conditions (principally, full or empty).
One of the topics that is yet to be studied is the
damping of the mass of stored material. The
Eurocode 8 proposes a general value, but numerical
simulations should be done with finite element programs and/or shake-table trials to better understand
this effect.
Nor has the effect of the silo geometry been well
studiedin particular of its influence on the transmission of friction stresses to the ground, or on how the
properties of the grain (specific gravity, friction with
the wall, etc.) are modified during a seismic event
(Holler & Meskouris 2006).
Another aspect that needs further investigation,
although not strictly structural, is the determination of the return period that should be considered
In addition to the remaining uncertainties about

the pressures that a steel silo has to bear, there also
arise difficulties in design due to the complexity of the
structure itself. The wall is made of fairly thin, single
or multiple sheets, with a total thickness that usually
ranges from 0.5 mm to 12 mm depending on the size
of the silo and the zone where the sheet is located.
The sheets may be smooth-wall welded or corrugatedwall bolted. The cylindrical wall is subject mainly to
a tensile stress, so that there is no need for great thicknesses. But there may also arise bending moments and
shear stresses due to asymmetric loads (which, as was
noted above, always have to be taken into consideration), and a vertical compressive stress due to friction
of the grain with the wall and the transmission of the
loads of the silo top.
The bending moments due to asymmetric loads are
difficult to determine with precision. This is, on the
one hand, because the loads are not well known (as
noted above), and on the other, because the silos structure is a cylinder with various stiffening elements on
the top and the bottom and down the length of the wall.
Analysis of the distribution of the bending moments
would therefore require FEM computation which, to
be rigorous, would have to accurately simulate all
of the walls reinforcement elements and wall thicknesses. Such analyses, however, are not common in the
silo manufacturing industry, and some further research
effort is still needed for the techniques to be applicable to practical cases (Vidal et al. 2006b). The reality
is that in most cases the calculations are enormously
simplified.
The compression of the vertical loads on the wall
leads to buckling effects that are also highly complex. If the wall is not stiffened and consists of
smooth welded shells, one must consider the possibility of buckling with the silo in empty condition
(due to the loads of the silo top), as well as with
the silo filled when, although the loads are much
greater due to the friction of the grain, the buckling
is partially inhibited by the stored material (Knebel &
Schweizerhof 1995). Furthermore, as was noted
above, the loads are not completely symmetric, so
that one part of the silo may be more compressed
than another (Song & Teng 2003). Imperfections in
the wall will also have a significant influence on the
buckling behaviour (Pircher 2004, Holst et al. 2000,
Teng & Song 2001), as also will the local plastification
of zones of high stresses which causes what is known
as elephants foot buckling (Chen et al. 2006).
127
BENDING MOMENTS AND BUCKLING

OF THE METAL WALLS
But the buckling problem is further complicated

in the case of corrugated walls and in the presence
of stiffeners. Attempts have been made to solve the
problem of corrugated walls through their assimilation
to a smooth wall (Briassoulis 1986), but the problem
would clearly benefit from further investigation. Vertical stringer stiffeners are often designed to absorb the
entirety of the vertical loads, so that the walls of the silo
will not be subjected to compression or buckling. This
simplification of the calculation does not conform to
reality, in which the vertical loads are shared between
the stiffeners and the wall according to their relative
stiffnesses. Obviously, the stiffeners reduce the risk
of buckling of the wall. They do not completely nullify it however, and there is at present no reliable form
of overall calculation, although some proposals have
been put forward in this regard (Eurocode 3 part 4-1
2004).
PRESSURES DUE TO OUTSIDE

TEMPERATURES AND TO SWELLING
OF THE GRAIN
The outside temperature is one of the factors that

especially affect metal silos, particularly those of
thinner shells and in climates with large oscillations
of temperature throughout the day and in different
seasons.
Although this problem was addressed in classical
theories such as that of Anderson (Anderson 1966),
and is covered in the standards, there has been little
work guaranteeing the design of silos with this problem
taken into account. With respect to experimental work,
it is impossible to draw definitive conclusions from
the few published works on the topic (Li et al. 1990).
Only recently have finite element models been used in
order to include both the wall and the grain in studying
this phenomenon (Morn et al. 2005, Morn et al.
2006, Pruisel & Lapko 2007). Nevertheless, it can
be inferred from even this small volume of work on
the subject that the effect of temperature may well be
more important than is currently being considered by
the industry.
A similar phenomenon whose effect is even less
well understood is the swelling of the stored material
if its moisture content increases. This is a common phenomenon in some food industries in which
the grain is moistened, and occurs exceptionally on
occasions when silos are not properly sealed. The pressures due to swelling of the grain and their effect on
the walls of metal silos are ignored by international
standards, and there is hardly any reference in the
literature to research on this problem (Kebeli et al.
2000).
The walls of many cylindrical steel silos are manufactured with corrugated shells to improve their stiffness
against bending which, as was noted above, is always
present in cylindrical silos due the asymmetric loads.
But with this form of manufacture, it is difficult to do
the shell calculations, and even more so the finite element modeling of the stored material and the plates
since the material is left hanging from the corrugations, with physically meaningless tensile stresses
appearing in its interior (Fig. 4). For a joint analysis
of the material and the shell it would be needed to
construct hybrid finite element and discrete element
modelsmodels which have yet to be developed.
Construction with corrugated shells also requires
bolting instead of the welding usually employed for
smooth walls. The calculation of these bolts, their
arrangement in vertical and horizontal lines, and the
reduction in the resistance of the plates due to the
drilling are dealt with conventionally in the standards,
assimilating the problem to that of plates subjected
to simple tensile stresses. In reality, however, more
complex effects occur in the silos (vertical friction of
the grain, buckling, the effect of any vertical reinforcements, etc.) whose influence on the behaviour
and calculation of the bolts has as yet to be studied.
A priori, there seems no reason to expect that all these
effects would noticeably change the design or the total
Figure 4.
by FEM.
128
CORRUGATED WALLS
Wrong results analyzing corrugated walls
cost of the bolting, but it would perhaps be worthwhile

to perform some more in-depth study.
10
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

STIFFENERS
Sometimes cylindrical steel silos are designed with

horizontal stiffeners around the upper part (windrings) to improve resistance to wind-caused local
buckling. Thinner shells are used in the upper parts
of the silo because the grain pressures are smaller.
But either a limiting minimum thickness has to be
established to avoid local buckling due to wind (whose
effect is greater in this zone) (Briassoulis & Pecknold
1986), or the zone has to be strengthened with stiffeners. These stiffeners have to be calculated to withstand
wind action on an imprecise area of the silo, and indeed
the problem of the joint calculation of the plates and
the stiffener is still not well resolved.
Horizontal stiffeners may also be placed around the
lower part of the silo. It is very common to reinforce the
silo-hopper joint when this form of emptying is used.
This is the most robust stiffener of these silos, and is
subject to a complex combination of loads due to the
tensile stresses from the pressure of the grain, the vertical load due to friction between the grain and the wall,
the tilted circular force due to the action of the hopper, plus other asymmetric loads (seismic, wind, etc.).
Because of its importance for safety, this element has
been the subject of study on several occasions, with
respect to both buckling (Zhao & Teng 2004) and the
elements design and calculation (Teng & Rotter 1991,
Teng et al. 2001). Nonetheless, the variety of practical
solutions for this stiffener ring and the uncertainty as
to the peak pressure (also known as kick load) at this
singular point make further work on this issue necessary. Finite element methods have yielded uncertain
results in evaluating the pressures in this zone (Ayuga
et al. 2001b), and it appears that the future will be to
simulate all these singular zones, for which the finite
element model alone seems not to work correctly, with
hybrid finite element and discrete element models
(Lu et al. 1997, Jofriet et al. 1997).
In addition to this ring stiffener, there may exist
another stiffener nearby, somewhat higher up (Herzig
1997), or even several others distributed up the entire
of the wall. These are easier to study by finite elements
simulation.
It is also frequent to design silos with vertical
stringer stiffeners of the type whose effect, as noted
above, is to prevent buckling of the shells. In smaller
silos which are held above the ground on supporting pillars, these stiffeners are often prolongations of
those pillars. For this type of stiffener, it would be
logical to perform a joint stiffener/steel-shell/storedmaterial calculation using finite element simulations
Figure 5.
by FEM.
(Vidal et al. 2006b), (Fig. 5) but there is hardly any

published work exploring different execution procedures, joints with the wall and between vertical pieces,
or triangulations in the lower zone of this form of
structure.
11
SOME OTHER PROBLEMS
In the detailed design of cylindrical steel silos there

arise a number of problems which at first sight
may seem conventional, but turn out not to be so
straightforward. The design and calculation of the silo
top, for instance, has some peculiarities that merit
deeper study. The following are examples of such
singularities:
The form of the joint of the silo lid with the thin
plates of the upper wall.
The arrangement of the silo tops steel plates, and
its calculation in which it must be considered not
only the conventional loads of a top cover, but also
the filling and access devices.
The access ladder to the silo top, its calculation and
fixing systems, effect on the wall.
The manhole allowing entry to the interior of the
empty silo, design pressures and fixing systems,
effect on the wall.
Emptying devices of flat bottomed silos, and their
calculation.
Devices to improve the flow inside the silo and its
structural behaviour.
Joints of the supporting pillars with the silo wall in
silos that are supported above the ground.
129
Unified simulation of wall, hopper and stiffeners
Anchoring to the foundations of flat bottomed silos.

Forms of cutting the plates in the hopper, and its
calculation.
Calculation of the catwalks connecting silos with
each other.
12
DUST EXPLOSIONS
Explosions in silos occur when small dust particles in

the air react with oxygen in the presence of some ignition mechanism, giving rise to a violent exothermic
reaction and, if the air is confined, a sudden increase
in pressure (Eckhoff 2005).
Many of the materials that are stored in silos are
potentially dangerous with respect to explosions. For
countries of the European Union, the ATEX directive
(ATEX 1999/92/EC 1999) for explosive atmospheres
became mandatory few years ago. Many silo manufacturers and designers have therefore had to include
consideration of the issue of protection and design with
respect to explosions in a very restrictive frame.
The priority in regard to explosions is, of course,
prevention. But when it cannot be fully guaranteed the
absence of risk, the design must take the possibility of
explosion into account. Normally, silos are protected
with venting panels, but their size and behaviour still
need investigation. It is not well known how explosions occur and evolve in large containers (tests are
usually conducted in small chambers), or what are
the characteristics of dust clouds in industrial installations, or how venting panels behave mechanically
(Hchst & Leuckel 1998). Indeed, in this last case the
current standards oversize these panels beyond what is
economically feasible. The design of smaller venting
sections needs to be based on test explosions in real
silos and with characteristics of the dust that have been
measured in industrial installations, but as of today
there is very little data of this kind available.
With respect to the numerical simulation of explosions, there is the possibility of using Computational
Fluid Dynamics, CFD, programs (Skjold 2007), but
again there is not sufficient data available on the
parameters involved in the models, in particular concerning the concentration of dust and turbulence in
real silos (Hauert et al. 1996).
The design of the silo top may be compromised
by the provision of conventional venting panels. It
is therefore necessary to look for new designs and
arrangements for circular steel silos. Consideration
also needs to be given to the negative pressures that
arise in the silo on opening the venting panels, which
may compromise the silo walls.
Another field for study is the problem of dust explosions considered from a probabilistic standpoint. Thus,
it can be considered at what stage venting devices or
protective measures in industrial installations really

become necessary, controlling the risk scientifically.
13
The structural design of silos is a fascinating multidisciplinary field, whose diversity of difficulties
represents a challenge to researchers and engineers
alike.
There are numerous areas that remain open and
require investigation, not only in numerical simulation and laboratory testing, but also in measurements in real silos.
Although, a priori, cylindrical steel silos might seem
to pose the fewest design difficulties, typologically
and structurally they present a variety that is very
open to detailed scientific investigation.
Lawmakers and industry need the support of
research groups around the world in order to guarantee safe and economic structures.
The University of Edinburghs research group,
headed by Professor Rotter, has been a pioneer in
many of the fields addressed in this publication over
the past 20 years, and it continues to be the indispensable referent for the rest of the teams all over
the world.
REFERENCES
ACI 313-97 & ACI 313R-97. 1997. Standard practice for
design and construction of concrete silos and stacking
tubes for storing granular materials and Commentary.
ACI International.
AFNOR P-22 630. 1992. Construction metallique: Silos,
BNCM-3.
Aguado, P., 1997. Mtodos avanzados de clculo de presiones en silos agrcolas mediante la tcnica de elementos
finitos. El vaciado de silos y las paredes de chapa
ondulada. PhD Thesis. Escuela Tcnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrnomos de Madrid, Universidad Politcnica de
Madrid, Spain.
Anderson, P., 1966. Temperature stresses in steel grain
storage tanks. Civil Engineering ASCE 36 (1):74.
ANSI/ASAE EP 433. 1998. Loads exerted by free flowing
grain on bins. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
AS 3774-1996. 1996. Loads on Bulk Solids Containers.
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133
A case history of the failure of some silos during discharge

J.B. Burland
Imperial College, London, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper describes a case history of the failure of two cylindrical silos that took place during
discharge after they had operated successfully for many years. Circumstantial evidence points strongly towards
the cause of the failure being due to the loading of an adjacent new silo interacting with the existing silos through
the ground. For many years the silos had been monitored for settlement and measurements were made during
loading and unloading over the time that the failures took place. These measurements are presented. The pattern
and magnitude of the foundation movements of the silos are indicative of eccentric flow within the silos and this
conclusion is supported by the results of model tests and a full-scale trial.
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes a case history of the failure of two

silos in a bank of four that took place during discharge.
The silos had operated successfully for many years
and throughout this time detailed measurements had
been made of their settlements as part of a long-term
research project. The failure took place immediately
after a new silo had been constructed nearby and
loaded. The two silos that failed were close to the
new one. Understandably the cause of the failures was
attributed to the influence of the new silo interacting
through the ground with the older silos. The results are
presented of the field measurements that were made of
the vertical movements around and beneath the silos
during loading and unloading together with results
from model tests and a full-scale trial. It is concluded
from these data that, overwhelming as the circumstantial evidence seems to be for the influence of the new
silo, a more plausible explanation for the failures is
eccentric flow within the silos.
entirely independently of the walls, is a flat floor

containing a large number of conical outlets. The central outlets are intended for discharging the content and
the remainder are used for cleaning out the silo when
nearly empty. This 1065 mm thick reinforced concrete
silo floor is supported at a height of about 2.5 m on
610 mm diameter reinforced concrete columns. These
and the silo wall are in turn supported by a 22.85 m
diameter reinforced concrete raft 1.22 m thick bearing
directly on weathered Upper Chalk.
Silos 1 to 4 were completed in 1973. As part of
a research investigation thirty two levelling stations
were installed in each of the four silos near the bottom of each column and around the base of the silo
walls. During first loading some of the columns experienced severe cracking and careful analysis of the
levelling results showed that this was due to hogging
of the foundation rafts (Burland and Davidson, 1976).
The columns were repaired and the raft foundations
were extended thereby reducing the bearing pressure
by about 20 percent. Thereafter the four silos operated
successfully for eight years and the precision levelling
measurements continued over this period.
DETAILS AND HISTORY OF THE SILOS

2.2
2.1
Silos 1 to 4
Figure 1 shows the plan view of the silos and Figure 2

shows an elevation along Section A-A. Silos 1 to 4
are 20 m internal diameter and 50 m high, each containing 12,000 tonnes of stored material. The dead
weight of each silo is approximately 4,000 tonnes.
Each silo consists of a 239 mm thick circular posttensioned concrete wall with a ring beam at the top
supporting a steel-framed conical roof and a steelframed conveyor bridge. Internally, and constructed
In 1982 a new and larger silo, having a capacity of

25,000 tonne, was constructed west of Silo 4, as shown
in Figure 1. This new silo (number 5) was founded
on piles with the upper eight metres sleeved so as
to minimise interaction with the existing silos. Silo
5 was filled for the first time during late 1982/early
1983 after Silos 3 and 4 had been filled. Unloading of
Silo 3 commenced on 15th February 1983. On 17th
February, with less than 10% of the content removed,
a vertical crack was seen over much of the height of
135
Silo 5 and the failure of Silos 3 and 4
Figure 1.
Plan view of silos.
Figure 2.
Vertical section through silos.
the cylindrical wall which was also observed to be

bulging. On 5th March 1983 unloading of Silo 4 was
commenced and on 10th March, when less than 10%
of the content had been removed, vertical cracks were
seen on the cylindrical walls of the silo. When the silos
had been emptied, the cracks in the walls were repaired

and Silos 1 to 4 were then operated at reduced capacity.
In view of the previous satisfactory performance of
Silos 1 to 4, it would seem to be an open and shut case
that failure was induced by the loaded Silo 5 interacting
136
through the ground with Silos 3 and 4. Certainly the

late Professor Rowe attributed the cause of the failure
to such interaction (Rowe, 1995). He stated that:
Causation was traced to the unexpectedly high
stiffness of the stored material in reaction even to
mimimal distortions of the walls imposed from an
exterior source.
In an accompanying diagram Rowe shows a full silo
undergoing rigid tilt towards an adjacent silo undergoing filling because of the settlement trough generated
by the loading of the second silo. Discharge from the
first silo then results in a reduction of stiffness so that
its foundations distort to conform with the shape of the
settlement trough. This results in an ovalling in plan
of the silo walls of the first silo.
As mentioned previously, precision levelling stations had been located around the bottom of the
silo walls and on the columns. Also the Building
Research Establishment had installed magnet extensometers beneath the centre of the foundations of
Silos 3 and 4 and between Silos 4 and 5see Figures
1 and 2. The results from these measurements suggest
that interaction from Silo 5 is not the only possible
explanation for the failures of Silos 3 and 4.
3
GROUND MOVEMENT ADJACENT

TO SILO 5 DURING LOADING
Prior to the construction of Silo 5 the Building

Research Establishment installed a magnet borehole
extensometer midway between Silos 4 and 5, labelled
E4/5 in Figure 2. Details of the instrument are given
by Smith and Burland (1976). Basically the system
consists of axially magnetised circular magnets fixed
in the ground at various depths down the borehole.
A plastic access tube is located centrally down the
borehole and passes freely through the magnets. The
relative displacement between each magnet can be
measured to an accuracy of about 0.3 mm by means
of a stainless steel tape which has reed switch detectors mounted on it and is permanently suspended in
the access tube.
Silo 5 was loaded during January 1983. Its settlement was reasonably uniform around its circumference being about 10.5 mm. Figure 3(b) shows the
measured settlements at the top of borehole E4/5
as the load in Silo 5 was increased. At the end of
February 1983 the settlement was about 3.2 mm. The
measured distribution of settlement with depth down
the borehole magnet extensometer E4/5 is shown in
Figure 3(a). The measurements show that, down to a
depth of about 12 m, the settlements are very nearly
constant with depth. This means that the vertical
strains over this depth are very small. It follows that
the changes in vertical stress induced in top 12 m of
Figure 3. Relative settlements down borehole 4/5 between

Silos 4 and 5.
the ground by the loading of Silo 5 were negligible. It

is evident from these measurements that the sleeving
of the piles down to 8 m depth was very effective in
minimising lateral load shedding at shallow depths.
4
Loading of Silos 3 and 4 commenced in September

1982 and was complete early in January 1983.
Precision levelling around the base of the walls gave
average settlements for both of them of about 3 mm
and settlements at the centre of the raft foundation of
about 4 mm i.e. a sagging of 1 mm across a diameter
of 20 m. In both cases the tilting across the raft foundations was less than 1 mm. Any vertical distortions
around the base of the silo walls were so small as to
be within the accuracy of levelling.
4.1 Silo 3
Significant loading of Silo 5 commenced in the middle of December 1982 and was complete at the end of
137
SETTLEMENTS OF SILOS 3 AND 4

DURING THE LOADING OF SILO 5
January 1983. A precision survey of Silo 3 was carried

out on 28th January 2003 together with measurements
down the central borehole extensometer. The precision
levelling indicated that the average settlement of the
walls of Silo 3 during the loading of Silo 5 was about
1.2 mm without any change in tilt. However the closing errors for the initial set of levels was rather poor
and cannot be relied upon to better than 2 mm. The
results from the much more accurate borehole extensometer indicated that no settlement had been induced
in Silo 3 by the loading of Silo 5. Because the extensometer is about 23 m deep any settlement induced by
Silo 5 would have had to taken place below this depth.
The vertical distortions around the base of the walls
were not detectable, being within the accuracy of the
measurements i.e. 1 mm in this case.
4.2
Why should such small movements induced by

loading Silo 5 have triggered the failure of Silos 3
and 4 on commencement of unloading when in the
past equal and much larger interactions had safely
occurred?
The measured patterns of vertical distortions that took
place around the base of the walls during unloading
are crucial in attempting to answer this question.
Silo 4
Unlike Silo 3, the measurements on Silo 4 showed

that the loading of Silo 5 had a clear influence on
it. The precision levelling results indicate that, during the loading of Silo 5, the walls of Silo 4 and
the centre of the raft settled 3.4 mm and 4.1 mm
respectively. The corresponding settlements obtained
from the central borehole extensometer, which is
27 m deep, was 3.1 mm and much of this additional
settlement occurred below a depth of about 14 m. The
tilting across the diameter of the silo was 1.5 mm
to 2.5 mm towards Silo 5. As for Silo 3, the vertical distortions around the base of the walls of Silo 4
were not detectable, being within the accuracy of the
measurements of 1 mm.
4.3
that the stiffness of the ground had progressively

changed.
We are therefore confronted by the key question:
Discussion of the effects of loading Silo 5

on the already loaded Silos 3 and 4
The measurements on Silos 3 and 4 show that the

movements induced by the loading of Silo 5 were very
small indeed. Those for Silo 3 were virtually undetectable. It also seems that there were no measurable
vertical distortions around the base of the walls which
implies that the silos were very rigid at this time.
It is interesting and relevant to note that during the
previous successful operations of Silos 1 to 4 there had
been significant interactions between them. Burland
and Bayliss (1990) show that during first loading of
the silos, induced settlements of up 20 mm took place.
In view of the fact that the silos are founded on shallow rafts it is almost certain that induced settlements
at least as large as those induced by Silo 5 on Silos
3 and 4 would have taken place previously. A close
study of the settlement behaviour of the silos since they
were first commissioned shows that, after first loading, there has been no significant change in stiffness
of the chalk foundations in their response to cycles of
loading and unloading. It therefore cannot be argued
Six levelling stations had been located around the base

of the silo walls, three on the east side and three on the
west side. Measurements on these stations were used
to study carefully the vertical movements around each
silo during unloading.
5.1
Unloading of Silo 3
A precision levelling survey was carried out on

28 January 1983 when Silo 3 was loaded to 12,133
tonne of content. Unloading of Silo 3 commenced on
15th February 2003 and on 17th February a vertical
crack was seen over much of the height of the cylindrical wall which was also observed to be bulging.
On the 18th February a precision levelling survey
was carried out when the weight of the content had
reduced to 11,098 tonne i.e. a reduction of 8.5 percent.
Figure 4. Silo 3. Vertical displacements around base when

unloaded from 12,133 tonne to 11,098 tonne.
138
VERTICAL DISTORTIONS AROUND

THE BASES OF SILOS 3 AND 4 DURING
UNLOADING
The measured vertical displacements around the silo

wall are plotted on the polar diagram shown in Figure 4
in which vertical settlement is plotted outwards. It can
be seen that a very curious settlement pattern developed. On the east side little or no vertical movement
occurred but on the west side two large settlement
lobes developed with no settlement between them
giving a kidney-shaped pattern of vertical distortion.
The maximum settlement of the north-westerly lobe
is over 6 mm and that of the south-westerly lobe is
about 4 mm.
By the time the weight of the content had reduced
to 5,750 tonne on 4th March 1983, the vertical distortions had reduced substantially and were much less
localized.
5.2
Unloading of Silo 4
A precision levelling survey was carried out on 18

February 1983 when Silo 4 was loaded to 12,387
tonne of content. Unloading commenced on 5th March
2003 and on 10th March vertical cracks were observed
on the silo walls. Although these cracks were not
as large as on Silo 3 and no bulge was observed,
cracking was more extensive. On the 18th March a
levelling survey was made when the weight of the
content had reduced to 11,227 tonne i.e. a reduction
of 9.1 percent. The measured vertical displacements
around the silo wall are plotted on the polar diagram
shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that the pattern
of vertical movements is very similar to Silo 3 with
two well defined settlement lobes but the orientation is completely different. In the case of Silo 4 an
uplift of nearly 2 mm took place between the two
lobes. The maximum settlement of the north-easterly
lobe is over 5 mm and that of the southerly lobe is

over 4 mm.
As for Silo 3, when the weight of content had
reduced to about 5,000 tonne the vertical distortions had reduced substantially and were much less
localized.
5.3 Discussion of measured vertical distortions
The observed vertical distortions around Silos 3 and
4 intrigued the author. The kidney-shaped pattern of
vertical displacements around the silo walls is very
different from what could be expected from a settlement trough induced by the loading of Silo 5. In
the case of Silo 3 (Figure 4) the vertical settlements
were much larger than those induced by Silo 5 which
were barely measurable. Moreover the orientation of
the settlement lobes bore no relation to the location of
Silo 5. In the case of Silo 4 (Figure 5) the westerly
settlement lobe was directed towards the centre line of
Silo 5 but the north-easterly one was not and it was of
greater magnitude than the westerly one. Moreover an
induced settlement trough could not account for the
measured uplift between the two settlement lobes.
There is another very important aspect of the problem which appears to have been overlooked by Rowe
(1995). It is well known that a vertical cylinder with
a closed base is extremely stiff in its response to differential vertical loads. The vertical differential loads
required to induce the measured vertical distortions
around the base of the silos would have had to have
been huge. Bearing in mind that the loading of Silo 5
did not stress the top 12 m meters of the surrounding ground (as shown in Section 3), where could such
large external differential forces have come from?
On the other hand it is also well known that a vertical cylinder with a closed base is very flexible when
subjected to non-uniform radial pressures. It seemed
more probable that the cause of the large vertical distortions around the base of the silo walls was the result
of non-uniform internal radial pressures. The author
therefore undertook a series of simple kitchen table
model tests to explore the effects of eccentric flow on
the patterns of distortion.
EXPERIMENTS WITH PAPER SILOS
6.1 Experimental arrangement
Figure 5. Silo 4. Vertical displacement around base when

unloading from 12,387 tonnes to 11,227 tonne.
The model silos were formed from sheets of A4 paper

by gluing along a vertical seam 5 mm wide to form a
cylinder. With circular formers to maintain its shape
the cylinder was then glued to a circular cardboard
base. Figure 6 shows a view of the base of a model silo
with a central discharge point and one at an eccentricity
of two thirds the radius.
139
Figure 6. Model paper silo showing discharge holes in

cardboard base.
Figure 8.
Loading the model silo.
from the base of the silo into the pan of the weighing
machine.
The object of the experiments was to measure the
movements of the top of the initially circular cylinder
for various eccentricities of discharge. This was done
by placing a transparent screen made of tracing paper
on top of the cylinder and marking the locations of
various points on the cylinder on to the screen. The
absolute position of the screen was fixed with respect
to the base by means of two set squares at right angles
to each other as shown in Figure 7.
Before filling, a circular former was placed in the
top of the model silo to ensure that circularity was
maintained during filling. A funnel was then filled
with content and held centrally over the silo with the
bottom of the funnel just clear of the silo. The content
was then released into the silo keeping the funnel at a
constant elevationsee Figure 8.
Discharge from the model silos was controlled by
a strip of card inserted between the silo base and the
foam rubber foundation to cover the discharge hole.
Figure 7. Experimental arrangement showing model silo on
foam rubber foundation with transparent screen on top.
The model silos were founded on a 25 mm thick disc

of foam rubber. The silo and foam rubber were placed
on a stand with a weighing machine beneath as shown
in Figure 7. A hole was cut through the foam rubber disc and stand so that the content would discharge
6.2 The influence of eccentric discharge

Tests were carried out using two types of content
sugar and salt. For each type of content, four eccentricities of discharge were investigated: 0, 1/3r, 2/3r and
8/9r where r is the radius of the silo. Measurements
were made of the shape of the top of the cylinder and
the profile of the surface of the content at discharges
of 5%, 10% and 20% of the original weight of content.
140
Figure 9. Model paper silo. Radial displacements at top due

to 10 percent eccentric discharge from 2/3 radius.
silo was then placed in position and filled. Subsidence

of the foundation was induced by removing one of
the tiles. This had the effect of substantially reducing the vertical stiffness of the founding stratum over
a 90 sector. No distortions took place at this stage
demonstrating the rigidity of a full silo.
When central discharge took place the top of the
cylindrical shell took on an oval shape in sympathy
with the underlying subsidence. The oval shape was
very different from the characteristic shape obtained
from eccentric discharge.
Experiments were then carried out in which eccentric discharge took place from various points in relation
to the subsidence region. In every case the characteristic shape shown in Figure 9 developed by the time
that 10% discharge had taken place. It appears that,
for these particular tests, the internal forces on the
cylindrical shell set up by eccentric discharge override
those set up by non-uniform foundation conditions.
6.4 Discussion of the model experiments
It was found that central discharge and discharge at

1/3r gave no radial distortion of the cylinder. However
discharge at an eccentricity of 2/3r gave rise to radial
distortions around the top of the cylinder which are
characterized by those shown in Figure 9. Adjacent
to the discharge point the wall moves inwards and at
the diametrically opposite point inward movement also
takes place but of a lesser magnitude. At about 65
either side of the axis of discharge outward movement
takes place.
It was found that the characteristic shape shown in
Figure 9 developed rapidly and was fully developed
at 10 percent discharge. Increasing the eccentricity of
discharge gave rise to the same characteristic shape
and similar magnitudes of movement. Experiments
using sugar and salt as contents gave rise to similar
magnitudes and shapes of radial displacement.
An experiment was carried out using card instead of
paper for the silo walls. It was observed that the characteristic shape was identical to paper but the movements
were slightly less.
A case was also studied in which the silo walls
were fixed to a rigid base. With an eccentricity of
2/3r it was observed that the characteristic shape was
broadly retained. However the radial displacements
were somewhat reduced and the maximum outward
displacements were at about 55 either side of the axis
of discharge compared with 65 for a flexible base.
6.3
Influence of induced foundation subsidence
Some experiments were also carried out on the effects

of induced foundation subsidence. Four ceramic tiles
were placed on the stand next to each other to form a
square and the foam rubber laid over them. The model
It is important to understand that these model tests

were carried out in an attempt to understand some of
the underlying mechanisms controlling the radial distortions of cylindrical silo walls during discharge. The
tests were not intended as scale models of the real silos.
The characteristic shape of the radial movements
at the top of the models silos can be explained in
highly simplified terms as follows. When central
discharge takes place pipe flow occurs down a central core within which the pressures are low. The
particulate material arches horizontally around this
low pressure region causing high circumferential pressures within the arching region. When eccentric flow
takes place, horizontal arching around the core still
occurs but, at high enough eccentricities, the horizontal arch reacts against the walls of the silo. At
the springing points of the arch the walls move
outwards whereas opposite the low pressure region
the wall moves inwards giving rise to the observed
characteristic shape.
The radial movements at the top of the silo generate
corresponding vertical movements at the base of the
silo. Thus outward movements at the top cause downward movements at the base while inward movements
at the top result in uplift at the base. The measured
pattern of vertical distortions around the bases of
the Silos 3 and 4 (see Figures 4 and 5 respectively)
result from patterns of radial horizontal movements at
the top which are broadly similar to the characteristic
shape obtained from the model tests.
The results of the simple kitchen table model
tests led to a much more sophisticated series of tests
described by Hobbs and Reith (1988). The models
were 300 mm in diameter and 740 mm high. The radial
displacements of the walls were accurately measured
141
at a number of heights. A very large number of tests

were carried out to investigate the influence of discharge eccentricity, silo contents, filling level, foundation stiffness and discharge speed. The conclusions
were in remarkable agreement with the small kitchen
table experiments in that the characteristic kidneyshaped deflection pattern was invariably developed for
eccentric discharge whereas such a pattern could not
be generated by foundation subsidence.
SILO TRIALS AT FELSTED
Shortly after the silo failures described in this paper

some full-scale trials on the effects of eccentric discharge were carried out on one of two 12,000 tonne
sugar silos at Felsted and the results were reported
by Driver and Dawson (1988). Each of the two silos
was 20 m internal diameter and 50 m high. They were
founded on 1.35 m thick base slabs, each resting on 76
bored piles of 30 m length in London clay. Figure 10
shows a cross-section through the Silo number 2 on
which the trials were carried out.
Figure 11. Felsted trial. Measured radial movements at level
C for eccentric discharge at 2/3 radius.
Radial displacements of the silo shell were measured using a precise optical plumb sighting on to
radial targets mounted on the outside of the silo shell.
The targets were mounted at five levels with 9 targets
around each level. Precision levelling was carried out
around the base of the walls.
The first test consisted in discharging 1,850 tonne
from the initially full silo at an eccentricity of 0.43 r.
Some ovalling of the shell was measured but little of
significance. The silo was re-filled and for the second
test 1,222 tonne was discharged at an eccentricity of
0.67 r. The profile of the sugar surface is shown in
Figure 10. Figure 11 shows the measured radial displacements of the silo shell at level C. It can be seen
that the characteristic kidney-shape has been generated. It is of interest to compare this shape with that in
Figure 5 for Silo 4the similarity is striking.
Figure 10.
Full-scale eccentric discharge tests at Felsted.
The case history reported in this paper is important for

a number of reasons, not least because of the wealth of
observations that were made on and beneath the silos.
The circumstantial evidence pointing to Silo 5 being
the cause of the failure of Silos 3 and 4 seems, at
first site, to be overwhelming. The existing silos had
142
CONCLUDING REMARKS
performed satisfactorily for many years prior to the

construction of Silo 5. Then, on the first occasion that
Silo 5 was loaded, the two silos nearest to it failed!
This circumstantial evidence points strongly towards
the cause of the failure being due to some kind of interaction through the ground from Silo 5 to Silos 3 and 4.
There are three key observations that suggest that
Silo 5 was not responsible for the failures.
1. The borehole extensometer measurements alongside Silo 5 showed that the ground surface settlement was only about 3.2 mm and that for a depth of
about 12 m there was no increase in vertical stress
due to Silo 5see Figure 3. Thus the load spread
from Silo 5 was small and deep seated.
2. The movements of Silo 3 during the loading of
Silo 5 were so small that they were within the accuracy of measurements. The movements of Silo 4,
though detectable, were also very small. In the
past the silos had experienced interactive movements without damage which were larger than those
caused by the loading of Silo 5.
3. The observed vertical distortions around the base
of the cylindrical shells during the early stages
of discharge were much larger than any subsidence movements that were induced by Silo 5.
Moreover the unusual kidney-shaped pattern of vertical movement was not consistent with induced
subsidence.
In addition to these key observations it has to be borne
in mind that the magnitude of the vertical differential
forces required to induce the observed vertical distortions at the base of the cylindrical shells would have
to be huge and would also have to be transmitted from
considerable depth.
Some simple model tests were carried out to investigate the effects of eccentric discharge on the radial
distortion of cylindrical silos. It was shown that, above
a certain eccentricity, a characteristic pattern of radial
displacements occurred that is qualitatively explained
by horizontal arching around a low pressure region of
core flow. This characteristic kidney-shaped pattern is
similar to the measured pattern of vertical movements
around the full-scale silos. Model tests at larger scale
confirmed this behaviour. A full-scale trial carried out
on a sugar silo at Felsted has produced an identical
characteristic pattern of radial movements.
It is not possible to pin-point the precise cause of the
failures of Silos 3 and 4 because not enough is known
about the detailed operation of the silos at the time.

However, the observations coupled with the model
and full-scale tests, point strongly towards the probability of eccentric flow within the silos. The cause
of such eccentric flow can only be a matter of speculation. However, Nielsen (1998) has drawn attention
to the numerous factors that can give rise to unsymmetrical flow within silos and he points out what a
dangerous phenomenon this is for the safety of a silo
structure.
Whatever the cause of the failures, this is an intriguing case of ground-structure-content interaction and
one that the author found particularly challenging. It
also illustrates how instructive even simple physical
models can be in identifying important mechanisms
of behaviour.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is most grateful to Laing ORourke for
permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Burland, J.B. & Davidson, W. 1976. A case study of cracking
of columns supporting a silo due to differential foundation
settlement. Conf. on Performance of Building Structures:
249276. Pentech Press, London.
Burland, J.B. & Bayliss, F.V.S. 1990. Settlement and yielding of Upper Chalk supporting the foundations for a silo
complex. Proc. Int. Symp. On Chalk, Brighton. 365374,
Thomas Telford, London.
Driver, S.J. & Dawson, P. 1988. Sugar Silo behaviour,
Part I, Eccentric Discharge Tests at Felsted Silo Number 2.
Technical Conference, Eastborne. Paper 2.3A, British
Sugar plc.
Hobbs, R.E. & Reith, I.H. 1988. Sugar Silo behaviour,
Part II, Tests on Sugar Silo Models. Technical Conference,
Eastborne, Paper 2.3B, British Sugar plc.
silos. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London A, 356: 24492782.
Rowe, P.W. 1995. Examples of ground response to various
types of structural foundation construction. Engineering
Geology of Construction. Geol. Soc. Eng. Geology Spec.
Pub. No 10: 3357.
Smith, P.D.K. & Burland, J.B. 1976. Performance of a high
precision multipoint borehole extensometer in soft rock.
Canadian Geotechnical Jnl.13 (2): 172176.
143
Investigation of laser-beam welding induced distortions

in thin sheets of Al 6056T4
J.F. Jullien, A. Combescure & M. Zain-ul-abdein
LaMCoS, INSA-Lyon, CNRS UMR5259, France
ABSTRACT: This work is aimed to predict the laser-beam welding induced distortions in the thin sheets of
Al 6056T4, used for manufacturing of fuselage panels of aircraft structures. To study the response of the material
an experimental campaign with relatively smaller test specimens is carried out. Initial geometric imperfections
of the test plates are given special care. Numerical simulation is also performed using the Finite Element (FE)
code Abaqus/Standard. An uncoupled thermo-mechanical simulation is performed. Good correlation is found
in experimental and simulation results. It is, however, established that the knowledge of initial stress state is
necessary to accurately predict the presence of buckling distortion.
INTRODUCTION
The new generation aircraft structures make extensive use of laser-beam welding for the fabrication of
fuselage panels. These panels are large thin structures
of Al 6056T4 (an aluminium alloy) with stiffeners
welded upon them. The typical length of weld seam
reaches 50 m or so. Industrially, the fuselage panels
are held in position with the help of a suction table.
Laser-beam welding is employed in a key-hole regime
from both sides of the stiffeners in a T-joint configuration. The residual stresses induced during welding
may then give rise to the bending/buckling distortions.
Figure 1 presents the typical shape of fuselage panels
manufactured for aerospace assembly.
Buckling is the most common distortion phenomenon observed during welding of thin structures.
The distortion levels are considerably higher in case
of buckling distortions as compared to the distortions induced by bending stresses. Moreover, there
exists more than one stable deformed shapes. During
a welding process, a highly non-uniform stress field is
induced in the structure. These stresses are generally
tensile in nature in the direction of welding and tend
to be compressive in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
There exists a critical stress barrier for these compressive stresses; which, if surpassed, buckling is said to
be occurred, otherwise bending stresses are said to
be present. This critical stress barrier depends upon
the inherent properties of the material, geometry
of the structure subjected to welding and dimensions of
the fusion zone and HAZ. Many researchers have so far
attempted to predict the bending and buckling distortions experimentally or numerically. Tsai et al. (1999)
have studied welding induced bending and buckling

distortions of a thin plate panel structure. Zaeem et al.
(2007) have tried to predict welding buckling distortion in thin walled aluminium T-joint. Darcourt
et al. (2004) and Josserand et al. (2006) have also
attempted to predict laser welding induced distortions
by numerical simulation for an aeronautic aluminium
alloy. Buckling analysis of shell structures requires
the information regarding initial geometric imperfections of the sheets. These imperfections are a direct
consequence of pre-processing techniques, which may
include rolling, machining etc. Such working processes may also induce an initial stress state level in
the sheets. It is, therefore, likely that the final level of
residual stresses be the additive sum of pre-weld stress
state and stresses induced during welding. Rotter et al.
(1989) have studied the elastic buckling strengths of
thin cylindrical shells under axial compression, with
imperfections rising at circumferential welded joints.
Numerical simulation of laser beam welding
involves several complex phenomenon like formation
of keyhole, ionization and vaporization of material,
circulation of molten material within weld pool due
to electromagnetic and buoyancy forces, solidification at the liquid-solid interface etc. The integration
of thermo-metallo-mechanical behaviour of material
makes the simulation techniques more complicated.
Moreover, numerical simulation of large structures
with three dimensional continuum elements entails
the use of exceptionally powerful computers, yet the
computation time may prolong up to several days or
weeks. Efforts are, therefore, made to adopt such
an approach that may efficiently deal, at least, with
the extended computation time without compromising
145
Figure 1.
Fuselage panel manufactured for aerospace structures.
Upper surface
TC5
Thermo-mechanical analysis of local

model with 3D solid elements
TC4
300 mm
Modeling of
weld pool
Mechanical analysis
of local model with
shell elements
TC2
Mechanical analysis of global

model with shell elements
Figure 2.
TC3 TC1
TC8
TC9
TC6
TC7
200 mm
Local-global approach.
0.31
the quality of simulation results. Duan (2007) has

employed one such local-global approach using FE
software SYSWELD, where the global model is composed of several identical local models. The local
model may be considered as a building block of global
model. Figure 2 presents schematic sketch for such an
approach for a T-joint configuration.
Duan (2007) established that the through-thickness
temperature gradient resulting due to local heating
during welding gradually diminishes in the direction
transverse to welding direction. Therefore, the shell
elements may conveniently be used in the regions away
from fusion and heat-affected zone. The plastic strain
fields resulting from thermal loading shall follow the
same pattern and, hence, the results of mechanical simulation can be efficiently transferred from 3D elements
to shell elements. Once a robust local model with shell
elements is acquired, the simulation results may then
be projected into the global model. The work presented by Duan (2007) is a part of the project INZAT4,
sponsored by EADS, AREVA-NP, EDF-SEPTEN, ESI
Group and Rhne-Alpes Rgion. The work presented
in this article is also a part of the project INZAT4 and
focuses on the thermo-mechanical response of the thin
Thickness direction
TC6
Speckle Pattern
Figure 3.
Test plate geometry & experimental setup.
sheets of Al 6056T4, while taking care of the effect of

initial geometric imperfections.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
A series of small-scale experiments with industrial thermal and mechanical boundary conditions is
146
Lower surface
Final State After Welding
Initial State Before Welding
TP1
Figure 4.
Welding Direction
Concave
Welding Direction
TP2
Convex
TP3
Convex
Welding Direction
Initial (left) & Final (right) surface profiles.
carried out in order to acquire a sufficient experimental data-base. These experiments involve welding of a
fusion pass with and without filler metal in the middle
of the test plate of dimensions 300 200 2.5 (mm).
Various instruments have been employed before, during and after the welding in order to capture maximum
information in terms of temperatures and displacement
fields. Thermocouples (TCs) were installed to record
the temperatures on the upper and lower surfaces of
the test plates. Infra-red camera was also installed to
observe the evolution of surface temperature of weld

pool during welding. The speckle pattern was created
on both sides of weld fusion line (Fig. 3) to perform
3D image-correlation in order to get the displacement
fields of the upper surfaces of the test plates both
before and after welding. Macrographs were finally
taken to measure the dimensions (width and penetration) of weld pool. The test plates were mounted on an
aluminium suction table with the help of suction force
applied through the table on the bottom side of the test
147
plates. Geometry of the test plates and thermocouple

positions are shown in Figure 3. A test plate mounted
on the aluminium suction table with speckle pattern
on both sides of the plate is also shown. Following
parameters were used during welding:
0.5
0.31
0.32
Fusion pass welding (without filler metal): power =

2300 W, weld speed = 8 m/min
Filler pass welding (with filler metal): power =
3000 W, weld speed = 8 m/min
Plate
Support
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
Axis of
symmetry
Initial surface profiles as observed from the 3D image

correlation technique have shown a considerable difference in the geometric imperfections. Figure 4
presents upper surface profiles of three different fusion
welded test plates before and after welding. Here, the
welding parameters and boundary conditions for all
the test plates were identical, yet a considerable difference in the final surface profiles, and hence the
distortion level, may well be observed. The first test
plate, called as TP1, shows concavity (inward depression) in the initial state towards the mid of the test plate;
while the other two test plates TP2 and TP3 show convexity at almost the same location. The magnitude of
their vertical displacements (in the direction Z) also
varies to certain extent.
It may also be observed that these initial geometric
imperfections have a direct influence over the final
shape and distortion level of test plates. It may also be
noted that for TP1 the maximum vertical displacement
is observed at the start and stop ends of weld bead while
for TP2 and TP3 maximum vertical displacement is
observed in the mid of the test plate.
To examine the net distortions induced by the welding process, the difference between final and initial
state is observed and maximum and minimum vertical displacements across the weld joint are shown in
Figure 5. Although the net vertical displacements for
Out-of-plane displacements across the weld joint
Ver tical Displacement (mm)
1.2
Figure 6.
Finite element mesh.
all the three test plates are in close proximity, yet they
differ from each other.
Assuming the weld parameters and boundary conditions constant, the initial geometric imperfections
(pre-bended/pre-buckled state) may be considered
responsible for this difference.
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
As welding was performed in the middle of the test

plate, selection of a symmetric model for half of the
test plate is a wise approach to considerably reduce
the degrees of freedom and hence the computation
time. The finite element (FE) mesh consists of 8-nodes
linear brick elements and some 6-node linear prism
elements totaling over 58,000 nodes and 50,000 elements. The mesh size increases progressively across
the test plate from very fine in the fusion zone to very
coarse at the far end. The dimensions of the smallest element along with the mesh of the symmetric
model for test plate and support are shown in Figure 6.
The FE code Abaqus /Standard is used to perform the
simulation.
1
0.8
HEAT SOURCE MODEL
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
100
120
Distance across the weld joint (mm)

MAX-TP1
Figure 5.
MIN-TP1
MAX-TP2
MIN-TP2
MAX-TP3
MIN-TP3
Vertical displacements across the weld joint.
The heat source model used to apply the thermal load

consists of a conical part with Gaussian distribution
and an upper hollow sphere with linear distribution of
volumetric heat flux. Upper hollow sphere is meant to
achieve the required width of weld pool while conical
part of the heat source helps in acquiring the required
penetration. Equation 1 presents the mathematical
model of the above heat source which is programmed
148
Qs
1.47
Z
res
Qc
ris
zsu
Sphere
X
re
1.12
zeu
ze
Cone
zi
ri
zel
Figure 8.
Figure 7.
Time-temperature Curves - Exp vs Sim
Heat source model.

140
Temper ature (C )
1
9P f
Qv =
(1 e3 ) (ze zi )(re2 + re ri + ri2 )

3r 2
3P (1 f )
exp 2 +
ds
rc
4(res ris )3
An uncoupled thermo-mechanical simulation is performed, where the thermal analysis is first carried out
to calculate the temperature fields.
Thermal boundary conditions (BCs) include free
convection and radiation on all the surfaces of test plate
except the bottom surface where forced convection is
used due to air suction. Thermal conductance is also
assumed to be present at the interface of test plate
and aluminium support. The thermal BCs are detailed
below.
qconv+rad = hconv (T T0 ) + ((T Tabs )4 (T0 Tabs )4 )
60
40
TC3
0
(2)
Time (s)
Figure 9.
curves.
Experimental & simulated time-temperature
where T , T0 , Tabs and Ts are the temperature of the test

plate, ambient temperature, absolute temperature and
temperature of the support respectively. The values
used for the heat transfer coefficients and radiation
constants are as follows:
Convective heat transfer coefficient of air, hconv =
15 W/ C m2
Emissivity of speckle pattern, = 0.71
Emissivity of aluminium, = 0.08
Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
= 5.68 108
4
2
J/K m s
Convective heat transfer coefficient for air suction,
hforced conv = 200W/ C m2
Thermal conductance, hth cond = 50 W/ C m2 at
0 bar, 84 W/ C m2 at 1 bar
DC3D8 and DC3D6 type elements with linear interpolation between the nodes are used for thermal simulation. The comparison of experimental and simulated
fusion zone is shown in Figure 8. The temperature histories recorded at thermocouple positions TC1, TC2
and TC3 in Figure 3 are compared with simulated
results in Figure 9.
MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
Mechanical analysis is performed using temperatures

calculated in thermal analysis as predefined fields.
149
TC1 -EXP
TC2 -EXP
TC3 -EXP
TC1 -SIM
TC2 -SIM
TC2 -SIM
TC2
80
(1)
THERMAL ANALYSIS
qth cond = hth cond (Ts T )
100
20
where, Qv = total volumetric heat flux in W/m3 , P =

laser beam power in Watts, = efficiency of the process, f = fraction of heat flux attributed to the conical
section, rc = flux distribution parameter for the cone
as a function of z and ds = flux distribution parameter for the hollow sphere such that its value is 1 at ris
and 0 at res . The remaining parameters are shown in
Figure 7.
An efficiency () of 37% is used for the thermal
analysis with the power (P) of 2300 W. The remaining
parameters are adjusted to obtain the required weld
pool geometry.
qforced conv = hforced conv (T T0 )
TC1
120
in FORTRAN as DFLUX subroutine. The schematic

sketch of the heat source model is shown in Figure 7.
Experimental vs simulated weld pool geometry.
Out-of-plane Displacement across the weld joint - Exp vs Sim

1.2
Vert ical Displacement (mm)
MAX
1
MIN
0.8
MAX-EXP
MIN-EXP
MAX-SIM
MIN-SIM
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
25
50
75
100
125
Distance across weld joint (mm)
Figure 10.
placement.
Experimental & simulated out-of-plane dis-
In-plane Displacement across the weld joint - Exp vs Sim
Displacement across weld joint (mm)
0.03
Ref. line
X
0.02
0.01
0
-125
-100
-75
-50
-25
25
50
75
100
125
EXP
SIM
Residual Stresses across the weld joint

250
200
Ref. line
X
150
Stress (MPa)
C3D8R and C3D6 type elements with linear interpolation between the nodes are used for mechanical simulation. The material is assumed to follow
an elasto-viscoplastic law with isotropic hardening.
A friction coefficient of 0.57 is used at the contact
surfaces of the test plate and the aluminium support.
During experimentation, a suction pressure of 1 bar
was applied on the bottom surface of test plate through
the support. Taking into account the possible leakage
present at the fine rubber joint between the test plate
and support, it is assumed that 80% of the actual pressure was present between the test plate and the support.
Figures 10 and 11 present the comparison between
maximum and minimum out-of-plane and in-plane
displacements respectively measured experimentally
by 3D image correlation technique and calculated
numerically.
It is to be noted that the experimental values shown
in Figure 10 are the representative of the vertical
displacements of right half of TP1 from Figure 5. Reference lines for the location of comparison are also
shown in respective figures.
Having obtained the good accordance between
experimental and simulated temperature and displacement results, residual stresses can now be predicted.
Y
Sigma_xx
Sigma_yy
Sigma_zz
100
50
0
0
10
-50
-100
Figure 12.
Predicted residual stresses.
Figure 12 shows the magnitude of the predicted residual stresses present in the upper surface of the test
plate. These stresses are presented for the symmetric
part of the test plate only.
It is found that the longitudinal residual stresses
(xx , stresses in the direction of welding) have the
maximum magnitude and are largely tensile in nature,
while the transverse stresses (yy , stresses across the
weld joint) are mainly compressive in the fusion zone
and becomes tensile in the heat affected zone (HAZ).
The residual stresses in the thickness direction,
zz , are negligible. The non-zero magnitude of these
stresses is because of the interpolation of the values
from integration points to nodes. The test plate regions
away from these non-zero residual stress areas may
be regarded as un-affected base metal. It is, however,
noted that the longitudinal residual stresses do not pass
into compressive mode. These stresses remain tensile
in fusion zone and reduce gradually to approximately
zero level in HAZ. Absence of compressive stresses
in longitudinal residual stress field also indicates that
there is no buckling at all, rather only bending stresses
are responsible for the out-of-plane deformation of the
test plate. However, this is of importance to note that
the numerical model presented here do not take care
of pre-weld stress state of the test plate.
Moreover, as already established, different magnitude of vertical displacements for different test plates
(Fig. 5) is a result of pre-bended/pre-buckled state of
the test plates, the identical loading and boundary conditions shall not lead to the different pattern of residual
stress distribution; and, hence, to observe the difference in distortions the initial stress states of the test
plates are required to be taken care of.
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 11.
ments.
Experimental & simulated in-plane displace-
An approach to uncouple the complexities involved

in studying the laser-beam welding induced buckling
distortions is presented in this work. A comparative
150
study of experimental and numerical simulation results

has also been carried out. Following conclusions are
inferred:
1. Various experiments have been performed with
similar welding parameters and with identical
boundary conditions. Yet the difference in the outof-plane displacements is observed for different test
plates. This is a clear indication towards the effect
of initial geometric imperfections over the final
distortion level.
2. Good agreement is found between experimentally
observed and simulated weld pool geometry; which
justifies the integration of heat source model with
an upper hollow sphere and a subsurface cone.
3. Good accordance is found for thermal histories
between experimental and FE simulation results;
which, in turn, verifies the accuracy of applied
heat flux and thermal boundary conditions including thermal contact resistance. A few discrepancies
may be attributed to the simplifications assumed
during simulation.
4. Good agreement is observed between the experimental and numerical results for out-of-plane and
in-plane displacements for a suction pressure of 0.8
bar and a friction coefficient of 0.57 with one of the
test plates TP1. However, the numerical model does
not take care of initial surface profiles of test plate;
which is likely to play a decisive role in defining the
deformation pattern.
5. Longitudinal residual stresses, xx , have the values as high as the yield strength of the material.
Compared to all other stress components, they will
have considerable influence over the distortion pattern and the failure of the material. Nevertheless,
these stresses do not pass in the compression zone,
which, in turn, establishes the absence of buckling
distortions in the simplest numerical model. It is,
however, believed that the introduction of pre-weld
stress state may give rise to the compressive stresses
as high as the critical buckling stress of the test
plates.
6. Transverse residual stresses, yy , are around 20%
of the yield strength in fusion zone and are even
lesser in HAZ. Yet, they are tensile in HAZ and compressive in fusion zone. Through-thickness stresses,
zz , and other stress components namely xy , xz and
yz have negligible magnitudes and, hence, are not
likely to cause any significant distortion.
7. Laser-beam welding with keyhole formation is characterized by a more pronounced dominance of the
longitudinal residual stresses over the transverse
residual stresses, as for the test case studied the

former is 5 times as high as the latter.
8. Three dimensional elements with linear interpolation between the nodes are used both for thermal
and mechanical analyses. Improvement in results
may also be expected with quadratic interpolation
between nodes for mechanical analysis.
9. The numerical model needs to be improved in
order to include the effects of initial geometric
imperfections and pre-weld residual stress state.
The work presented here may be considered as the first
step towards the complex pattern of welding-induced
bending or buckling distortions in aluminium structures. This is, however, established in this study that
the initial geometric imperfections have a considerable
effect over the distortion pattern of the whole structure. Moreover, the test plates may be considered as
the representatives of the local deformation pattern.
The numerical model may be improved while taking care of the initial geometric imperfections. The
approach may then be extended towards a global model
of the whole assembly of the aerospace structure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by EADS, AREVA-NP, EDFSEPTEN, ESI Group and Rhne-Alpes Rgion
through the research program INZAT4.
REFERENCES
Darcourt, C. 2004. Thermomechanical analysis applied to the
laser beam welding simulation of aeronautical structures.
Journal de Physique IV 120: 785792.
Duan, Y. 2007. Modlisation numrique des distortions
rsiduelles de soudage de structure minces. Doctoral
thesis.
Josserand, E. 2006. Numerical simulation of weldinginduced distortions taking into account industrial
clamping conditions. Mathematical Modelling of Weld
Phenomena 8.
Rotter, J.M. 1989. Elastic stability of cylindrical shells
with weld depressions. Journal of Structural Engineering
ASCE 115 (4): 12441263.
Tsai, C.L. 1999. Welding distortion of a thin-plate panel
structure. Welding Journal Research Supplement 78:
156s165s.
Zaeem, M.A. 2007. Prediction of welding buckling distortion
in a thin wall aluminum T-joint. Computational Materials
Science 38: 588594.
151
Local dimpling of the shell surface of a tank due to shrinkage effects

J.M.F.G. Holst
Scott Wilson, Michael Young Centre, Cambridge, UK
ABSTRACT: The strength of metal cylinders is well known to be highly sensitive to the presence of
imperfections. Attention has long been focused on geometric imperfections, but some recent studies have
examined the effect of including the residual stress state relating to the formation of these imperfections in
assessing the buckling strength of the shell. This paper looks first at how the imposition of a local geometrical
incompatibility on a long narrow circumferential region of the shell surface leads to the formation of dimple
imperfections and how these, in turn, affect the buckling strength of the shell. As an example, a case study of a
thin cylindrical steel tank is presented, where lack of fit and weld shrinkage have caused local dimpling of the
shell. Some results are presented from an analysis of this tank, which successfully uses several of the procedures
applied in studying the fundamental cases of misfits.
INTRODUCTION
Metal silos and tanks are commonly constructed using

isotropic curved plates to form unstiffened cylinders.
Buckling failure under axial compression, which can
be increased by local unsymmetrical normal pressures, is the controlling design consideration for most
silos of this type. Tanks also may be susceptible to
buckling under axial compression, for example as a
result of uneven settlements beneath the shell wall
(Holst & Rotter 2003, 2004). Often, however, the critical design parameter for cylindrical tanks is buckling
under external pressure.
The strength of metal cylinders is well known to be
highly sensitive to the presence of imperfections, their
magnitude and their shape (Yamaki 1984, Calladine
1995). Geometric imperfections have been studied
extensively for many decades and some attention has
also been focused on imperfections in the boundary
conditions. However, imperfections caused by residual or locked in stresses have received very little
attention.
This paper presents part of a rigorous numerical
study of the relationship between misfits of geometry,
residual stresses, induced geometric imperfections,
and a resulting change in buckling strength (Holst,
Rotter & Calladine 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, Holst &
Rotter 2002). In this study, idealised forms have been
used to model numerically the effects of fabrication
misfits and weld shrinkages. Thus, narrow zones of the
shell surface are made to undergo swelling or shrinking
to the extent of the desired misfit.
The first part of this paper examines the effect of
varying the direction of misfit applied to a long narrow
circumferential zone on the imperfection form, termed

dimple here, and the resulting buckling strength under
externally applied axial loading. In the second part,
the example of a thin cylindrical steel tank is presented
as a case study, where lack of fit and weld shrinkage
have led to local dimpling of the shell. Some results
are presented from an analysis of this tank, which successfully uses idealised fabrication misfits to model
numerically the changes in geometry observed and the
resulting residual stress state.
2
Shell structures such as metal silos and tanks are

frequently constructed from a set of curved panels or
plates (Martens 1988b). The seam between panels is
a major source of deviation from a truly cylindrical
form (Fig. 1). Deviations or imperfections may result
from the welding process or they may also be caused
by a lack of fit between plates. In order to align the
different plates to give a neat fit, the edges of the plates
must be subjected to certain displacements, for example using clamps. Even a small lack of fit of less than
one shell thickness in the plane of the shell can give
rise to a dimple amplitude normal to the shell an order
of magnitude larger with high associated stresses.
In practice, fabrication misfits are highly complex
and nonuniform. The numerical investigations have
concentrated thus far on stylised misfit geometries for
simplicity, whereby a uniform lack of fit is applied to
a small area of the shell over a local strip.
Two types of misfit have been thus far in this study.
The simplest possible form of local misfit from a
153
MISFITS OF GEOMETRY
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of geometrical misfits in a

plated cylindrical shell structure.
theoretical viewpoint is a single point source. This

form might represent a hotspot or a localized impact.
The misfit may be biaxial, where the lack of fit is in
two orthogonal directions, or uniaxial. In the second
type of misfit, one of the dimensions is significantly
larger than the other. Where this models a lack of fit
in fabrication, the misfit will be essentially uniaxial in
character. In modelling the welding process, however,
the component of shrinkage in the direction parallel
to the longer extent of the misfit may be of some significance. Section 4 focuses on examining the effect
of applying shrinkage in different directions to a long
narrow circumferential strip.
Holst et al. (2000) demonstrated that superposition of local patch misfits can be used to predict
imperfections arising from general misfits along a circumferential or meridional seam. Thus localized and
extended misfits are modelled by applying a uniform
shrinkage strain to a rectangular patch on the shell.
A uniaxial lack of fit of a is simulated by applying a shrinkage strain across the patch width a,
where
=
a
a
type S4R were used. These are 4-noded doubly curved

thin shell elements. Steel cylindrical shell structures
in this part of the study were examined in purely
elastic analyses. A reference cylinder with a radius
R = 5.0 m, thickness t = 10.0 mm (i.e. R/t = 500),
and height H = 10.0 m was used here. The geometry of the undeformed shell is shown schematically
in Fig. 2. A cylindrical co-ordinate system was used,
where the position of a point on the shell middle surface is described by the co-ordinates in the hoop
direction and x in the axial direction (measured on the
undeformed cylinder).
To reduce the time required for computations, mirror symmetry boundary conditions were imposed such
that only a segment of the shell needed to be analysed
numerically, namely one of height H /2 and circumferential angle seg = 45 . This segment is indicated
in Fig. 2 by means of a shaded area. The material,
corresponding to steel, was assumed to be isotropic
linear elastic, with a Youngs modulus of elasticity
E = 2 105 MPa, and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
The general procedure for analysis was as follows.
In an initial step (Step 1), a strain of value was
imposed on the shell over a small rectangular patch
of dimensions a b (indicated by a trellis pattern in
Fig. 2). Taking into account the mirror symmetry used,
this corresponds to the imposition on a complete cylindrical shell of four rectangular shrinkage patches of
dimensions 2a 2b. Throughout this paper, a positive
value of indicates an imposed shrinkage strain,
whereas a negative value implies swelling.
As a result of this strain and the associated stresses
developed both within the patch and near it, a local
dimple or bulge was formed. The second step then
followed: an axial load F (total load on segment)
was applied to the upper circular edge of the segment shown in Fig. 2 such that this edge of the shell
displaced uniformly in the axial direction.
(1)
In a similar manner, a biaxial misfit is modelled by

applying a lack of fit of a = b in two orthogonal
directions.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES
All analyses performed were geometrically nonlinear

and static using the modified Riks method to determine the equilibrium curves (ABAQUS Users Manual 2002). The commercial finite-element package
ABAQUS was chosen for the analyses; and elements of
Figure 2. Schematic drawing of the loading and undeformed geometry for the shell.
154
During Step 1, symmetry boundary conditions were

imposed on the two edges parallel to the axis and at the
upper circumferential boundary (at x = 0 in Fig. 2).
The lower circumferential edge was radially and circumferentially restrained, but free to move axially. The
symmetry boundary conditions used in Step 1 along
the meridional edges were preserved during Step 2.
The upper circumferential boundary was forced to displace under the imposed axial load by an amount u in
the x direction, whilst the boundary conditions in the
other translational and rotational degrees of freedom
were retained. The lower boundary was fully restrained
against translation and rotation.
2.0
M
B
C
C+M
Rad. displ. w /t
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
Distance around the circumference,
8
=R /
Figure 3. Dimensionless radial displacement through the

dimple (Step 1).
A series of analyses was conducted in which a misfit was applied to a thin circumferential strip with a
meridional, circumferential, or biaxial lack of fit.
The circumferential strip examined here has a
dimensionless length of 0 = b/ = 2.4. The resulting radial displacement, w, at the end of Step 1
is plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 through the dimple.
The co-ordinates along the shell middle surface have
been made dimensionless using the relationship
= R/, and
(2)
= 2.44 Rt
is the linear bending half-wavelength for the shell.
It is clear from Fig. 3 that, as for a small square
misfit, see Holst, Rotter & Calladine (1999), the application of a biaxial misfit (B) results in displacements
approximately equal to those obtained by simple addition of the two uniaxial sets (C+M). Where linear
theory applies, this is naturally exact, but geometry
changes affect the result slightly in the region of the
dimple apex in which the peak stresses occur due to
the application of the misfit patch.
The amplitude, see Fig. 3, and form, see Fig. 4, of
the dimple are substantially different for meridional
and circumferential shrinkage. Whereas the effect of
circumferential shrinkage is more marked within the
shrinkage area itself, meridional shrinkage dominates
beyond this area. In this particular case the shrinkage
strain is equal in both directions. Since the lack of
fit across the strip is therefore much smaller than that
along the strip, it is clear that the latter will give rise
to a dimple with greater amplitude.
In Step 2, a uniform axial load is applied to
the shell, where = F/Fcl and the applied load,
F, is normalized with respect to the axial load Fcl
corresponding to the classical elastic critical buckling
stress, cl = 0.605 Et/R. Global buckling is precipitated at the maximum load cr = 0.69 for the case
Rad. displ. w /w max
NARROW STRIP WITH WELD

SHRINKAGE OR LACK OF FIT
M
B
C
C+M
8
=R /
Figure 4. Normalised radial displacement through the dimple (Step 1).
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
M
B
C
C+M
0
2
4
6
8
=R /
Figure 5. Dimensionless radial displacement through the

dimple (Step 2).
of meridional shrinkage. For circumferential shrinkage, the buckling load cr = 0.53 is somewhat lower
than for meridional shrinkage, a direct result of the
greater amplitude and extent of the causal dimple. The
buckling strength for the biaxial case is similar, with
cr = 0.55.
155
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Rad. displ. w /t
Rad. displ. w /w max
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
M
B
C
C+M
8
=R /
Figure 6. Normalised radial displacement through the dimple (Step 2).

Figure 7.
Steel tank with dimple formation.
Figure 8.
Detail of dimple.
The form of the dimple at the maximum load is

shown in Figs. 5 & 6. The application of axial load
has clearly led to an amplification of the pre-existing
dimple for the cases of circumferential and biaxial
shrinkage. In the case of meridional shrinkage, the
dimple at the end of Step 1 had a fairly flat peak, and
so the application of an axial load has led to the formation of a reverse dimple. The amplitude of this
dimple is substantially smaller than that for circumferential shrinkage so that its description is approximately
equal to that for biaxial shrinkage.
CASE STUDY
The steel tank shown in Fig. 7, with a radius R =

7.5 m, thickness with stepwise variation between t =
5.0 mm and t = 9.4 mm, and height H = 14.6 m, suffered extensive local damage when a fire broke out in
close proximity. The duration of the fire was approximately 25 min. Visible damage was caused to a region
of the tank extending approximately 8.5 m around the
circumference and reaching vertically to just below the
ring stiffener at a height of 10.2 m. The formation of a
buckle was reported at a height of approximately 7.0 m.
The repair works included the replacement of those
curved steel panels thought to have been damaged in
the fire. In all cases, complete panels were substituted.
However, it was observed that in many cases there was
a substantial lack of fit between panels prior to welding, in some instances up to approximately 25 mm.
This, in turn, led to the formation of several inward
dimples with depths of many multiples of the shell
thickness.
The largest dimples were alleviated by hydraulic
means and the panels were strengthened by welding
additional ring and vertical stiffeners to the shell wall.
Finally, upon filling of the tank, a further set of dimples became visible at the ends of the additional ring
stiffeners, see Figs. 7 and 8.
Clearly, modelling the entire process of damage and
repair accurately constitutes a highly complex task,
and some simplifications must be made. Apart from
the changes in geometry, it was deemed important to
approximate the residual stress state in the final configuration in order to predict the effect of the dimples
on the buckling strength of the shell.
An initial simulation using the FE package
ABAQUS adapted the model used in Section 4 to
this particular tank. Here, a uniform shell thickness
of 6.3 mm was assumed for simplicity. The tank
model includes the ring stiffener at 10.2 m and the
two additional ring stiffeners at 6.2 and 7.2 m.
The analysis captures well some of the features
observed in the real tank, including the prominent
inward dimples at the ends of the additional ring
stiffeners. Fig. 9 shows a contour plot of the radial
deformation after the application of meridional weld
156
U, U1
+1.185e-02
+6.532e-03
+1.217e-03
-4.098e-03
-9.413e-03
-1.473e-02
-2.004e-02
-2.536e-02
-3.067e-02
-3.599e-02
-4.130e-02
-4.662e-02
-5.193e-02
Figure 9. Contour plot of radial deformation after the application of meridional weld shrinkage and a circumferential
lack of fit.
SM, SM1
(Ave. Crit.: 75%)
+2.643e+00
+2.254e+00
+1.866e+00
+1.477e+00
+1.089e+00
+7.004e-01
+3.119e-01
-7.649e-02
-4.649e-01
-8.533e-01
-1.242e+00
-1.630e+00
-2.019e+00
Figure 10.
resultant.
a. The application of a biaxial misfit to a long circumferential strip results in displacements approximately equal to those obtained by simple addition
of the two uniaxial sets.
b. A lack of fit across a circumferential strip gives rise
to a dimple with a smaller amplitude than a lack of
fit along the strip when the same shrinkage strain
is applied.
c. The application of an axial load results in an amplification of the pre-existing dimple for the case of a
circumferential lack of fit.
d. The theoretical models derived here and in previous
work for fundamental cases of misfits have been
implemented successfully in studying a real tank.
e. The analysis captures well the essential features
observed in the real tank and it shows that these are
a consequence of the residual stress state resulting
from the lack of fit and weld shrinkage calculations,
and the geometric constraints.
REFERENCES
Contour plot of the meridional bending stress
shrinkage strains, a circumferential lack of fit, and

an axial load due to the weight of the tank roof. The
analysis results at the end of each of the loading steps
closely resemble those after the equivalent steps in the
fundamental analyses of Section 4.
The analysis shows that the dimple configuration
depicted in Figs. 7 & 8 is a consequence both of the
residual stress state resulting from the lack of fit and
weld shrinkage calculations, see e.g. Fig. 10, and the
geometric incompatibility at the ends of the stiffener
resulting from the application of internal pressure.
The critical design parameter for this tank is its
buckling strength under external pressure. The analysis indicates that this is not affected significantly by
the presence of the large dimples at the ends of the
stiffeners or their associated residual stress state.
ABAQUS Users Manual 2002. ABAQUS/Standard Userss

Manual, Volume 1, Version 6.4. Pawtucket, Rhode Island:
Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorenson, Inc.
Calladine, C.R. 1995. Understanding imperfection-sensitivity
in the buckling of thin-walled shells. Thin Walled Structures: Special Issue on Imperfection-Sensitive Shells, ed.
G.D. Galletly, 23: 215235 (based on papers presented
at the Euromech Colloquium 317, Liverpool, UK, 2123
March 1994).
Holst, J.M.F.G. & Rotter, J.M. 2002. Buckling strength of
cylinders with a consistent residual stress state. 3rd International Conference on Advances in Steel Structures,
Hong Kong, 911 December 2002.
Holst, J.M.F.G. & Rotter, J.M. 2003. Settlement beneath
cylindrical shells. In Buckling of Thin Metal Shells, eds.
J.G. Teng & J.M. Rotter, Spon, London, pp 129153.
Holst, J.M.F.G. & Rotter, J.M. 2003. Nonlinear response
and buckling of cylindrical tanks due to foundation settlement. In Design, Inspection, Maintenance and Operation
of Cylindrical Steel Tanks and Pipelines (Proceedings of
the International Conference, Prague, Czech Republic,
810 October 2003), ed. V. Krupka, pp 2925.
Holst, J.M.F.G. & Rotter, J.M. 2004. Axially compressed
cylindrical shells with local settlement. Thin Walled
Structures, 43: 811825.
Holst, J.M.F.G., Rotter, J.M. & Calladine, C.R. 1996. Geometric imperfections and consistent residual stress fields
in elastic cylinder buckling under axial compression. In
Proceedings of the International Workshop on Imperfections in Metal Silos: Measurement, Characterisation, and
Strength Analysis, 199216 (based on lectures presented
at the CA-Silo workshop, Lyon, France, 19 April 1996).
Holst, J.M.F.G., Rotter, J.M. & Calladine, C.R. 1997.
Characteristic geometric imperfection forms for cylinders
derived from misfit calculations. In Carrying Capacity of
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CONCLUSIONS
Steel Shell Structures (Proceedings of the International

Conference, Brno, Czech Republic, 13 October 1997),
eds. V. Krupka & P. Schneider, 333339.
Holst, J.M.F.G., Rotter, J.M. & Calladine, C.R. 1999. Imperfections in cylindrical shells resulting from fabrication
misfits. Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
125(4): 410418.
Holst, J.M.F.G., Rotter, J.M. & Calladine, C.R. 2000.
Imperfections and buckling in cylindrical shells with consistent residual stresses. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 54: 265282.
Martens, P. 1988a. Stahl- und Aluminiumsilos. In SiloHandbuch, ed. P. Martens. Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin,
Germany, 255341.
Martens, P. 1988b. Bauausfhrung: Ausfhrung in Stahl. In

Silo-Handbuch, ed. P. Martens. Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn,
Berlin, Germany, 460463.
Teng, J.G. & Rotter, J.M. 1992. Buckling of pressurized axisymmetrically imperfect cylinders under axial
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Yamaki, N. 1984. Elastic Stability of Circular Cylindrical Shells. Amsterdam, North Holland, Elsevier Applied
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158
Seismic response of tanks in view of shell theory

R. Greiner & M. Kettler
Graz University of Technology, Austria
ABSTRACT: The objective of this paper is to analyse the seismic behaviour of tanks in close connection with
realistic boundary conditions at top and bottom. Upper ring girder, fixed roof and foundation stiffness may
be of significant influence. Shell theory opens the door to consistent analysis of these effects controlling the
magnitude of axial compression forces in the tank wall, which might cause failure by elephant-foot-buckling.
Examples of practical tanks are studied and compared with existing code provisions for earthquake design of
tanks.
INTRODUCTION
Seismic designdue to the high magnitude of accelerated fluid masswill often dominate the design of
tanks. Compared to the complex structural condition
of the tank under seismic action the present design
codes, like API Standard 650 or Eurocode 8-4 (EN
1998-4) provide a rather small set of simple checks of
specific parts of the tank. These checks are built up
in a way which relieves designers from the troublesome idea of considering the tank in context with the
complexity of shell theory.
This papers objective is not to deal with the basic
subject of various shell problems in tanks arising under
earthquake, which has been started by the authors in
(Kettler 2004) and (Greiner & Kettler 2005) previously. The paper will just focus on one single part of
these design problems, well known under the colourful
words of elephant foot buckling check and closely
connected with the name of Prof. Michael Rotter.
The check sets the buckling resistance of the tank
wall in comparison with the axial compression force
under the overturning moment due to the seismic
action (Fig. 1). Much attention has, thereby, been given
to the phenomenon of shell buckling, which leads to
the theoretically challenging task of combining axial
compression and internal pressure in stability. The primary solution of it has been given by Prof. Michael
Rotter, making the different mechanical effects of the
complex stability problem clear and well applicable
for design purposes. The design formulae of existing
codes go back to these roots.
Less attentionso farattracted the determination
of appropriate axial compression forces in the tank
wall. API 650 provides an analytical formula based
on the idea of the tank being a cylindrical body under
overturning moment. Eurocode 8-4 (EC8-4) offers a
diagram derived from results of the shell-theory, i.e.

from FE-calculations of specific tanks with practical
dimensions, all of them closed on the top by fixed
roofs.
a)
Rotter
pE
c,E c,R
Figure 1a. Shell buckling under axial compression and
internal pressure.
b)
JR
H
u
D
Figure 1b.
159
1983
1985
1987
1989
1990
Geometry parameters of the tank.
In this situation, the question arises whether the

codes, as they exist, provide appropriate provisions
for checking the buckling safety of the main types
of practical tanks. This, not so much concerning the
elephant foots phenomenon on the resistance side
as the determination of realistic axial forces on the
action side. On the one hand, the API-formula needs to
be scrutinized with respect to effects of shell behaviour
versus rigid body behaviour of the tank. On the other
hand the Eurocode-data need clarification of scope
of application for tanks other than those numerically
calculated before. Thereby, attention should be paid to
the different construction types of tanks, which might
have open tops (floating roofs) or closed tops (fixed
roofs), and to different conditions of the foundation.
The present paper, therefore, deals with the effect
of shell behaviour on the magnitude of the axial compression forces under seismic overturning moments
for tanks in the scope of realistic boundary conditions. The seismic response of these tanks is mainly
considered under uplift conditions.
2
SHELL-BEHAVIOUR OF TANKS
Liquid-filled tanksat first sightseem to have

enough structural stiffness as to be considered like a
cylindrical body under the action of a seismic overturning moment (Fig. 2). The above mentioned formula
for the axial compression force in API 650 is based
on this mechanical model, using the equilibrium of
cosine-shaped axial compression and uniform counter
balance of the uplifted part of the circumference. This
results in the limit state of the self anchored tank, at
which the angle of the circumferential portion under
compression approaches about 2 30 = 60 . This
means that mechanical anchorage of the tank begins
to be obligatory, when 300 of the circumference are
under uplift. In this mechanical model the counter
weight of the liquid load on a defined part of the
annular plate plays an important role.
Shell calculations in form of FE-analyses for the
quasi-static seismic load on the tank wall, however,
show that storage tanks of practical type excite axial
compression forces along their circumference, which
nc
nc
Figure 2.
Body versus shell behaviour.
may considerably deviate from the idealized distribution of a rigid body (Scharf 1990, Kettler 2004). The
reasons may be found in a number of effects influencing the shell behaviour of the flexible tank structure.
The main effect certainly is the ovalisation of the tank
due to uplifting. This uplift, comprising just a limited
part of the circumference, acts like a disturbance of
the uniform meridional membrane state of the shell,
causing circumferential bending deformations with
the result of amore or lessovalized shape of the
upper rim of the tank.
This means, that the behaviour of tanks should be
looked at more closely by using shell theory. The main
focus of this investigation is laid on the qualitative
side of effects, which influence the shell behaviour of
practical tank structures.
It is well known that the structural behaviour of
shells is the most efficient one of all types of structures. However, it is also known, that this efficiency is
directly connected with appropriate boundary conditions of the membrane state. Accordingly, the conditions at top and bottom of the tank do play an important
role. Fig. 3 illustrates different conditions found in
practical tank structures.
The boundary condition at the top end of the tank
may be described by the radial bending stiffness of a
ring girder in case of open floatingroof tanks or by
the radial stiffness of a fixed roof for closed tanks. In a
membrane or semi-membrane shell model both stiffnesses would be simulated by elastic spring stiffnesses
of different magnitude. Any local disturbance of the
membrane state will activate circumferential bending
deformations of the boundary at the top, which lead to
ovalisation of the tank and to non-uniform shapes of
axial compression forces at the bottom end.
The boundary conditions at the bottom may be
assumed as rigid in radial direction, however, the
meridional membrane condition (axial condition) may
influence the shell behaviour significantly. At the
uplifted part of the circumference the axial condition is governed by the counter force of the uplifted
annular plate, depending on its bending as well as
Top:
ring girder
nc
ring
stiffness
roof
stiffness
annular plate
stiffness
Bottom:
nc
u
uplift
c
subgrade
modulus
Figure 3. Boundary conditions at top and bottom and its

representation in shell models.
160
fixed
roof
membrane stiffness. At the front part of the circumference under compression the axial boundary condition
is coupled with the subgrade modulus of the ground.
Both boundary conditions cause non-uniform membrane deformations and may have considerable effect
on the distribution of the compression forces.
A second important aspect of shell theory is the
level of mechanical modelling (Fig. 4). Three kinds
of modelling are discussed herethe linear elastic analysis LA, the geometrically nonlinear, elastic
analysis GNA and the geometrically and materially
nonlinear analysis GMNA. All the numerical calculations presented hereafter have been carried out by
ABAQUS.
In principle, all methods applied to tanks under
uplift clearly are nonlinear with respect to the contact problem between bottom and foundation. The
LA-method in this sense describes just elastic calculations without geometrically nonlinear effects of the
shell structure, while the GNA-method takes these
effects into account. Applied to uplifted tanks this
results in taking account of the smoothening effect
developed by the internal fluid pressure in the zones
of uplift with local ovalisation. Comparisons between
both methods show that the nonlinear effect may be
very high, leading to a large reduction of the uplift
height under overturning moment for the tanks calculated with the GNA-method (Kettler 2004). Accordingly, all the elastic calculations in the present paper
have been based on the GNA-method.
The GMNA-method was applied for evaluating
the elasto-plastic behaviour of the annular plate
in the state of uplift with respect to its influence
on the overall behaviour of the tank under overturning moment. This annular-plate behaviour has been
extensively studied previously by Wozniak & Mitchell
1978, Cambra 1982, Scharf 1990 and Malhotra &
Veletsos 1994. While the work of Wozniak/Mitchell
resulted in the traditional beamformula in API
650, which is valid for small uplift deformations,
Cambra, Scharf and Malhotra found that higher uplift
activates the membrane behaviour of the annular plate
leading to considerably increased hold-down forces.

The present study by GMNA (Fig. 5) confirmed both
models in their specific range of application each.
The outcome of the comparison of the GMNA- and
V
pt a
120
GNA
100
GMNA
80
60
beam solution
40
20
string solution
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
u0 /t a
t a = 11 mm
f y = 355 N/mm
ts
u0
p
ta
c = 4 kN/cm
L
V
pt a
120
GNA
100
GMNA
80
string solution
60
uplift
response
40
ovalisation
of top ring
beam solution
20
0
LA . . . linear
GNA . . . smoothening effect
GMNA . . . plastic behaviour of annular plate
Figure 4.
Mechanical modeling: LAGNAGMNA.
40
60
80
100
120
L / ta
Figure 5. Uplift behaviour of annular plate at = 180 ,

tank 3. Elastic and plastic solutions.
161
20
GNA calculations was in principle, that the holddown-forces are a bit reduced by the plastic effect.
However, this reduction turned out as rather moderate, since the string action of the membrane coming
into play with increasing uplift is rather insensitive to plasticity. In consequence, the reduced holddown forces resulting from the GMNA-calculations
enhanced the overturning effect (distinctly increased
uplift deformation, but moderate effect on the axial
compression area), however, the behaviour in principle remained very similar to the GNA-results. Fig. 6
demonstrates the differences of GNA- and GMNAcalculations with respect to axial force distribution and
shape of uplift distribution. In order to avoid the dependence of the results from the specific yield strength of
the annular plate in this study, it was decided to base
the following calculations on elastic behaviour.
The conclusion of this section is that a large number

of structural effects of shell behaviour may significantly influence the seismic response of tanksthe
ring stiffness at the top, the soil modulus at the bottom, the strength of the annular plate and the kind
of mechanical modelling. A study dealing with the
effects of the foundation stiffness has also been given
by Malhotra 1997 previously.
In this paper the main attention has been turned
to the first two aspects, i.e. the stiffness of the topring and the foundation stiffness in relation to the
axial compression forces due to overturning. The
annular plate has been assumed by fixed dimensions for each tank and the mechanical modelling
has been based on the GNA-method. Local buckling effects of the tank wall have been excluded,
which means that adequately stiffened walls are
assumed.
200
Tank 3
nx0 [kN/m]
-200
-400
-600
GMNA
-800
GNA
-1000
180
AXIAL BUCKLING RESISTANCE OF TANKS
Mrw = 1,40 Mrw,API
Mrw = 1,35 Mrw,API

135
90
45
[deg]
Figure 6a. Axial membrane force over circumference at

bottom end of tank 3. JR = 100 JAPI , c = 4 kN/cm3 (see
section 4.1.).
As already addressed above, the buckling resistance

of cylindrical shells under axial compression and
internal pressure has been investigated comprehensively by Prof. Michael Rotter (Trahair et al. 1983;
Gaylord & Gaylord 1984; Rotter 1985; Rotter 1987;
Rotter & Hull 1989; Rotter 1990; Rotter 2004). These
resultsat different stages of developmenthave
been incorporated in many design codes, in particular in the Eurocodes EC 3-1-6 and EC 8-4. Fig. 7
illustrates the results of the design formulae in the
Eurocodes and those of API 650. It should be stated
that the rules given in Eurocode 3-1-6 represent the
most developed level of these design formulae.
300
Tank 3
GMNA
250
1,0
GNA
0,6Et s / R
200
u0 [mm]
EC 3-1-6
EC 8-4
150
R/t = 2000
0,8
0,6
Mrw = 1,35 Mrw,API
100 Mrw = 1,40 Mrw,API
R/t = 1000
0,4
50
API 650 for H = 20m

0,2
0
180
R/t = 1000
135
90
45
R/t = 2000
0,0
[deg]
0,0
Figure 6b. Uplift deformation over circumference at bottom

end of tank 3. JR = 100 JAPI , c = 4 kN/cm3 (see section
4.1.).
0,4
0,6
0,8
pR
t s fy
1,0
Figure 7. Buckling resistance c of tank wall under axial

compression and internal pressure p.
162
0,2
4
4.1
INVESTIGATED TANKS: SCOPE

AND GENERAL BEHAVIOUR
a)
Tank 1
Tank properties and loading
The examples investigated hereafter comprise four

storage tanks with stepped wall thickness and diameters between 24 m and 100 m. Detailed dimensions are
given in (Kettler 2004), the main data are summarized
in Table 1.
The boundary conditions of the tanks at the top were
defined so that open-top tanks with floating roofs as
well as closed-top tanks are covered. For the first type
the top girder was modelled by the stiffness parameter
(moment of inertia) JR according to API (see Table 1),
for the second one the ring stiffness of 100 times that
of API was assumed to represent the higher rigidity
of a practical roof structure. The ring-parameter JR
acc. to API 650 was denoted JAPI ; it was determined
on basis of the section modulus Z(cm3 ) given there
by transforming it to JAPI using practical widths of
the ring girder. The rest of the notation is as follows:
ts denotes the thickness of the bottom shell course,
wt gives the weight of the shell acting at the bottom, La is the radial length of the annular plate with
thickness ta .
The foundation stiffness of the tanks was represented by two limit rigidities of the soil. The rigid
condition was modelled by a subgrade modulus of
4 KN/cm3 and the flexible one by 0.1 KN/cm3 .
For all tanks the specific gravity of the fluid was
taken 0.85. The hydrostatic and seismic pressure were
applied as quasi-static load on the tank wall as illustrated for two examples in Fig. 8; the load on the
bottom has been included in the calculations, but it
is not illustrated in the figure for the reason of clarity. The seismic loading was determined following the
rules of Eurocode 8-4 for tanks with flexible walls.
4.2 Reference data acc. to API 650
For the given tanks, calculations of the seismic effects
were also carried out in accordance with the provisions
in API 650. Table 2 presents the main results, which
will be used in the following, just as references for
comparison with the results of the numerical calculations. Since API does not distinguish between open- or
Table 1.
Tank 1
Tank 2
Tank 3
Tank 4
Investigated tanksdimensions, weight.

D
m
H
m
ts
mm
ta
mm
La
m
Wt
kN/m
JR
cm4 103
100
60
40
24
17.7
20
20
24
44
25
14.9
10.9
18
16
11
8
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
53
31
21
18
255,3
255,3
70,7
27,1
hydrostatic pressure
hydrodynamic pressure for 49% Mrw,API
Figure 8a. Hydrostatic and seismic load distributions for

the examples of tank 1 (for Mrw,API see section 4.2.).
b)
Tank 3
hydrostatic pressure
hydrodynamic pressure for 140% Mrw,API
Figure 8b. Hydrostatic and seismic load distributions for
the examples of tank 3 (for Mrw,API see section 4.2.).
Table 2. Investigated tanksAPI data.
Tank 1
Tank 2
Tank 3
Tank 4
La,API
m
Mrw,API
kN/m
Nc,a
kN/m
Nc,u
kN/m
yu
mm
130
123
85
67
1.51
1.26
0.87
0.58
2.81 106
8.53 105
2.60 105
7.58 104
411
333
228
185
1645
1371
943
758
544
426
293
178
fy(a) = 355 MPa, G = 0,85, Mrw,uplift = 0,51 Mrw,API .
closed tops of the tank, the same formulae were applied

to both types of investigated tanks. Mrw,API represents
the maximum overturning moment, which is allowed
by API for tanks as limit for unanchored tanks. The
terms Nc,a and Nc,u denote the axial compression forces
for anchored (Nc,a ) and unanchored (Nc,u ) tanks due
to the overturning moment Mrw,API . La,API is the radial
uplift length according to API resulting in the resisting
force of tank content wa .
163
wa
kN/m
Deformation
scale factor = 2
Deformation scale factor = 10
a) Mrw = 0,5 Mrw,API
c) Mrw = 2,8 Mrw,API

Deformation
scale factor = 5
Deformation scale factor = 20
Figure 9. Overall deformation of a) tank 1: JR = JAPI ; b) tank 1: JR = 100 JAPI ; c) tank 3: JR = JAPI ; c) tank 3:
JR = 100 JAPI .
4.3
Tank deformationuplift, ovalisation,

annular plate
Deformation
Scale factor = 20
The behaviour of tanks under earthquake is illustrated

here in form of their deformations.
The overall deformation of two tank geometries,
with open or closed top each are presented in Fig. 9.
The broad tank No. 1 (in Fig. 9a and b) shows that its
structure is so flexible as to uplift just locally at the
rear sideindependently of the stiffening of its upper
end. The narrower tank No. 3 represents an example
where the stiffening of the upper end governs the upliftbehaviour. While for the open top tank (Fig. 9c) the
uplift comprises just the rear half of the tank circumference, the uplift amounts to about three quarters of the
circumference for the closed top tank (Fig. 9d). The
figures are meant to illustrate the deformations qualitatively, therefore it should be noted that the examples
are different in magnitude of the overturning moment
and different in the scale factor of the deformations.
All tanks are considered for the foundation stiffness
4 KN/cm3 .
The ovalisation of the circular cross-section of
the tanks due to uplifting may be found in Fig. 10. The
same tanks No. 1 and No. 3 as in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 are
presented. The pronounced dependency of the deformation from the upper ring stiffness is obvious. The
figures indicate that the assumption of JR = 100 JAPI
seems to well approximate the practical stiffness to be
expected for fixed roofs. It further shows that the ring
stiffness JR = JAPI would lead to ovalisations, which
seem to be acceptable for tanks of the type No. 3 as
long as the overturning moment is within the limits
JR = JAPI
JR = 100 JAPI
Tank 1
23 cm
Figure 10a.
4 kN/cm3 .
99 cm
GNA
a)
Ovalisation of upper ring girder for tank 1; c =
Deformation
Scale factor = 10
M rw = 1,4 M rw,API
1x
J RAPI-Ring
= JAPI
J R =API-Ring
100 JAPI
100x
Tank 3
21 cm
64 cm
GNA
b)
Figure 10b. Ovalisation of upper ring girder for tank 3;

c = 4 kN/cm3 .
of API 650. However, these deformations would be

very high for the large tank diameters like type No. 1.
In these cases the seismic impact on the floating roof
would need closer investigation.
164
Mrw = 0,5 Mrw,API
600
a)
yu,API
Tank 1
400
300
200
100
umax,EC8-4
0
La,API
1000
b)
500
Tank 3
ua [mm]
Mrw = 0,5 Mrw,API
450
u0 [mm]
250
5000
JR/JAPI c [kN/cm]
1 ,1 0,1
1
4
100
0,1
100
4
Mrw = 1,4 Mrw,API
300
yu,API
100
Umax,EC8-4
150
GNA
50
-50
180
135
90
45
[deg]
Figure 11a.
550
JR/JAPI c [kN/cm]
Tank 3
1
1
100
100
450
350
0,1
4
0,1
4
250
150
GNA
Mrw = 1,4 Mrw,API
-50
180
135
90
45
[deg]
Figure 11b.
GNA
La,API
0
1000
2000
uplift length [mm]
3000
Figure 12b. Axial deformation ua of annular plate at =

180 for tank 3.
Axial deformation u0 at bottom end of tank 1.
b)
u0 [mm]
4000
200
350
50
2000
3000
uplift length [mm]
600
550
Tank 1
GNA
Figure 12a. Axial deformation ua of annular plate at =

180 for tank 1.
400
a)
Mrw = 0,5 Mrw,API
500
ua [mm]
The aspect of uplift of the tankas already raised in

Fig. 9is again demonstrated in Fig. 11 more in detail.
The uplift-deformation of the bottom end of the tank is
plotted along the circumference for the two tanks No. 1
and No. 3, considering the two types of upper-ringstiffness (JAPI and 100 JAPI ) as well as the two kinds
of subgrade modulus (0.1 KN/cm3 and 4 KN/cm3 ).
The specific structural effects may be evaluated by
look at the diagrams.
The next figure (Fig. 12) illustrates the same loading conditions of the tanks discussed above, however,
instead of the uplift distribution of the bottom edge of
the tank along its circumference the uplift deformation
of the bottom plate (annular plate) was plotted in radial
direction at the rear side ( = 180 ). The reference
data of API 650 for the uplift-height ua (or yu respectively) and for the uplift-length of the bottom plate L
were also drawn in as well as the uplift-data given in EC
8-4. One can see that the uplift deformation ua and the
uplifted length L are highly dependent on the stiffening
conditions of the upper end of the tanks and that the
membrane behaviour is considerably activated, thus
leading to larger uplift lengths as they would result
from pure bending behaviour. The comparison with
the codes shows that the uplift-height of tank No. 1
(Fig. 12a) acc. to API 650 is already reached for 50%
Axial deformation u0 at bottom end of tank 3.
of Mrw,API and that the uplift-height of EC 8-4 is very

low in relation to the result of the rigidly stiffened
tank (JR = 100 JAPI ). For tank No. 3 (Fig. 12b) reference would have to be made to 140% of Mrw,API , which
is not covered by API 650 and needs extrapolation of
EC 8-4. Nevertheless, the codes would give just very
rough approximations also for this tank.
The reason for these discrepancies may be found
in the fact, that API 650 does not distinguish between
specific shell-behaviour of different tanks in principle and EC 8-4 presents data resulting from numerical
calculations of specific tanks with fixed roofs only,
where the stiffness of the roof is very high caused by
the assumption of spherical domes (Scharf 1990).
165
AXIAL COMPRESSION FORCES

OF TANKS WITH RIGID TOP GIRDER
Tanks with upper ring girders of the stiffness JR =

100 JAPI have been considered as appropriate models for fixed roof tanks above. These rings have been
called rigid top girders here.
The axial forces of such tanks due to overturning
moments are discussed by means of Fig. 13 and Fig. 14
in the following. Both figures present the results of
tanks with two different foundation stiffnesses (c =
0.1 KN/cm3 and c = 4 KN/cm3 ) and two different
levels of overturning moment. The broader tank No.
2 (D = 60 m) is given in Fig. 13 and the narrower
tank No. 3 (D = 40 m) in Fig. 14.
The plots show that the circumferential distribution of the axial compression forces may significantly
be influenced by the foundation stiffness. This effect
increases when the tank diameter gets larger and when
the overturning moments amplify. The shape of the
force-distribution in the compression area may deviate significantly from the cosine-shaped distribution
underlying the API-model.
The calculations further show that the overturning
moment Mrw,API is not a strict limit for unanchored
tanks from the mechanical point of view, even though
it may be regarded as reasonable practical design criterion. In case of tank No. 3 the seismic impact could
Mrw
Mrw,API
c [kN/cm]
0,1
4
0,1
4
0,75
0,63
0,94
0,88
Mrw
M rw,API
b)
nx0 [kN/m]
b)
-100
-300
-500
-700
EC8-4
-900
-1100
0,95 Mrw ,API
Tank 3
-1300
-1500
180
GNA
135
90
45
[deg]
Figure 14. Axial membrane forces at bottom end of tank 3

with JR = 100 JAPI . Plan view in a) and flat projection
in b).
Tank 2'
100
-100
-300
-500
Tank 2'
0,9 Mrw ,API
EC8-
GNA
135
Tank 3
100
-900
180
0,1
4
0,1
4
300
300
-700
c [kN/cm]
0,95
0,95
2,0
2,0
be increased in the calculation up to twice the amount

of Mrw,API without giving reason for excluding it.
The comparison with the reference data of API 650
and EC 8-4 makes clear, that considerable differences
may occur between code-predictions and results for
different practical conditions. In the cases addressed in
this section the codes provide axial compression forces
which may be up to 100% higher than the forces for
specific boundary conditions.
GNA
a)
GNA
a)
nx0 [kN/m]
90
45
[deg]
Figure 13. Axial membrane forces at bottom end of tank

2 with JR = 100 JAPI . Plan view in a) and flat projection
in b).
The tanks with upper rings with JR = JAPI are

addressed as tanks with flexible top girders.
The axial compression forces along the circumference of tanks No. 2 and No. 3 are illustrated in Fig. 15
and Fig. 16 analogously to the figures in section 5.
Observing the distribution of forces in the compression area again shows a considerable growth of the
non-uniformity of the forces compared to the idealized
cosine-shape form. This is the result of the amplified ovalisation of the tanks due to lower stiffness of
the top girder and its interaction with the stiffness or
flexibility of the foundation.
The comparison with the prediction of API 650
leads to similar results as found in section 5.
166
AXIAL COMPRESSION FORCES

OF TANKS WITH FLEXIBLE TOP GIRDER
The comparison with EC 8-4 must be dropped, since

only closed-top tanks are considered there.
GNA
a)
Mrw
Mrw,API
7
0,1
4
0,1
4
0,75
0,75
0,95
0,95
The present paper deals with the behaviour of different

types of storage tanks under seismic impactmainly
focused on the various factors influencing the axial
compression forces under overturning moment. The
approach chosen for this study is the view of the
problem from shell theory. Accordingly, the shellboundary conditions at top and foundation of the tank
play a dominant role and the kind of method of analysis
applied to the numerical calculation is of significant
influence.
The result of the investigation is the awareness,
that the specific shell-boundary conditions may considerably affect the axial compression forces, both in
magnitude as well as in distribution along the circumference. The stiffness of the upper edge of the tank
in form of ring girders or fixed roofs is an essential
parameter as well as the stiffness of the soil foundation
at the bottom.
Comparisons with results of code-provisions existing in API 650 and in Eurocode 8-4 for seismic design
of tanks show that differences between code-formulae
and shell calculations may occur in the magnitude of
100% for practical conditions. This is mainly caused
by the fact that the present codes are not accounting
for the specific shell-effects of different types of tanks.
Comprehensive research has been dedicated to the
stability phenomenon of elephant-foot-buckling by
Prof. Michael Rotter in the past, leading to excellent design provisions on the resistance side. However,
these design rules cannot be used to full capacity as
long as the axial compression forces are not determined with comparable quality also on the action side.
Tank 2'
300
b)
nx0 [kN/m]
100
-100
-300
-500
Tank 2'
-700
0,95 Mrw ,API
GNA
-900
180
135
90
45
[deg]

with JR = JAPI . Plan view in a) and flat projection in b).
GNA
a)
Mrw
Mrw,API
c [kN/cm ]
0,1
4
0 ,1
4
0,95
0,95
2,0
2,0
Tank 3
REFERENCES
300
b)
100
n x0 [kN/m]
-100
-300
-500
-700
-900
0,95 Mrw ,API
Tank 3
-1100
-1300
GNA
-1500
180
CONCLUSION
c [kN/cm]
135
90
45
[d eg ]

with JR = JAPI . Plan view in a) and flat projection in b).
Cambra, F.J. (1982). Earthquake response considerations

of broad liquid storage tanks. Rep. UCB/EERC-82/25,
Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Richmond,
Calif.
Gaylord, E.H. & Gaylord, C.N. (1984). Design of Steel Bins
for Storage of Bulk Solids, Prentice Hall.
Greiner, R. & Kettler, M. (2005). Seismic design calculations of large cylindrical flat-bottom storage tanks.
Metal Structures Conference, Xanthi, Greece, Volume I,
228235.
Kettler, M. (2004). Earthquake design of large liquidfilled steel storage tanks, Diploma Thesis, Graz Univ. of
Technology.
Malhotra, P.K. & Veletsos, A.S. (1994). Beam model for base
uplifting analysis of cylindrical tanks, J. Struct. Engrg.,
ASCE, 120 (12), 34713488.
167
Malhotra, P.K. (1997). Seismic Response of Soil-Supported

Unanchored Liquid-Storage Tanks, J. Struct. Engrg.
ASCE, 123 (4), 440450.
Rotter, J.M. (1985). Buckling of Ground-Supported Cylindrical Steel Bins under Vertical Compressive Wall Loads,
Proc., Metal Structures Conference, Institution of Engineers of Australia, Melbourne, 112127.
Rotter, J.M. & Seide, P. (1987). On the Design of Unstiffened
Shell Subjected to an Axial Load and Internal Pressure.
Proc. of ECCS Colloquium on Stability of Plate and
Shell Structures. Ghent University, 539548.
Rotter, J.M. & Hull, T.S. (1989). Wall Loads in Squat Steel
Silos during Earthquakes, Engineering Structures, 11,
No. 3, 139147.
Rotter, J.M. (1990). Local Inelastic Collapse of Pressurised
Thin Cylindrical Steel Shells under Axial Compression,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 116, No. 7,
19551970.
Rotter, J.M. (2004). Buckling of cylindrical shells under
axial compression, in Buckling of Thin Metal Shells, eds
J.G. Teng & J.M. Rotter, Spon, London, 4287.
Scharf, K. (1990). Beitrge zur Erfassung des Verhaltens von
erdbebenerregten, oberirdischen Tankbauwerken, VDI
Verlag, No. 97.
Trahair, N.S., Abel, A., Ansourian, P., Irvine, H.M. &

Rotter, J.M. (1983). Structural Design of Steel Bins for
Bulk Solids, Australian Institute of Steel Construction,
Sydney.
Wozniak, R.S. & Mitchell, W.W. (1978). Basis of seismic design provisions for welded steel oil storage tanks.
Session on Advances in Storage Tank Design, American
Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, D.C.
STANDARDS
API Standard 650, Welded steel tanks for oil storage, 10.
Edition, November 1998.
Eurocode 3Design of Steel Structures, Part 16: Strength
and Stability of Shell Structures. (EN 1993-1-6, February
2007).
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July 2006).
168
Buckling of thin-walled pressurized cylinders under bending load

A. Limam & C. Mathon
LGCIE INSA-Lyon, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
A. Combescure & J.F. Jullien

LaMCoS INSA-Lyon, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
ABSTRACT: The buckling behavior of thin-walled pressurized cylinders under bending load is investigated
through an intensive experimental campaign on thin shells (550 < R/t < 1450) of moderate length (L/R 2).
The experimental buckling behavior of pressurized shells under bending is somewhat similar to the behavior under
axial compression: for low pressurization cases, the load-carrying capacity is strongly sensitive to geometrical
imperfections, whereas above a sufficiently high level of pressure, the buckling occurs for a stress value close
to the theoretical prediction. A major difference between bending and pure compression lies in the post-critical
behavior; the reaching of the critical load under bending is accompanied by wrinkles or buckles confined on a
small area around the compressed fiber. It allows for sufficiently pressurized cases, stress redistribution around
the buckling zone, so that the collapse moment is much higher than the bifurcation one as opposed to the case
of axial compression. In a second section, non-linear finite element analyses are carried out to simulate the
conducted tests. The numerical model correctly follows the experimental tests predictions.
INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled cylindrical shells are used in numerous

applications such as tanks, silos or space launchers.
A correct design has to prevent buckling phenomena,
which may occur under specific loading conditions. It
is well-known that for a real- imperfect-structure, the
ultimate load can be greatly dependant on the presence
of geometrical imperfections.
Experimental results are presented here, obtained
on thin shells (550 < R/t < 1450) of moderate
length (L/R 2), submitted to internal pressure and
pure bending. A special attention is given to geometrical imperfections of the tested specimens, which are
measured thanks to a specific scanning device.
The aim of the present work, based on experimental
and numerical approaches, is to give some designs
recommendations for thin cylindrical shells subjected
to combined bending and internal pressure.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The first experimental campaigns on unpressurized shells under a bending load (Mossman and
Robinson 1930, Rhode and Lundquist 1931, Imperial 1932, Lundquist 1933, Donnell 1934, Lundquist
1935, Suer et al. 1958) have put forward that the buckling behavior is rather similar to the one observed on a
compressed cylinder: the increasing bending moment

causes local buckling of the compressed side of the
specimen, the typical failure pattern consisting of
diamond-shaped buckles.
From a theoretical point of view, Seide &
Weingarten (1961) show for finite length simply
supported cylindrical shells, that when a linear prebuckling state is assumed, the theoretical buckling
stress under pure bending is equal to the bifurcation
stress for a shell under uniform axial compression CL
(independently identified by Timoshenko, Lorenz and
Southwell).
CL =
3(1
2)
t
R
(1)
For uniform compressive load cases, consequences

of internal pressure on the buckling of cylindrical
shells have been extensively studied. Many authors
(Hutchinson 1965, Flgge 1973, Yamaki 1984, Teng &
Rotter 1992, among others) show theoretically that for
a perfect shell, pressurization does not affect the theoretical buckling stress, once the axial pretensional
stress has been balanced:
bif = CL +
169
PR
2t
(2)
Experimentally, it is seen that under compression,

the critical buckling stress increases with internal pressure to reach a maximum equals to the bifurcation
stress given by (Eq. 2) (Lo et al. 1951, Weingarten et al. 1965, Limam 1991): the shell becomes
progressively less sensitive to geometrical defects.
The modification of the post-critical behavior with
internal pressure is also examined (Schnell 1960,
Thielemann 1960): for sufficiently high levels of pressure, this behavior is found to be stable, provided that
the shortening of the shell remains small. Numerical FE simulations (Limam 1991) confirm these
results: the pressurization inhibits asymmetrical bifurcation modes but has no effect on the axisymmetrical
0-mode. For this reason, for a perfect shell, buckling occurs at the same stress with or without internal
pressure; the only change is the shape of the critical
mode.
Concerning a pressurized cylindrical shell under
flexure, Weingarten (1962) uses the same methodology as for unpressurized cylinders (Seide &
Weingarten 1961), and points out that the actual bifurcation stress is slightly increased by the pressure,
depending on the R/t ratio.
From an experimental point of view, only a few
campaigns dealing with pressurized shells under a
bending moment have been achieved. Suer et al.
(1958) expose a set of 58 tests on steel cylinders;
researchers notice that the pressurization increases the
critical stress, and for some cases the collapse load
exceeds from a considerable amount the theoretical
buckling load (Eq. 2). Other campaigns (on Mylar
specimens, Seide et al. 1960, or on copper electroplated shells, Mathon & Limam (2006) confirm that
the collapse stress of a pressurized cylinder can be
higher than the theoretical bifurcation stress. Nevertheless Weingarten notes (Weingarten 1962) that for
high values of pressure the critical buckling stress
given by (Eq. 2) closely represents the stress at which
the load-deflection curves become nonlinear.
Complementary numerical simulations including

geometrically non linear effects have been conducted (Mathon 2004), using COMU elements and
STANLAX solver (2D part of CASTEM system,
Combescure 1989). Results covering the scope of our
experimental investigation (Figure 1) show that (Eq. 2)
is a convenient approximation of the buckling stress
for a pressurized cylinder under bending. For simplification purpose, it will be kept as a reference for the
analysis of experimental results.
3
EXPERIMENTAL CAMPAIGN
The experimental setup and tested specimens

have been extensively described in (Mathon 2004,
Mathon & Limam 2006). Some aspects of the testing
procedure are precised here.
Due to the particular conditions of loading, it has
been made possible to realize several sequences of
tests on each specimen, performed on different angular locations (Figure 2). After the first set of tests
( = 0 ), the specimen is revolved, and new tests
are realised at = 180 , on an undamaged part of the
shell. If the specimen has been sufficiently preserved,
two supplementary sequences of tests (at = 90 ,
270 ) are also performed.
A sequence comprises from two to six successive
tests, the same general procedure is followed for all of
them: first the shell is pressurized at the desired level,
and bending moment is then applied until buckling
occurs. The bending load is after that decreased; for
low pressure tests, it leads to the disappearance of the
buckles (quasi-elastic buckling). For the subsequent
test, a higher internal pressure value is adjusted, and
the shell is reloaded with a bending moment.
Nominal thickness of the specimens varies between
95 and 250 m, and the characteristic geometrical
ratios are L/R 2 and R/t [5501450]. The geometrical imperfections of all the specimens have been
=180 - 2nd sequence of tests
[M+P]/ cL
1.12
(2-1, 2-2, 2-3,

S tan la x, NLGEOM - R/t = 50 0
1.10
= 90

1.08
3rd sequence
= 270
1.06
4th sequence
1.04
1.02
= 0 - 1 st sequence of tests
1.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
(Tests 1-1, 1-2, 1-3,
P*
Figure 1. Evolution of actual bifurcation stress under bending with pressure parameter P .
Figure 2. Schematic overview of the specimen and order of

successive tests.
170
accurately measured before the buckling tests, with

the help of an automated measurement rig. Due to the
great thinness of the shells (down to 100 m), a noncontacting probe is used (capacitance or laser pickup,
depending on the shell tested). This transducer, positioned on the outer side of the shell, can move vertically
along a vertical frame support. This frame is fixed on
a rigid platform and can rotate around the shell. The
scanning sequence consists of a circumferential scan
followed by an axial advance. Angular and axial locations of the transducer and its distance to the shell are
continuously recorded. A complete geometry is composed of 135 parallels every 2 mm. Systematic errors
caused by the misalignment of the translation and rotation axes of the scanning device with the axis of the
shell are removed using a best-fit cylinder technique
(Arbocz & Babcock, 1969).
3.1
Cn = (An2 + Bn 2)1/2
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
CL22
CL19
CL20
CL10
CL21
CL14B
CL03
CL24
CL01
CL05
CL04
CL23
CL18
CL28
CL16
CL02
CL07
CL31
CL26
CL14
CL09
CL12
CL30
CL08
CL11
CL06
0%
0
12
18
24
30
Harmonique n
Figure 4. Tested specimenMaximal values Cn,z of geometrical defects.
These mean and maximal values of Cn,z are represented Figure 3 and Figure 4 for all tested specimens.
Fourier representation of initial imperfections
For each parallel located at a distance z from the bottom of the shell, the measured imperfection data are
then reduced through the expansion in a Fourier series
up to 30 harmonic components:
wz () = t
30

Cn,z
(An,z cos(n) + Bn,z sin(n))
(3 a,b)
For a given geometry (represented by 136 parallels),

mean and maximal values of Cn,z are determined by:
1
(Cn,2i )
136
135
=
Cmean
n
i=0
Cmax
n
max (Cn,2i )
(4 a,b)
i=0,... ,135
Cn = (An2 + Bn 2)1/2
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
CL22
CL19
CL20
CL10
CL18
CL21
CL14B
CL24
CL03
CL23
CL01
CL05
CL02
CL04
CL28
CL14
CL07
CL09
CL26
CL16
CL31
CL08
CL30
CL12
CL11
CL06
0%
6
10
14
18
22
26
30
Harmonique n
Figure 3. Tested specimenMean values Cn,z of geometrical defects.
4.1 General observations
For P below 0.5, the precritical behavior is perfectly

linear; buckling occurs suddenly and provokes a
global collapse of the specimen. Due to geometrical imperfections, the critical buckling stress is
lower than the theoretical prediction obtained for
the unpressurized shell. Beyond the critical load, the
behavior is unstable and very high inward displacements corresponding to local buckles appear on the
compressed side (curve D on the left of Figure 6);
For intermediate levels of pressure (0.5 < P <
1.5), a bifurcation point is clearly visible on the
load-shortening curve, for a stress value close to the
theoretical prediction (Eq. 2); it may be interpreted
as a reduced sensitivity to initial imperfections. It
is also clear (Figure 7, curves B, C, D) that beyond
the critical bifurcation load, local buckles gradually
develop, but they do not lead to the immediate collapse of the specimen. The failure is reached for a
load higher than the bifurcation one.
Finally, for a dimensionless pressure above 1.5, no
visible bifurcation can be identified on the loadshortening curve. The collapse stress is attained
only for a high local shortening, and keeps
increasing with internal pressurization. Inward displacements are prevented and the buckling mode,
oriented outwards, can be compared to an axisymmetrical mode restrained only on a small angular
portion of the perimeter (mode called elephant foot
buckle).
171
RESULTS
The evolution of the general behavior with pressurization is shown Figure 5 to Figure 8 through the selection
of representative experimental results.
n=0

2 + B2
= An,z
n,z
P]
AB CDE
CL
2.5
2.0
P]
CL
P* = 2.51
1.5
2.0
1.0
Eq. 2
0.5
1.5
0.0
1.0
-0.5
Eq.2
-1.0
0.5
-1.5
Normalised local shortening

0.0
P* = 0
CL
Local shortening [mic]
w/t
-2.0
0.19
0.42
0.62
0.81
1.35
1.57
2.49
2.75
3.03
Figure 5. Evolution of the load-shortening behaviour with

external pressure.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900 -15.0
-10.0
-5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
Figure 8. P = 2.51Evolution of axial compressive

stress with local shortening, related normalized deflection
w/t of a compressed generator and associated buckling mode.
A B C D
P]
CL
1 .0
Eq. 2
0 .8
P* = 0.05
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
A
0 .0
w/t
Local shortening
-0 .2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
-2.53 5 -2.0
0
-1.54 0 -1.0
0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
= 0.05Evolution of axial compressive

Figure 6.
A B C D
P* = 1 33
Eq.2
A
w/t
-15
-10
-5
Figure 7. P = 1.13Evolution of axial compressive

The typical post-critical patterns obtained, also

shown on Figure 6 to Figure 8, confirm the progressive
modification of the post-critical mode with internal
pressurization. For low pressures (P < 0.5), buckling involves a large part of the compressed side of the
shell. For higher pressure levels, the size of the buckled region decreases progressively, and both the axial
and circumferential wavelengths diminish.
Figure 9.
The internal pressure influences the buckling

pattern, not only the localization but also axial and circumferential wavelengths. The rather large buckles of
the case without internal pressure are transformed into
buckles of smaller size if internal pressure is applied
(figure 9).
For high internal pressures, non linear effects are
important, and the collapse corresponds to the limit
point. The detection of the onset of buckling is one of
the difficulties encountered by experimentalists, but
172
Buckling modes for low pressurized shells.
400
350
Radial displacement (
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Z (mm)
Figure 10. Radial evolution of the compressed generator,

during the load process.
when the position of the first ripple to be formed is

known, like in bending configurations, the problem
can be solved by placing a contact-less sensor. During all the loading process, the maximal compressed
generator of the shell is continuously scanned with a
laser sensor (Figure 10). This allows us to quantify the
first critical stress associated to the appearance of the
wrinkles and to gauge the membrane effect equivalent to the gap between this stress and the collapse
stress.
At high internal pressures, the failure mode corresponds to a buckling mode commonly known as
elephants foot (Rotter 1990). A threshold pressure
(P = 650 mbars), separating stable and unstable postcritical behavior, is identified on our structure. The
two modes of failure previously described are quite
distinct, although they may interact in some cases
(intermediate pressure intensity).
Figure 11. Buckling mode associated to intermediate and

high internal pressure.
CL
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
CL +
4.2
Experimental buckling stresses
PR / 2t
1.0
Buckling stress (unstable post-critical behaviour)

Buckling stress (stable post-critical behaviour)
0.5
Figure 12 presents the whole results obtained.
Local development of large displacements
0.0
0.0
Circular and square symbols correspond to bifurcation stresses, where buckling is followed by a
clear modification of the global behavior of the
shell (decrease of the load or sudden modification in the slope of the load vs. local shortening
curve). Square markers specify that the structure
exhibits a stable post-buckling behavior, whereas
circles represent tests characterized by a catastrophic failure (bifurcation buckling followed by
a diminution of the load-carrying capacity of the
shell).
For tests with no bifurcation point visible on the
load-local shortening curve, the occurrence of large
displacements is retained as the experimental bifurcation stress. Triangular symbols are used for
this case.
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
P*
Figure 12.
Experimental buckling stressesUnsorted data.
The following conclusions can be drawn from

Figure 12:
The general trend of experimental results confirm
the validity of the bifurcation stress identified by
Weingarten & Seide (1965), in particular for P > 1;
For P < 1.5, some of the results lie far beside the
bifurcation stress of a perfect cylinder. On the other
hand, this theoretical stress is closely approached,
even for low pressure levels, which confirms the
very high quality of the shells. However, a slight
internal pressure has a strengthening effect on
173
0.5
the buckling stress, which tends to approach the

classical stress.
For P < 1.5, lower results generally correspond
to a stable post-critical behavior, whereas higher
tests exhibit an unstable behavior. This may be the
expression of the various consequences that can
have geometrical defects, depending on their magnitude (for a compressed cylinder, small defects do
not strongly affect the precritical behavior, whereas
for very large defects a non linear behavior is
observed with a limit point buckling).
During all the tests, no unstable post-buckling
behavior has been noticed for a dimensionless
pressure above unity.
A detailed analysis of the data (Mathon 2004) has
shown that it was relevant to distinguish different cases
among results: indeed, tests following a previous test
realized on the same portion of the shell statistically
lead to lower buckling stresses, because of residual
geometrical defects. These defects explain the wide
scatter of experimentally observed buckling loads at
low internal pressure.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
Numerical simulations are conducted with ABAQUS

finite element code. Only the results concerning the
high internal pressure cases are presented here. The
model is based on a perfect shell, without geometrical
imperfections, knowing that at high internal pressure
all the conducted tests have shown that the defects
M + P]
Figure 14. Compressed generator: bifurcation and localization modes (experiment).
are erased. Elements of type S4R were used. The aluminum was modeled as an elastic-plastic material with
isotropic strain hardening rule under the Von Mises
yield criterion. The Riks resolution algorithm is used.
Figure 13 shows the load-axial displacement curve and
the buckling and post-buckling modes. These results
are in agreement with the experimental ones, figure 14
shows the radial evolution of the compressed generator
obtained experimentally. During the loading process,
a first bifurcation corresponds to the appearance of
wrinkles, then knowing that the post-critical behavior
is stable; the evolution of this mode is associated to an
increase of the bearing capacity. A second bifurcation
conducts to a localization of the mode.
The obtained numerical results are in agreement
with the experimental ones. The simulation indicates
that the buckling behavior follows the actual test.
CL
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
2 bar, Pe rfec tly

plas tic mate rial
-1.5
8
Figure 13.
10
12
14
16
18
20
Load shortening curve: numerical results.
The buckling behavior of thin-walled pressurized

shells submitted to bending has been studied with
an experimental approach. Results confirm that the
174
CONCLUSIONS
22
bifurcation stress of a perfect cylinder under bending

is very close to the bifurcation stress under compression. But a major difference exists concerning
the post-critical behavior: for sufficiently pressurized
structures, the bending bifurcation load corresponds
to a local buckling followed by a stable post-critical
behavior, so that the load-carrying capacity can be
significantly higher under bending than under compression. The sensitivity to geometrical imperfections
has been put forward for low pressure levels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study was undertaken with a financial
support from EADS, CNES and CRYOSPACE.
NOMENCLATURE
R, L, t: radius, length, wall thickness of cylinder
E, : Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio
Loads:
P: internal pressure, P > 0
N: axial load
M: bending moment
P : dimensionless pressure parameter P = PR/
[t CL ]
Stresses:
CL : theoretical compressive buckling
stress

2
CL = Et/ R 3 (1 )
P : axial stress due to internal pressure P =
PR/[2t]
N : axial stress due to axial load N N = N/[2Rt]
M : axial compressive stress due to M M =
M/[R 2 t]
Displacements:
u: axial displacement of the upper edge of the
specimen
w: radial displacement on the compressed fibre of
the cylinder
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175
Fibre reinforced polymer composites to increase the buckling strength

of imperfect cylindrical shells
M. Batikha, J.F. Chen & J.M. Rotter
Institute for Infrastructure and Environment, The University of Edinburgh, UK
ABSTRACT: Externally bonding of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites has become a popular
technique for retrofitting existing structures worldwide. Extensive research has been conducted in the last
two decades on various topics such as strengthening concrete, masonry and timber structures as well as metallic
structures. The vast majority of these studies have focused on the failure by material degradation, rather than
on stability considerations. A study is currently being conducted at Edinburgh University on the strengthening
of thin metal shell structures using FRP composites. This paper presents a numerical study of the buckling
behaviour of FRP strengthened thin cylindrical shells with an axisymmetric imperfection. The results show that
the buckling strength of the shell under axial loading can be significantly increased by using only a small amount
of FRP in the critical area of the imperfection. This outcome indicates that this technique is indeed very effective
and economical for enhancing the buckling strength of a thin shell structure, especially under conditions where
a local defect causes the shell to fail the tolerance requirement.
INTRODUCTION
The buckling of thin metallic shells has been studied scientifically since the beginning of the twentieth
century. Both physical experiments and theoretical
investigations have shown that the buckling strength
of these thin shell structures is very sensitive to geometric imperfections, as a result of which extensive
research has been conducted on this topic ever since.
Among the different forms that a thin shell structure
can take, the cylindrical shell is the most common:
cylinders are widely used in aircraft, pressure vessels,
and as storage structures for many different kind of
materials (water, petroleum, agricultural and mining
products etc.) as tanks and silos. For a thin cylindrical
shell under axial compression, Rotter & Teng (1989)
and Rotter (1996, 2004) showed that a local axisymmetric imperfection is a practically probable form that
leads to dramatic reductions in the buckling strength,
which are generally more pronounced than those for
non-symmetric imperfections.
Axisymmetric or nearly axisymmetric imperfections in cylindrical shells are commonly present at
welded joints where rolled steel plates are joined
together with a circumferential weld. The rolling of the
plates into the required curved form, together with the
cooling of the deposited weld metal result in a circumferential depression at each circumferential joint. Two
limiting forms for the resulting imperfect form were
proposed by Rotter & Teng (1989), which they termed
Types A and B (Fig. 1). They recognised that other

forms between these two might also occur. Both were
based on natural shell deformations. For Type A, it
was assumed that the depression would develop without any flexural yielding during cooling. By contrast,
for Type B, it was assumed that the depression would
develop with complete local flexibility in bending at
the weld during cooling. Using nonlinear buckling calculations, it was shown that Type A depressions had a
consistently lower buckling strengths than Type B, so
the former is more commonly used in research studies.
This study is concerned with the enhancement of
the buckling strength of a cylindrical shell that has
an axisymmetric imperfection. It is proposed that the
shell should be strengthened by externally bonding a
ts
R
R
Figure 1. The assumed shape types for the weld depression

at the circumference.
177
sheet of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite at

the vicinity of the imperfection. FRP composites have
been extensively used to strengthen concrete structures
since the 1990s (Teng et al. 2002, 2003). This FRP
research has been extended to strengthening metallic
beams (Teng & Zhang 2007), masonry (Triantafillou
1996, Chen 2002) and timber structures (Gilfillan et al.
2003). In all these cases, the main concern has been the
strength of the structure controlled by material failure
rather than its stability or buckling strength.
Teng & Hu (2004, 2007) explored the behaviour of
circular steel tubes subjected to axial load and confined by FRP jacketing, together with elephants foot
buckling of thick cylindrical shells when the whole
shell is wrapped with FRP. Both experiments and FE
analysis demonstrated that the ductility of the tubes
was greatly enhanced by the FRP. Their numerical
investigation also showed that the elephants foot buckling strength of a cylindrical shell can be significantly
enhanced by the FRP wraps.
The authors of the present paper have recently
explored the local use of FRP composites to enhance
the buckling strength of thin shells. These studies
began with elephants foot buckling near the base of
an internally pressurised and axially loaded cylindrical shell (Batikha et al. 2007a, b), and were followed
by the strengthening of a shell with an axisymmetric imperfection (Batikha et al. 2007c). These studies
showed that, in both cases, a small amount of FRP,
appropriately placed at a critical location, can significantly decrease the radial deformation of the shell,
leading to an increase in the buckling strength.
This paper presents a numerical investigation of the
elastic buckling strength of an imperfect cylindrical
shell under uniform axial load both before and after
it has been strengthened using FRP. The imperfection form of an axisymmetric inward weld depression
imperfection is adopted and the analysis is undertaken
using Geometrically Non-linear Analysis with explicit
modelling of Imperfections (GNIA) using the finite
element method.
2
2.1
circumferential axis). This corresponds to part of a

much longer shell. The material of the shell was
assumed to have a Youngs modulus Es = 200 GPa
and Poissons ratio s = 0.3. A uniform axial load N
was applied at the top of the shell (Figure 1).
2.2 Imperfection
The cylindrical shell was assumed to have an axisymmetric inward imperfection at the mid-height (Fig. 2).
The shape of imperfection was chosen to be Type A as
described by Rotter and Teng (1989):

z
z
+ cos
(1)
= 0 e z/0 sin
0
0
in which 0 is the amplitude of the imperfection, 0
is the half wavelength for the adopted shape of imperfection and z is the axial coordinate from the middle of
the imperfection as shown in Figure 2. Rotter (1997)
and Pircher & Bridge (2001) showed that the lowest
buckling strength is found when 0 is close to , the
linear bending half wavelength of the shell, which is
is given by:
=

Rts = 2.44 Rts

2
1/4
(3(1 vs ))
In this study the imperfection half-wavelength

0 = was therefore adopted. Further, Pircher &
Bridge (2001) observed that the influence of the
boundary conditions become insignificant with a large
half-strake height (the case of this study). Therefore, the effectiveness of the interaction between the
neighboring imperfections is ignored in this study.
2.3 FE modelling
Geometrically Non-linear elastic Analysis with
Imperfections (GNIA) was performed using the finite
element package ABAQUS (Version 6.5-4). The cylindrical shell was modelled using the 4-node doubly curved thin shell element S4R. S4R is 4-node
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

Geometry, boundary conditions, material
properties and loading
A cylindrical shell of height h = 3000 mm, radius

R = 1000 mm and thickness ts = 1 mm was considered in this study. The shell has a radius to thickness
ratio of 1000, and falls into the class of medium
length cylinders according to Eurocode 3 Part 1.6
(2007). The wall thickness of the cylindrical shell
is assumed to be constant over the whole structure.
The boundary conditions at both ends are held circular (free in all directions except for rotation about the
Figure 2.
178
(2)
The cylindrical shell.
BUCKLING STRESS OF UNPRESSURISED

IMPERFECT CYLINDER
The buckling stress for a cylindrical shell under

uniform axial compression is usually related to the
classical elastic critical stress cl , given by:
cl =
Es
ts
ts
0.605Es
[3(1 s2 )]1/2 R
R
(3)
Geometric imperfections are the main cause of

strength reductions. Figure 3 shows the effect of an
imperfection on the buckling strength for the example
cylinder under axial loads. It shows that the present
FE study is in excellent agreement with the results
obtained by Rotter & Teng (1989).
From Figure 3, it may also be seen that the clamped
base investigated by Berry et al. (2000) has a slightly
higher buckling strength. This was also noted by Rotter
(1990) in his study of axially compressed and pressurized very thin cylinders experiencing elephants foot
buckling failures adjacent to a boundary.
cr/ cl
Normalized buckling strength
doubly curved general-purpose shell, reduced integration with hourglass control and the effect of transverse shear deformation included (ABAQUS (Version
6.5-4)). Each node has six degrees of freedom (Three
displacements and three rotations). Bifurcation buckling was found to always control the ultimate strength
of the shell. It may be noted that an isotropic cylinder
with this imperfection always buckles elastically when
the radius to thickness ratio is bigger than about 400
(Rotter 1997). Although bifurcation may not always
limit the strength of a cylindrical shell when the amplitude of the imperfection is very large and plastic
collapse failures can occur when the imperfection is
very deep (0 /ts > 3.5) (Berry et al. 2000), and plastic
deformation may occur very shortly after bifurcation
in other cases (Rotter & Teng 1989), for the example
thin shell with moderate imperfections up to 0 /ts =
3.5, the elastic bifurcation load is a reasonable limit.
A mesh convergence study was undertaken for the
case of an imperfection amplitude of 0 /t
s = 2. This
study concluded that an element size of 0.2 Rt in both
the circumferential and meridional directions near the
weld depression is sufficient to give converged results.
It may be noted thatRotter & Teng (1989) used an
element size of 0.25 Rt in the meridional direction
but they used cubic elements. Berry et al. (2000) used
40 elements in each half wavelength 0 for a cylinder
with a clamped base,
making a very fine mesh with
element size of 0.06 Rt in the meridional direction.
Finite Element analysis of this study
0.8
26
Rotter and Teng (1989), Rotter (1997, 2004)
0.7
Berry et al.(2000)
0.6
25
0.5
0.4
22
0.3
19
18
0.2
14
12
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Normalized welded joint imperfection
Figure 3.
1.6
1.8
0/ts
Effect of imperfection on buckling strength.
BUCKLING STRESS OF FRP

STRENGTHENED IMPERFECT
CYLINDRICAL SHELL
It is proposed here that FRP composites may be externally bonded to the zone around the local imperfection
on the example shell as described earlier. The FRP
sheet was chosen to be centred at the mid-height of
the imperfection and covering the shell over a height
hf . The FRP sheet was treated as orthotropic, with
moduli in the circumferential and meridional directions Ef = 230 GPa and Efz = 3 GPa respectively,
and a Poissons ratio f = 0.35. These values are typical for CFRP with unidirectional fibres oriented in the
axial direction.
The FRP was treated as bonded to the metal shell
with a 1 mm thick adhesive which had a Youngs modulus of 3 GPa and Poissons ratio of 0.35. Figure 4
shows the axial stressaxial shortening curves for
the shell with and without FRP strengthening. An
imperfection amplitude of 0 /ts = 2 was assumed and
the FRP height ratio of hf / = 2 was used in these
calculations. It is seen that the buckling load can be significantly enhanced with FRP strengthening, and this
enhancement increases as the bending stiffness of the
FRP is increased. If the value of the FRP bending stiffness is fixed at = Ef t3f /Es t3s = 6, the buckling
strength is also increased by an increase in the height
of the FRP within the range shown in Figure 5.
The effect of the FRP thickness on the buckling
strength of the shell is shown in more detail in Figure 6,
where cylinders with different amplitudes of imperfection are explored. Here the FRP height hf is fixed
to two times the half bending wavelength . The
dimensionless stiffness has a very strong effect on
the buckling strength of the shell (Fig. 6). When
increases from 0, the buckling strength initially
increases very fast and rapidly approaches an upper
limit value for the given imperfection.
Because the FRP is applied only within the vicinity of the imperfection, the strength of the shell will
always be limited by the strength of the unstrengthened
179
29
0.9
hf
Normalized axial stress
0.8
Ef tf /Ests = 6
0.7
Ef tf3/Ests3 = 74
0.6
Ef tf3/Ests3 = 248
0.5
Without FRP
/ts = 2
cl
cr
mz
cl
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0 s
/t =1.5
0 s
0 s
/t =1
0 s
0 s
/t =0.25
/t =0.1
0 s
/t =0.5
/t =2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Normalized axial shortening wz/ts
0.7
0.8
25
50
75
100
3
Figure 4. Effect of FRP stiffness on axial stressaxial

shortening curves (hf / = 2, 0 /ts = 2).
125
3
Figure 6. Effect of FRP stiffness on buckling stress

(hf / = 2).
0.5
0.45
height ratio=2
0.4
height ratio=10
0.35
Without FRP
0/ts=2
0/ts=1.5
0.3
0/ts=1
1.5
0.25
0/ts=0.5
0.2
0/ts=0.25
0.15
0/ts=0.1
0.1
0.05
0.5
0
0
Figure 5. Effect of FRP height on axial stressaxial

shortening curves ( = Efr t3f /Es t3s = 6 and 0 /ts = 2).
shell if the FRP repair causes sufficient strengthening

to exceed that perfect shell strength. Thus, buckling
will occur elsewhere in the unstrengthened parts of
the shell if the FRP repair raises the buckling stress
to the classical elastic critical stress for a perfect shell
is reached, irrespective of how much FRP is used. To
make this clear, the upper limit of attainable buckling
strengths in given by the dimensionless ordinate of 1.0
in Figure 1.
Figure 6 shows that the achieved upper limit with
FRP strengthening is lower than 1.0, and this upper
limit reduces as the imperfection amplitude increases.
This may be understood by examining the imperfection forms (Fig. 7) produced by Equation 1 with
different amplitudes.
When the FRP height hf is fixed at 2, as in this
example, the FRP strip edges are at a distance of
both above and below the middle of the imperfection
(i.e. the FRP terminates at a vertical coordinate of 1.0
in Figure 7). Clearly the actual imperfection extends
beyond the FRP, and the imperfection outside the FRP
can reduce the buckling strength even if the FRP is
very stiff. Moreover, the addition of a local stiff zone
where the FRP is applied constitutes an imperfection
of a different kind, so this may also play a role in
reducing the buckling strength slightly.
Figure 7.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
height ratio=1
height ratio=2
height ratio=4
height ratio=10
height ratio=20
height ratio=40
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Figure 8. Buckling strength for different FRP height and

stiffness values (0 /ts = 2).
The effect of different heights of FRP on the buckling strength of the example shell is shown in Figure 8.
Here an imperfection amplitude of 0 = 2 is adopted
and the height of the FRP is defined in terms of the normalised height hf /. The upper limit of the buckling
strength rises when the FRP height is increased, but
this limit is always smaller than 1.0 unless the entire
height of the shell is strengthened with FRP (which is
unlikely to be economical).
180
Type A welded joint imperfection.
Without FRP
0.9
height ratio=1
0.8
height ratio=2
0.7
height ratio=4
0.6
height ratio=10
height ratio=20
0.5
height ratio=40
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
Figure 9. Effect of imperfection amplitude on buckling

strength for different FRP heights (Ef t3f /Es t3s = 0.76).
However, the strength increase is not proportional

to the normalised FRP height: small heights of FRP
(1 < hf / < 2) are very effective, but further addition
of FRP is much less effective. This is also evident in
Figure 9 where the normalised FRP stiffness is fixed
at a more practical value of = Ef t3f /Es t3s = 0.76.
It is evident that the buckling strength cannot be
increased significantly by increasing the FRP height
ratio beyond 4, especially when the imperfection
amplitude is small.
5
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented an initial study of the

strengthening of imperfect cylindrical shells using
FRP. The cylinders were subject to axial compression leading to elastic buckling, and contained an
axisymmetric imperfection of varying amplitude.
The effects of the amplitude of the imperfection,
the FRP stiffness and the FRP height have been investigated. The results show that the buckling strength
can be significantly increased by bonding FRP within
a small zone around the centre of the imperfection,
indicating that the proposed technique can be very
effective and economical, especially where a deep
local imperfection causes the assessed strength of the
shell to be down-rated.
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Manual, ABAQUS Inc, USA.
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buckling. In: A.P. Darby & T.J. Ibell (eds), Advanced composites in construction, Proc. ACIC 07, 24 April, Bath,
UK: York.
Batikha, M., Chen, J.F. & Rotter, J.M. 2007b. Numerical
modelling of shells repaired using FRP. In: Y.C. Wang &
C.K. Choi (eds), steel and composite structures, Proc.
The 3rd International Conference on steel and composites structures, ICSCS07, 30 July1 August, Manchester,
UK: Balkema.
Batikha, M., Chen, J.F. & Rotter, J.M. 2007c. Elastic buckling of FRP-strengthened cylinders with axisymmetric
imperfections. In: S.T. Smith (ed.), Proc. Asia-Pacific
Conference on FRP in Structures, APFIS2007, 1214
December, Hong Kong, China.
Berry, P.A., Rotter, J.M. & Bridge, R.Q. 2000. Compression
tests on cylinders with circumferential weld depressions.
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Chen, J.F. 2002. Load-bearing capacity of masonry arch
bridges strengthened with FRPs. Advances in Structural
Engineeringan International Journal, 5 (1): 3744.
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Brussels: CEN.
Gilfillan, J.R., Gilbert, S.G. & Patrick, G.R.H. 2003. The
use of FRP composites in enhancing the structural behavior of timber beams. Journal of reinforced plastics and
composites, 22 (15): 13731388.
Pircher, M. & Bridge, R.Q. 2001. Buckling of thin-walled
silos and tanks under axial loadsome new aspects.
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Engineering, 115 (5): 12441263.
Rotter, J.M. 1990. Local collapse of axially compressed
pressurized thin steel cylinders. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 116 (7): 19551969.
Rotter, J.M. 1996. Buckling and collapse internally pressurised axially compressed silo cylinders with measured axisymmetric imperfections: imperfections, residual stresses and local collapse. Proc. Int. Wkshp on
Imperfections in Metal Silos: Measurements, Characterisation and Strength Analysis. CA-Silo, Lyon, France, 19
April: 119140.
Rotter, J.M. 1997. Design standards and calculations
for imperfect pressurised axially compressed cylinders.
Proc., Int. Conf. on Carrying Capacity of Steel structures.
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metal shells: 4287. London: Spon press.
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and strength of FRP-strengthened RC structures: a stateof-the-art review. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
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Teng, J.G. & Hu, Y.M. 2004. Suppression of local buckling
in steel tubes by FRP jacketing. 2nd International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering. Adelaide,
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Teng, J.G. & Hu, Y.M. 2007. Behaviour of FRP-jacketed
circular steel tubes and cylindrical shells under axial comparison. Journal of Construction and Building Materials,
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181
Effect of geometric nonlinearity of locally supported cylinders

Cornelia Doerich
ABSTRACT: The effect of geometric nonlinearity has often been seen as negligible in comparison with the
imperfection sensitivity of cylindrical shells. For the most widely study case of a uniformly compressed cylinder
the loss of strength due to geometric nonlinearity only accounts for about 15%, while imperfection sensitivity
can account for a strength loss of up to 80%. This paper describes a parametric study of a bracket supported silo.
Due to the bracket attached to the silo wall the stress field before buckling is highly nonlinear and the strength
of the perfect silo is greatly reduced, but while the geometrically nonlinear analysis does lead to a significantly
reduced strength compared to the linear bifurcation analysis, geometric imperfections do not play a major part
in the loss of strength. The effects of geometric nonlinearity will be shown on a wide range of geometries and
the imperfection sensitivity will be shown in two examples.
INTRODUCTION
Since the discovery that the theoretical buckling load

(Lorenz, 1908; Timoshenko, 1910, Southwell, 1914)
and the experimental buckling load (Donnell and Wan,
1950; Madsen and Hoff, 1965; Weingarten et al.,
1965; Wolmir, 1962; Kollr and Dulcska, 1984;
Yamaki, 1984; Teng and Rotter, 2004) differ greatly, a
significant amount of research has been carried out in
order to explain this difference. The influence of prebuckling deformations was investigated (Donnell and
Wan, 1950; Yamaki, 1984), but although this explanation did provide a reduction of strength it was not
enough to explain the great difference between theoretical and experimental data nor could it explain
the great scatter of the experimental data. Following
the ground-breaking work of Koiter (1945), it became
widely recognised that small initial imperfections can
have a very detrimental effect on the strength of a shell.
From this point onward, much of the research on
shell structures has concentrated on the imperfection
sensitivity of the buckling strength. Even though this
research has been carried out for a long time now,
no unified guidelines can be presented to govern all
geometries and load cases and such guidelines may
not even be possible.
At the same time it is commonly assumed that geometric nonlinearity does not have a very significant
effect on the buckling load of most perfect cylindrical shells in causing strength reductions below value
from a linear bifurcation analysis, save in conditions
where snap-through may be expected. Thus, geometrically nonlinear effects account for a reduction in the
bifurcation buckling strength of a typical axially compressed perfect cylinder of the order of 15% (Yamaki,
1984), though these effects are very important in the
snap-through buckling of very shallow spherical caps
(Kaplan, 1974).
It will be shown here that these common assumptions do not provide an accurate or correct picture of
the failure conditions for the bracket supported cylinder and the conclusions drawn from this study may
well be relevant to many other shell structures that are
subject to relatively local loading or local membrane
stress concentrations.
This investigation will focus on elevated silos
(Figure 1), with a particular focus on the bracket
supported silo (Figure 1b).
The first part of this investigation describes geometrically nonlinear buckling behaviour without geometric imperfections, to study the effect of the geometric
nonlinearity alone. An overview is given of the shape
and the location of the buckle that develops in different conditions and the change with geometry. The load
deflection paths are described and a close look is taken
into the contribution of geometric nonlinearity to the
buckling load, by making a comparison with the linear
bifurcation load.
Within this investigation of geometric nonlinear
analysis, the definition and the challenges in identifying what is to be regarded as buckling and when
this occurs will be described. In particular there is a
considerable challenge in deciding what to define as
failure, in conditions where neither a bifurcation nor a
limit load is reached as a consequence of pre-buckling
deformations.
183
The greatest challenge for any analysis that includes

geometric imperfections is to decide which imperfection might be the appropriate imperfection for a certain
problem. The worst imperfection (i.e. imperfection which leads to the lowest failure load) is usually
considered to be the appropriate one. While this
assumption is always on the safe side, there is always
some uncertainty about whether another imperfection
may exist that could lead to a worse outcome, and
the possibility that this worse imperfection could possibly arise in the fabrication process. On the other
hand, the worst imperfection of all might well be
quite unrealistic, leading to very uneconomic designs
if implemented (Rotter, 2004). At the same time
the worst imperfection must be identified as having a specific form with a corresponding amplitude.
This means that a certain imperfection shape might
only produce low failure loads for certain amplitudes
and another imperfection shape could take over as
the worst imperfection shape for other amplitudes
(Song et al., 2004).
2
Figure 1.
supports.
Alternative arrangements for silos on discrete
Another challenge is the identification of the

buckling mode, which cannot be obtained as easily as
in the linear bifurcation analysis, since pre-buckling
deformations are present. This leads to the need to
make a clear distinction between three deformation
modes: the bifurcation mode, the nonlinear incremental buckling mode and the deformed shape at
buckling.
In the second part of this investigation, geometric
imperfections are explicitly modelled using different
imperfection shapes and amplitudes for two example
geometries of the target problem.
The buckling strengths of shells are known to
be very imperfection sensitive under many circumstances. In the case of a uniformly compressed
cylinder, the introduction of a small local geometric
imperfection can lead to a reduction of the buckling
load by up to 80% (Yamaki, 1984; Rotter, 2004).
The literature (e.g. Yamaki, 1984; Rotter, 2004)
provides many different proposals for serious forms
of imperfections. The imperfections can be of a
geometric or material nature (EN1993-1-6, 2007).
Geometric imperfections recommended by different authors for use in design calculations may
include the first eigenmode from a linear bifurcation analysis, the deformed shape from a geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis and different types of
weld-imperfection (Rotter, 2004).
This paper describes aspects of the behaviour of an

example silo structure. For this silo, four brackets
(n = 4) are attached at mid-height ( = 0.5) on the
silo wall (Figure 3b). The bracket is composed of a
vertical plate connected to the silo wall and a horizontal plate connected to the supporting column (Figure 2
and Figure 3a). A practical bracket would also have
stiffening elements connecting the horizontal and vertical plates (Figure 2). For simplicity, the bracket was
modelled as completely stiff. In the numerical analysis
this was achieved by using a theoretical ratio of bracket
to shell thickness of tb /t = 200, rigidly attached to the
shell.
This theoretical thickness has been shown to be sufficient to model a completely stiff bracket (Doerich,
2007). The height of the bracket h, half width of the
bracket d (Figure 3a and b) and the radius willbe
given in
dimensionless forms as follows: = d/ rt,
= h/ rt and r/t respectively. The height of cylinder (Figure 3b) was kept constant with H /r = 4
throughout this investigation.
A general arrangement of a bracket support is
shown in Figure 2a, where a relatively stiff column
is attached to the bracket. A pinned column bracket
connection (Figure 2b) was briefly studied by Gillie
et al. (2002). Here, the column was assumed to be
indefinitely stiff and rigidly connected to the bracket
(Figure 2c). It therefore constrained the bracket in
all displacement/rotations except the radial displacement. The top and the bottom of the cylinder were
constrained against out-of round displacements representing stiffening elements (e.g. a roof and hopper).
184
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Figure 3.
Figure 2.
Alternative treatments of the bracket support.
The load was applied as tension on the bottom of the

cylinder (Figure 3b). While it is known that a compression on the top of the cylinder is far more damaging
to the shell than a tensile loading on the bottom, most
of the load in a silo is carried in the hopper. Wall
friction against the silo wall accounts for only a small
amount of the total for most geometries. The compressive force in the silo wall above the above the bracket
is caused by frictional tractions from the stored solid.
These frictional tractions sum to about 15%20% of
the total loading due to the stored material (Doerich,
2007), so the proportion of total load transferred
by friction into the upper part of the cylinder is
small, and the corresponding compressive force in the

cylinder above the bracket, which is located at midheight, is also small. Thus only a very small part of
the weight of the stored solid develops into a compression above the bracket. The simplification that
assumes that the total load is applied on the lower edge
is thus a practical one, and eliminates the requirement
that other parameters not associated with shell buckling (wall friction coefficient and lateral pressure ratio
of the stored solid) must be included.
It has also been shown that the internal pressure
due to the stored material tends to be beneficial for the
structure (Fung and Sechler, 1957; Harris et al., 1957;
Rotter and Teng, 1989) and was therefore neglected in
this study.
It is known that the strength of a bracket supported cylinder is strongly influenced by local plasticity near the bracket in some geometries (Doerich,
2007), but this investigation is concerned with elastic
behaviour in order to study the influence of geometric
nonlinearity alone.
The material properties used in the numerical model
are Youngs modulus E = 200, 000 N/mm2 and
Poissons ratio = 0.3 to represent mild steel.
The range of geometries investigated consisted of
three different radius to thickness ratios to capture the
behaviour pattern for thin, medium and thick shells
(r/t = 1000, 600 and 400). The dimensionless
height
of the brackets ranged from 1.0 < = h/ rt < 7.0
185
Dimensions and finite element model.
and the dimensionless width from 0.25 < =

d/ rt < 1.25.
3
NUMERICAL MODEL
The bracket supported silo was modelled using the

finite element program ABAQUS (HKS, 2003).
In order to reduce the computing time only an
eighth of the silo and half of one bracket was modelled
(Figure 3c). To ensure that this assumption of symmetry is valid, the one-eighth model was compared to a
complete model (360 and 4 brackets). In both analyses the buckling load was within 0.5% of the same
value.
The silo and bracket were modelled using 4-noded
general purpose elements (S4R), but other elements
such as the 8-node thin shell element (S8R5) were
also investigated. A comparison of analyses using
different elements showed that the general purpose
element (S4R) can be used for this analysis without
a loss of accuracy, but that it is more efficient in computing time (Doerich, 2007). Finally, a convergence
study was performed confirming the suitability of the
chosen mesh.
Since an unstable post-buckling path was expected,
the modified Riks algorithm (for further information see HKS, 2003) was used in order to analyse
the bracket supported silo numerically. The automated arc-length control implemented in the Riks
algorithm is usually chosen to be calculated automatically in ABAQUS (HKS, 2003). This algorithm is
automatically invoked because, for most problems that
are highly nonlinear, it reduces the computing time
significantly while still providing accurate solutions.
However, when a load deflection path changes
direction very sharply, as is commonly the case
0.64
0.62
auto matic arc length control used

user-defined arc length control used
P x /(c l t)
0.6
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.5
0.001
0.00 15
0.00 2
0.002 5
dimensionless vertical deflection w/r
Figure 4. Close up view of load deflection path showing

poor estimate when automatic arc length control is used.
for a bifurcating shell under axial compression, the

automated arc length control can easily miss the peak
of the curve, which is the desired buckling load
(Figure 4). This problem can be overcome by restarting the analysis from a point before buckling and by
replacing the automated arc-length control with a user
defined restricted arc-length control, where the maximum load increment is restricted to a very small value
(Figure 4).
4
This paper is concerned with geometrically nonlinear

elastic analysis (GNA). In a geometrically nonlinear
elastic analysis, the pre-buckling deformations can
have a great influence on the buckling behaviour.
In the case of the bracket supported shell, the most
important pre-buckling deformations can be found in
the compression zone above the bracket. The cylinder flattens there (Figure 5a) due to the compression
above of the bracket. These pre-buckling deformations
extend far above the bracket. The deformed shape
after buckling naturally includes these pre-buckling
deformations and therefore great care must be taken
in describing the buckling mode.
Three different deformation modes will be shown:
the pre-buckling deformations, post-buckling deformations and the incremental buckling mode, which
does not include pre-buckling deformations.
The pre-buckling deformed shape (Figure 5a),
in the form just before buckling occurs, shows an
enlarged flattened zone above the bracket. The flattened zone naturally leads to a lower curvature at this
location which has a substantial effect in reducing the
buckling strength.
The post-buckling deformed shape at a point shortly
after the buckle forms is shown in Figure 5b. When this
shape is compared with the linear bifurcation mode
(Figure 5d), it is clear that both shapes feature a dimple
just above the bracket. But the post-buckling deformed
shape (Figure 5b) naturally shows the flattening above
the bracket associated with the pre-buckling deformations (Figure 5a). To see what changes are occurring
at the instant of bifurcation from the nonlinear prebuckling deformed shape, it is necessary to exclude the
pre-buckling deformations and determine what small
changes of deformation occur from just before to just
after the bifurcation load. This leads to the incremental buckling mode (Figure 5c). The nonlinear
incremental buckling mode is the change of shape
of the deformation in a small deformation step at the
bifurcation point.
This mode has not been widely discussed for cylinders because most studies have focussed on uniformly
loaded shells in which the pre-buckling deformations
186
GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR ANALYSIS

WITHOUT IMPERFECTIONS (GNA)
Figure 5. Deformed shapes and buckling modes in the geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis. Incremental nonlinear
and linear bifurcation modes ( = 2, = 1.25, r/t = 600)
(DF = deformation factor).
are symmetric to the shell axis, making a strong

contrast with the unsymmetrical bifurcation deformations (Yamaki, 1984). However, under local loads
and local stress concentrations, the incremental mode
defines the manner of the bifurcation departure from
the primary path, even though components of the
bifurcation mode are present in the primary path
deformation mode.
To extract the nonlinear incremental buckling mode
(Figure 5c), the pre-buckling (Figure 5a) deformations
just before buckling must be subtracted from the postbuckling deformations (Figure 5b) just after buckling.
The shape and location of the GNA nonlinear
buckle (Figure 5c) is very different from the linear
bifurcation mode (Figure 5d).
4.1
Location of the buckle
In the linear bifurcation analysis (LBA), the maximum radial displacement of the buckle was found to
be at a rather stable location relative to the top of the
bracket for the full range of radius to thickness ratios
for the majority of geometries investigated in Doerich
(2007). In the geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
Figure 6. Location of the incremental nonlinear buckling

mode ( = 1.25, r/t = 600).
(GNA) however, this location was not always in the

same place, but moved further above the bracket as
either the bracket width increased (Doerich, 2007) or
the bracket height increased (Figure 6). This set of
geometries is representative of all the geometries that
were investigated.
The trend for the buckle to move away from the
bracket as the bracket size increased appears to be
caused by two factors. When the bracket becomes bigger, the force passing between the bracket top and
cylinder is spread over a wider zone relative to the
typical size of a buckle, with a more uniform stress
field, leading to larger buckles located further from
the bracket boundary. This phenomenon increases as
the bracket is made bigger.
The second reason is that the stress field leads
to circumferential bending above the bracket, producing a flattened zone where the cylinder radius
of curvature is increased (Figure 7). When the prebuckling deformed shape just before buckling is
examined (Figure 7) in the context of the location
at which nonlinear incremental buckle forms (red
dots in Figure 7), it becomes clear that the incremental buckling mode may be expected to form at
187
limit and bifurcation
applied load
point
limit point
bifurcation
vertical deflection
Figure 8. Failure criteria used for the geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis.
Figure 7. Pre-buckling deformed shapes, showing the location of the nonlinear incremental buckle for different bracket
heights ( = 1.25, r/t = 600).
the location where the cylinder becomes flattest (low

curvature).
4.2
Definition of failure
The definition of failure used here has been adopted

from EN1993-1-6 (2007). In the case of a geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis, this criterion is always
some form of buckling. The term buckling is often
used rather loosely. There are really two kinds of event
that are referred to as buckling: bifurcation buckling
and limit point buckling. Bifurcation buckling occurs
when the primary equilibrium path intersects with a
secondary equilibrium path causing a rapid change of
shape of some part of the structure (Figure 8). When
limit point (or snap-through) buckling occurs, the
structure remains elastic, but the progressive change
of geometry leads to a peak load being attained. The

buckling load is then taken as the maximum load
achieved before the load carrying capacity decreases
(Figure 8). It is possible under some circumstances that
both a limit point and a bifurcation buckle can occur on
the same path (Figure 8). The bifurcation may occur
either before or after the limit point.
Failure is then defined as the first critical point:
either a limit load (snap-through) or a bifurcation.
Therefore the load deflection path was monitored to
find the limit load, but it was also checked at every load
increment to see if any negative eigenvalues appeared,
since the presence of a negative eigenvalue is an indication that a critical point (bifurcation point or limit
point) has been passed.
In the case of the geometrically nonlinear analysis and within the scope of the geometries investigated in this section, only limit point buckling was
encountered.
Problems in identifying the buckling load arise
when no limit point or bifurcation point can be detected
(tangent stiffness matrix stays positive throughout the
analysis). Within the scope of this investigation, this
phenomenon occurred only for shells with very small
brackets (both in
height and in width) (Figure 9,
r/t = 400, = d/ rt = 0.25).
For these very narrow and short brackets, the slope
of the equilibrium path (Figure 9) slowly decreases, but
there is a clear, abrupt change from the pre-buckling
path to the post-buckling path where a buckling
event might have occurred (Figure 9). But the tangent
stiffness matrix stays positive definite and therefore
the equilibrium path always continues to rise.
When the equilibrium path ( = h/ rt = 2,

Figure 9) is set into context with load deflection curves
belonging to geometries with the same radius and
height, but varying widths (Figure 10), the point in
188
Dimensionless applied load

P GNA/( cl t)
0.3
0.25
0.2
=V

P GNA/( c lt)
0.4
0.35
0.15
1
2
0.1
0.05
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.0 005
0.001
0.001 5
0.002
dimensionless vertical displacement w/r
0.0 005
0.00 1
0.001 5
dimensionless vertical
displacement w/r
Figure 9a. Load deflection curves without bifurcation or

limit points.
Dimensionless applied
lo ad P GNA/( c lt)
Figure 10a. Load deflection curves for different widths

(r/t = 400, = 2).
0.4
=
0.38
0.25
0.36
0.5
0.34
0.75
0.32
1
0.3
1.25
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.2
0.0005 0.0 006 0.0007 0.0008
displacement w/r
Figure 10b.
Figure 9b.
0.5
0.7 5
1.2 5
0
0
0.2 5
0.0 009
Close up of Figure 10a.
Close up of the section indicated in Figure 9a.
the load deflection curve where the previously shown

equilibrium path has a reduced slope is also the point
where a buckle would have been expected. A very careful analysis was performed for these geometries using
very small increments in the modified Riks algorithm
to ensure that no bifurcation point or limit point could
have been missed due to large load increments.
When no buckling can be located, a maximum permitted deflection could be used as a failure criterion.
A maximum allowed displacement is recommended
as a failure criterion in the Eurocode (EN1993-1-6,
2007), which defines the maximum displacement as
the condition where the maximum surface rotation is
0.1 radians anywhere in the shell.
This approach was here rejected as rather arbitrary.
Since the failure load in a geometrically nonlinear
analysis (GNA) will be needed in order to evaluate the
sensitivity of the shell towards geometric nonlinearity
and to calculate the value of the elastic imperfection
sensitivity factor required in the Eurocode, a technique was developed in this study to approximate the
bifurcation failure load by introducing a small disturbance in the material, using the geometrically and
materially nonlinear analysis (GMNA) with increasing yield stress. As the yield stress increases, material
nonlinearity loses its influence in the geometrically
and materially nonlinear analysis and geometric nonlinearity dominates. The maximum load therefore
approaches the result for a geometrically nonlinear
elastic analysis, but it generally still produces enough
of an imperfection to provoke a bifurcation buckle.
For illustration purposes, an example
with the
dimensions
of r/t = 400, = h/ rt = 1 and
= d/ rt = 0.25 has been chosen, since for this
geometry no buckling occurred during the GNA analysis (Figure 9). When the inverse of the yield stress
is plotted against the failure load for this example
geometry from a geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis (GMNA), the failure load approaches
a plateau (Figure 11).
Hence when the plateau occurs the material nonlinearity has lost its influence to such an extent that the
global failure is not influenced by it anymore. There is
189
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
1/y
Figure 11.
1
2
5
6
7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.0000
GMNA analysis with increasing yield stress.

P GNA/( c lt)
0.6
=d
=
0.2 5
0.5
0.4
0.7 5
1.2 5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.000 0
0.00 05
displacement w/r
b)
Within the scope of this study, three different radius

to thickness ratios were investigated (r/t = 400, 600
and 1000) to cover the whole spectrum from thick to
thin shells.
An example set of load deflection curves
(Figure 12) gives an overview of the general behaviour
found. This example has a radius to thickness ratio of
r/t = 400. The other geometries with larger radius to
thickness ratios (r/t = 600, 1000) showed very similar
behaviour.
For both a narrow bracket (Figure 12a) and a short
bracket (Figure 12b) the load displacement path shows
a strong bifurcation followed by a steeply descending
path, as is commonly found for uniformly compressed
cylinders. As the height or width are decreased,
the failure load decreases (Figure 12a and b), but the
steeply descending post-buckling path is steadily
weakened until it becomes a mere blip, and finally
disappears altogether.
When the height of the bracket rises (increasing
), the proportion of the support force transferred as
compression above the bracket is reduced. This compression causes the cylinder to buckle. Therefore a
support force on the bracket is needed to cause the
cylinder to buckle when the height rises. The dimensionless failure loads (Figure 13) vary almost linearly
0.00 10
rt =0.75
0.5
Load deflection curves and failure loads

Figure 12.
=h
0.001 0
rt =5
Load deflection curves (r/t = 400).
with the dimensionless width of the bracket. The failure loads with an intermediate radius to thickness
ratio (r/t = 600) are shown here, but similar results
were found for thick (r/t = 400) and thin cylinders
(r/t = 1000). The best approximation to a linear
function can be made for a tall bracket ( = h/ rt = 5, 6
and 7), but the approximation loses it accuracy when
the height of the bracket decreases. It should be noted
that the variation of the dimensionless failure load
(RGNA /(cl t)) has very similar pattern for all radius
to thickness ratios (Doerich, 2007).
A simple approximation could be given for the variation of the dimensionless nonlinear bifurcation load
RGNA /(cl t) with the dimensionless bracket half width
and the dimensionless bracket height . However,
this would be based on a limited range of geometries
and does not fit with the philosophy of EN1993-1-6
(2007).
4.4 Influence of the geometric nonlinearity
To explore the effect of geometric nonlinearity
in detail, the buckling load obtained from the
190
0.000 5
displacement w/r
a)
still yielding at the corners of the bracket, but it is very

localized and does not influence the global behaviour.
The failure load extracted from Figure 11 can then
be considered to be a good approximation to the bifurcation or limit point in the geometrically nonlinear
elastic analysis (GNA).
This is a more satisfying way of defining the limit/
bifurcation point for these structures since the change
from bifurcation to a rather arbitrary limiting surface rotation can lead to a big change in the assessed
strength for a very small change of geometry, which is
clearly an unsatisfactory situation in practical terms.
4.3
0.6
P GNA/( c lt)
P [N/mm ]
70
60
0.30
0.20
=V
R GNA/( cl t)
0.40
0.10
0.00
0.25
1
5
7
0.5
0.75
1
dimensionless half
2
6
=V
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.25
0.50
1
6
0.5
2
7
0.75
1.25
dimensionless half width of the bracket

Figure 14. Variation of the imperfection sensitivity factor
with (r/t = 1000).
1.25
Table 1.
Summary of all -values for perfect cylinders.
r/t=600
r/t=
Figure 13. Variation of the dimensionless failure loads

RGNA /(cl t) with the dimensionless half width of the
bracket .
400
geometrically nonlinear analysis was compared to the

linear elastic bifurcation load (LBA) in terms of the
elastic imperfection sensitivity factor , even though
there is no imperfection present here.
600
= RGNA /RLBA
1000
(1)
It may be noted that in uniformly compressed cylinders, geometric nonlinearity leads to a strength reduction of typically 8 to 15% (Yamaki, 1984). However
in the case of a bracket supported shell, the geometrically nonlinear effect reduces the buckling load
significantly, especially for small brackets (Figure 14).
The reduction of the bifurcation load due to geometrically nonlinearity ranges from about 20% to 40%.
The large magnitude of this reduction can be explained
by the highly nonlinear stress distribution during prebuckling, and the consequent flattening of the cylinder
above the bracket. The largest reduction can be seen
for very narrow and short brackets as the flattening of
the cylinder wall above the bracket is more pronounced
in this case.
The ratio of the nonlinear elastic buckling load
(RGNA ) to the linear elastic buckling load (RLBA ) does
not follow an obvious pattern with changes in the
geometry of the shell and bracket. For all the geometries investigated, this ratio varies between 0.604 and
0.833 (Table 1). The value of (Figure 14) does not
change significantly with the width of the bracket. In
fact the maximum difference encountered for all the
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0.698
0.668
0.704
0.725
0.745
0.709
0.686
0.754
0.784
0.787
0.719
0.704
0.833
0.833
0.821
0.653
0.638
0.691
0.714
0.735
0.665
0.656
0.752
0.794
0.774
0.673
0.675
0.822
0.814
0.805
0.623
0.622
0.698
0.729
0.727
0.637
0.643
0.777
0.761
0.756
0.649
0.668
0.797
0.796
0.791
0.607
0.620
0.720
0.714
0.710
0.623
0.644
0.737
0.744
0.743
0.640
0.669
0.783
0.785
0.775
0.604
0.634
0.700
0.700
0.697
0.624
0.669
0.734
0.736
0.736
0.648
0.719
0.779
0.773
0.759
geometries in this investigation between the highest

and the lowest value of for any fixed r/t ratio and
fixed height is only 15.5%. Therefore the influence
of geometric nonlinearity does not appear to change
significantly when the width of the bracket is varied.
In general it can be said that as the bracket becomes
taller, the ratio increases. But this is not true for all
the geometries (Figure 15). For very small brackets
(both in height and in width), the taller bracket has
a lower ratio . This was only encountered for very
small brackets. On the other hand the value of stays
almost constant for tall brackets ( = 5, 6 and 7)
irrespective of their width. This leads to the conclusion
that the influence of geometric nonlinearity does not
change much for tall brackets and that the width does
not significantly influence for tall brackets.
The influence of geometric nonlinearity decreases
as the radius to thickness ratio increases (Figure 16),
191
1
2
5
6
7
1
2
5
6
7
1
2
5
6
7
0.25
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.25
1
0.1
0.5
1.25
0.75
0.0
2
dimensionless height of the bracket

with (r/t = 1000).
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.72
0.25
1
0.68
0.64
400
500
0.5
1.25
600
700
800
radius to thickness ratio r/t
0.75
900
1000

with r/t ( = 7).
because the flattening of the shell above the bracket

becomes less significant before buckling. That is to
say, buckling occurs when the pre-buckling deformations are still small, so their influence is less
significant.
GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR ANALYSIS
WITH IMPERFECTIONS (GNIA)
In order to explore the influence of imperfections on

the buckling behaviour of the bracket-supported shell,
four different shapes of imperfection were analysed on
two representative example shells.
Both example geometries have a radius to thickness
ratio of 600, but differ in the geometry of the bracket.
The first example represents a short
and wide bracket
with the geometry of = h/ rt = 2
(dimensionless height of the bracket) and = d/ rt = 1.25
(dimensionless half width of the bracket), while second example represents a tall and narrow with = 5
and = 0.75.
The short wide example will be termed from here
on Geometry SW and the tall narrow example Geometry TN. The main difference between these examples
c
load
is their sensitivity to geometric nonlinearity, the short

wide bracket (Geometry SW) shows a reduction of
strength due to geometric nonlinearity of 33%, while
tall narrow bracket (Geometry TN) only shows a
reduction of 23%.
The four imperfection shapes were chosen on the
basis of the following reasoning.
Compressive stresses, which lead to buckling,
only appear in area of the shell right above the
bracket. Therefore only imperfections in this area are
considered.
The first eigenmode shape is commonly recommended (EN1993-1-6, 2007) as a starting point for a
damaging imperfection in an imperfection sensitivity
study. It was therefore chosen as the first imperfection shape to be investigated. The first eigenmode
produces a buckle just above the bracket (Figure 5d),
but it was shown in the first part of this investigation that the dominating factor for the buckling of
the perfect shell is the flattening of the shell above
the bracket. Therefore a serious imperfection for the
bracket supported silo should also introduce flattening of the shell above the bracket. The flattening of
the shell was introduced using the deformed shape of
the perfect structure at several different stages of a
geometric nonlinear, elastic analysis (Figure 17).
All the imperfection shapes shown above have their
maximum deviation (imperfection amplitude) directed
inwards towards the central axis of the cylinder (as
recommended in EN1993-1-6, 2007) since it has been
shown on a similar example geometry (Doerich, 2007)
that inward imperfections cause a greater reduction in
the buckling strength.
The imperfection sensitivity of a shell not only
depends on the imperfection shape, but also on the
imperfection amplitude (Yamaki, 1984; Song et al.,
2004) and the worst imperfection is therefore a
displacement
Figure 17. Load stages for corresponding imperfection
shapes in Figure 18.
192
combination of imperfection shape and amplitude.

For most shell buckling problems, the buckling load
decreases with the amplitude of the imperfection. Even
though it has been shown (e.g. Doerich, 2007) that this
idea is not universally applicable, it was used as a basis
for the investigation of the imperfection sensitivity in
a geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis.
The different imperfection shapes are illustrated
in Figure 18 and Figure 19. These imperfections
are: the shape of the first eigenmode from a linear
elastic analysis (LBA) (Figure 18a and Figure 19a)
the deformed shape of the GNA analysis at the
post-buckling minimum (Figure 18b and Figure 19b),
at buckling (Figure 18c and Figure 19c) and well
before buckling (Figure 18d and Figure 19d).
The shape of the first eigenmode (LBA) and the
deformed shape at the lowest point on the post buckling
path (Figure 18a + b and Figure 19a + b) both display
a clear dent, but with different shapes and different
positions above the bracket. The deformed shapes well
before buckling (Figure 18d and Figure 19d) and at

buckling (Figure 18c and Figure 19c) display a flattening of the cylinder above the bracket. The flattening is
naturally more pronounced for the deformed shape at
buckling.
The results of geometrically nonlinear elastic analyses, including explicit geometric imperfections in
the four forms identified above (GNIA) are shown
in Figure 20 and Figure 21 for a substantial range of
imperfection amplitudes.
As an indication the imperfection amplitudes recommended in EN1993-1-6 (2007), for different fabrication classes, are shown in Table 2. It should be noted
that the imperfection amplitudes only depend on the
radius to thickness ratio of the shell and are therefore
independent of the bracket geometry.
Using the first eigenmode from a linear analysis (imperfection shape a), the buckling load is only
lowered by 2.9% for an imperfection amplitude of
/t = 0.5 (Geometry SW). At larger amplitudes, the
Figure 18. Different shapes of geometric imperfections

(Geometry SW), DF = deformation factor.
Figure 19. Different shapes of geometric imperfections

(Geometry TN), DF = deformation factor.
193
The imperfections which cause flattening above the

bracket had the expected effect and reduced the failure
load relative to that of the perfect shell.
The failure load was reduced in this case by about
19% at 0 /t = 1 for both geometries and the decrease
continued up to a value of 40% (Geometry SW) for
an imperfection amplitude of /t = 3.5. For an
imperfection amplitude of /t = 4 no buckling could
be detected any more, indicating that the pre-buckling
deformation for such a large imperfection amplitude
are caused an effective stiffening of the shell.
RGNIA/RGNA [ ]
strength increases again. This increase of strength is

due to a change in the buckling mode (Figure 22).
When the imperfection in the form of the deformed
shape at the lowest post-buckling point (imperfection
shape b) is used, there is again an initial decrease in
the buckling load until an imperfection amplitude of
/t = 0.25. Here, the strength has fallen to 74% of
the strength of the perfect shell (Figure 20) for Geometry SW. However, from an imperfection amplitude
/t = 0.35 to /t = 0.75 no buckling could be detected
any more. At larger imperfections (1.0 < /t < 3.0),
buckling at a second point on the nonlinear path was
detected (Figure 24). This second buckling mode
leads to an increase of strength relative to the first
buckling mode.
dimensionless strength
RGNIA/RGNA [ ]
1.10
1.00
0.8
0.4
0.90
0.2
0.80
0
0.0E+00
0.70
Imperfection shape:
0.60
a)
c)
0.50
0
0.5
1.5
imperfection amplitude
4.0E-04
8.0E-04
1.2E-03
b)
d)
1
0
0.25
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0.6
Figure 22. Load deflection path of GNIA (imperfection

shape = first eigenmode (LBA), Geometry SW).
2.5
/t
1
0.8
RGNA/RGNIA [ ]
dimensionless strength
RGNIA/RGNA [ ]
Figure 20. Imperfection sensitivity for different imperfections (Geometry SW), imperfection shapes referring to
Figure 17.
1.10
1.00
0.6
/t=
0.4
0
0.E+00
0.90
0
1
2.5
0.2
0.80
2.E-04
4.E-04
6.E-04
0.5
1.5
8.E-04
1.E-03
0.70
Imperfection shape:
a)
b)
c)
d)
0.60
0.50
0
0.5
1.5

shape = first eigenmode (LBA), Geometry TN).
2
2.5
1
RGNIA/RGNA [ ]
0.8
Figure 21. Imperfection sensitivity for different imperfections (Geometry TN), imperfection shapes referring to
Figure 17.
Table 1. Imperfection amplitudes as recommended in EN1993-1-6 (2007) for different
fabrication tolerance quality classes.
Class A
Class B
Class B
0.9800
1.568
2.450
/t=
0.4
0.1
0.25
0.5
0.2
0
0.E+00
2.E-04
4.E-04
6.E-04
8.E-04
1.E-03
1.E-03

shape = deformed shape at the post-buckling minimum of
GNA analysis, Geometry SW).
194
0.6
RGNA /R GNIA [ ]
The imperfection in the form of the deformed shape

well before buckling shows similar, but not such
pronounced results.
The tall narrow bracket geometry (Geometry TN),
though very different in shape and force transmission
pattern, showed a very similar picture (Figure 21).
Using the first eigenmode from a linear analysis,
the buckling load the strength of the perfect shell
is only lowered by 14% for an imperfection amplitude of /t = 2.5, but continued to decrease slightly
with increasing imperfection amplitude rather than the
increase of strength seen in Geometry SW.
The imperfection in the form of the deformed shape
at the lowest point on the post-buckling path initially
also showed a rapid decrease in strength for small
imperfection amplitudes (0.1 < /t < 0.625) down
to 68% of the strength of the perfect shell. For imperfection amplitudes in the range 0.75 < /t < 1,
once again no buckling could be detected. Again a
secondary buckling mode (Figure 25) was found for
deeper imperfections (1.25 < /t < 4) with a slight
increase in strength relative to small imperfection
amplitudes. The deformed shape at buckling (imperfection shape c) again showed a continuous decrease
of strength and was the worst imperfection form
from amplitudes of about /t = 1.5, showing a drop
of strength to about 46% of the perfect shell strength
for an imperfection amplitude of /t = 3.25. Once
again, above an imperfection amplitude of /t = 3.5,
no buckling could be detected any more.
The initial drop in strength, followed by a rise, in the
imperfect nonlinear buckling load when imperfections
in the form of the post-buckling minimum are adopted
leads to another problem. The change of buckling
mode occurs at a relatively small imperfection amplitude compared with the imperfection amplitude recommended for GMNIA calculations in the Eurocode
(EN1993-1-6, 2007). An imperfection amplitude of
0 /t = 0.980 is recommend for Fabrication Tolerance
Quality Class A (the best fabrication quality). At this
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.E+00
/t=
0
0.75
2
0.5
1
2.E-04
4.E-04
6.E-04
8.E-04

shape = deformed shape at the post-buckling minimum of
GNA analysis, Geometry TN).
amplitude, no buckling would be found for Geometry

TN, but for Classes B and C, for which EN1993-1-6
(2007) proposes 0 /t = 1.568 and 2.460 respectively, the strength of the silo would appear to have
increased compared to that for very small imperfection
amplitudes.
The results for Geometry SW for the same imperfection shape produce a different challenge. Buckling
can be detected for all fabrication classes, but the structure buckles for these imperfection amplitudes at the
second buckling mode. This could mislead the analyst
into thinking that this imperfection does not lead to
any significant reduction of strength for all fabrication classes, even though the reduction of strength can
be significant for small imperfection amplitudes.
These results show very clearly that great care
must be taken in the choice of imperfection shape
and amplitude. Furthermore a good understanding
of the behaviour of the perfect structure is necessary before any consideration can be given concerning
which imperfection forms are likely to be the most
serious.
6
6.1
GNA
Geometrically nonlinear effects, found using a geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis (GNA), lead to
significantly reduced buckling loads in bracket supported shells. This reduction is caused by the flattening
of the shell above the bracket, causing a larger effective
radius of curvature at the buckle location, which leads
to reduced buckling strengths. The strength reductions
for brackets range between 17% and 40% and are
much larger than those for uniformly stressed cylinders (typically around 15% (Yamaki, 1984)). For the
bracket-supported shell, the reduction is roughly constant as the width of the bracket is changed. It increases
with decreasing bracket height and with decreasing
radius to thickness ratio for the range of geometries
investigated. This statement is not precisely accurate for all of the geometries investigated, but is the
dominant trend.
The most significant loss of strength is found
in thick shells and small brackets (both in height
and in width). Therefore one might think that very
small brackets and very thick shells would show the
greatest loss of strength. But these are exactly the
geometries which do not display buckling any more,
but instead have a positive definite tangent stiffness
matrix throughout.
This leads to the major question of how to define
failure in a geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis (GNA) when no buckling occurs any more. The
concept adopted here is to use a geometrically and
materially nonlinear analysis (GMNA) to determine
195
SUMMARY
failure, but instead of using a realistic yield stress, a

very much higher yield stress should be used. At low
yield stresses, buckling occurs and can be quantified.
As the yield stress progressively increases, the buckling predictions reach a plateau that is a useful measure
of the proper outcome of a geometrically nonlinear
elastic analysis.
6.2
GNIA
The geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis including explicit geometric imperfections was investigated
using two example geometries. The investigation
was confined to four different imperfection shapes:
the first eigenmode imperfection and three deformed
shapes from the GNA analysis at different stages of
the analysis.
Both example geometries show that the buckling
strength of a bracket supported cylinder is not very
imperfection sensitive compared to the uniformly
compressed cylinder. The most severe imperfection
is the deformed shape found in a geometrically nonlinear analysis at buckling, which leads to a reduction
of strength compared to the perfect shell of about 40%
or 46% (Geometry SW and TN) for large imperfection amplitudes. After this point, a further increase
in imperfection amplitude causes the buckling phenomenon to disappear. This compares with a strength
reduction of about 80% in a uniformly compressed
cylinder (Yamaki, 1984).
The general assumption of the Eurocode (EN19931-6, 2007) that the failure load generally decreases
with an increase in imperfection amplitude. This was
not verified in these calculations. The reason for the
relative insensitivity of the buckling load to geometric imperfections is that when a shell is symmetrical
and the pre-buckling stresses are symmetrical in the
perfect shell, an imperfection changes the symmetrical pattern of the perfect shell to an unsymmetrical
pattern in the imperfect shell, leading to a reduction
of the bifurcation load that can be massive. But in the
case of a bracket supported cylinder, or any cylinder in
which the peak compressive stresses are rather local,
pre-buckling stresses are already highly unsymmetrical and therefore lead to big reductions in the nonlinear
buckling load when geometric nonlinearity is used in
the perfect shell. But it also makes the shell less sensitive to any further type of imperfection. This result is
probably not only valid for the example of the bracket
supported shell, but may be valid for all shells in which
highly non-uniform pre-buckling stresses occur.
But such uniformity is, in reality, quite rare. Instead

most practical shells have regions of highly nonuniform stresses (e.g. where the supports of the shell
are placed) and therefore perform very differently from
a uniformly compressed cylinder.
For exactly this reason, the bracket supported shell
provides a very good example for many other shell
problems in which local loads cause a flattening of the
wall in the zone where the buckle will form, since they
are prone to behave in the same manner. This makes
the geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis (GNA) a
more important analysis here than it is for uniformly
stressed cylinders.
The geometric nonlinear analysis of the two example imperfect geometries indicates that the imperfection sensitivity is inversely related to the sensitivity
to geometric nonlinearity. The two investigated examples show different degrees of sensitivity to geometric nonlinearity in the perfect structure. While the
strength of the perfect shell with a short narrow bracket
was strongly influenced by geometric nonlinearity (a
reduction in strength of 33%), the tall narrow bracket
only showed a reduction of 23%.
These values may be compared with the maximum
reductions in strength due to imperfections (40% and
46% in the short wide and tall narrow geometries
respectively). This is very different from the uniformly
compressed cylinder, where the strength reduction due
to geometric nonlinearity is about 15% and due to
imperfections up to 80%.
This result indicates that when a shell experiences
big strength losses due to geometric nonlinearity in a
non-symmetric pattern, it may be that the imperfection
sensitivity often decreases.
The difference between the uniformly compressed
cylinder and the bracket supported shell arises because
of differences in the pre-buckling stress and deformation states. The uniformly compressed cylinder has a
uniform symmetrical pre-buckling condition, but the
bracket supported shell is already in a highly nonuniform and unsymmetrical pre-buckling state. When
the symmetrical pattern is disturbed due to imperfections, the reduction of strength is very significant.
Whereas the highly non-uniform pre-buckling state
of the bracket supported cylinder makes it insensitive
to imperfections. Nevertheless the nonlinear flattening of the cylinder above the bracket does reduce the
strength significantly compared to the outcome of a
linear eigenvalue analysis.
REFERENCES
7
CONCLUSIONS
The uniformly compressed cylinder is commonly used

to characterise general behaviour in shell buckling.
Doerich, C. (2007). Strength and stability of locally supported cylinders. Institute for Infrastructure & Environment. Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh. PhD:
350.
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Donnell, L.H. and Wan, C.C. (1950). Effect of imperfections on buckling of thin cylinders and columns under
axial compression. Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME
17(1): 7383.
EN1993-1-6 (2007). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures,
part 1.6: Strength and stability of shell structures. CEN.
Brussels.
Fung, Y.C. and Sechler, E.E. (1957). Buckling of thinwalled circular cylinders under axial compression and
internal pressure. Jnl Aero-naut. Sci., 24,(5): 351356.
Gillie, M., Holst, J.M.F.G., Mnch, M. and Rotter, J.M.
(2002). Behaviour of silos supported on discrete brackets. International Journal of Structural Stability and
Dynamics 2(1): 4562.
Harris, L.A., Suer, H.S., Skene, W.T. and Benjamin, R.J.
(1957). The stability of thin-walled unstiffened circular
cylinders under axial compression including the effects of
internal pressure. Jnl Aeronat. Sci. 24(8): 587596.
HKS (2003). Abaqus users manual ver 6.4, hibbit. Rhode
Island, USA, Karlsson & Sorensen Inc.
Kaplan, A. (1974). Buckling of spherical shells. Thin shell
structures-theory, experiment and design. Eds: Y.C. Fung
and E.E. Sechler. NJ, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs:
247288.
Koiter, W.T. (1945). On the stability of elastic equilibrium.
English translation: Nasa rep. Ttf-10: 833 (1967). Delft,
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. PhD.
Kollr, L. and Dulcska, E. (1984). Buckling of shells for
engineers. Chichester, Wiley 1984.
Lorenz, R. (1908). Achsensymmetrische verzerrungen
in duennwandigen holhlzylindern. Zeitschrift VDI 52:
17061713.
Madsen, W.A. and Hoff, N.J. (1965). The snap-through and

postbuckling equilibrium behavior of circular cylindrical shells under axial load. Stanford, California, Stanford
Univ Calif Dep of Aeronautics And Astronautics.
Rotter, J.M. (2004). Buckling of cylindrical shells under axial
compression. Buckling of thin metal shells. Eds: J.G. Teng
and J.M. Rotter. London, Spon: 4287.
Rotter, J.M. and Teng, J.-G. (1989). Elastic stability of cylindrical shells with weld depressions. Journal of Structural
Engineering 115(5): 12441263.
Song, C.Y., Teng, J.G. and Rotter, J.M. (2004). Imperfection sensitivity of thin elastic cylindrical shells subject to
partial axial compression. International journal of solids
and structures 41(2425): 7155.
Southwell, R.V. (1914). On the general theory of elastic
stability. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Series A 213: 187244.
Teng, J.G. and Rotter, J.M. (2004). Buckling of thin metal
shells. London, Spon.
Timoshenko, S. (1910). Einige stabilitaetsprobleme der
elastizitaetstheorie. Zeitschrift Mathematik und Physik
58: 337385.
Weingarten, V.I., Morgan, E.J. and Seide, P. (1965). Elastic
stability of thin-walled cylindrical and conical shells under
axial compression. AIAA Journal 3(3): 500-&.
Wolmir, A.S. (1962). Biegsame platten und schalen. Verlag
fr Bauwesen (75): 194195.
Yamaki, N. (1984). Elastic stability of circular cylindrical
shells. North-Holland.
197
Local buckling and deformation capacity of tubes in steel structures

A.M. Gresnigt
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
S.A. Karamanos
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the focus is on local buckling limits after yielding of the cross section (plastic
buckling). This is in contrast to thin cylindrical shells, where local buckling occurs at stresses below the yield
stress (elastic bucklingthe main focus of ECCS TWG 8.4). A survey of available test results and differences
in various design standards is given. Reasons for the scatter found in experiments are identified. There is a need
for more harmonisation in design standards, focusing on the practical needs for each application.
INTRODUCTION
Tubes in structural applications not only need sufficient strength but also sufficient deformation capacity
to allow for redistribution of stresses and loads. Such
redistribution is important because in structural applications such as trusses and frames, the stresses are
not only the result of the design loads, but often are
also caused by loads that are usually not taken into
account in the design. Examples are temperature differences, uneven settlements of supports, stresses due
to welding, etc.
Also the type of analysis has an influence on the
requirements for deformation capacity. Plastic design
methods are based on the possibility of local plastic deformations to obtain an optimal distribution
of forces in the structure (normal forces, bending
moments and shear forces).
To obtain optimal stiffness and strength in bending and in axial compression (column buckling), the
diameter to wall thickness ratio (D/t) is chosen as high
as possible. The limiting factor is local buckling. The
higher the D/t ratio is chosen, the lower the strain at
which local buckling will occur.
In this paper, the focus is on local buckling limits
after yielding of a part of the cross section (plastic
buckling). This is in contrast to thin cylindrical shells
where local buckling usually occurs at stresses below
the yield stress (elastic buckling). In structural design
for trusses and frames, the D/t ratio usually is less
than 120.
Attention is paid to the research that is carried out
into local buckling in tubes loaded in bending and
normal force. The factors that are responsible for the
rather large scatter in the critical strain are discussed.
An overview is given of the design rules in various

standards for structures such as the Eurocode 3 (EN
1993) and other standards.
It appears that the various standards show different types of analysis and different design loads and
deformation capacity.
Obviously, there is a need to harmonize and develop
design rules which take into account the various influences on the structural behaviour, in particular the
bending moment capacity, the normal force capacity and the local buckling behaviour. Also the design
rules should take account of the differences in safety
requirements in various applications.
1.1
In elongated cylinders, loading is a combination of

bending moment and axial force (tensile or compressive). Under this combined loading situation, the
tubular member may buckle when stressed or strained
above a certain level. This instability is crucial for
the structural integrity of the cylinder, resulting in
failure and collapse. This may be in the form of
global buckling (Euler-type instability) when significant axial loading is applied or local buckling due to
bending and/or axial compression, at the compressive
side of the cylinder wall.
The present paper focuses on the second form of
instability, i.e. local buckling instability. In particular,
it is aimed at reliable buckling limits for the safe design
of cylinders within the design framework for structural
Eurocodes.
When subjected to bending, the cylinder crosssection distorts in an oval shape. This ovalisation
199
Brief overview of research into bending

behaviour of cylinders
phenomenon has been first studied by Brazier (1927)

for the case of an elastic cylinder. Ovalisation causes
bending stresses in the hoop direction, which influence
the onset of plasticity, and modifies the local curvature
of the pipe wall at the compression zone, thus facilitating the occurrence of buckling. An extension of
Braziers work for the case of metal cylinders subjected
to bending has been reported by Ades (1957), whereas
more recent analyses of this phenomenon in inelastic
cylinders have been reported by Kyriakides & Shaw
(1982), Corona & Kyriakides (1988), Karamanos &
Tassoulas (1991).
In any case, excessive compressive stress at the
cylinder wall results in buckling, in the form of wrinkles along the cylinder. Initially, the wrinkles are
uniform. Subsequently, secondary bifurcation to a
non-uniform wrinkling pattern may occur, followed by
a localization of deformation at one specific location
of the cylinder. This local buckling formation results
in failure of the cylinder. In-depth numerical investigation of this local buckling phenomenon can be found in
the works of Ju & Kyriakides (1992) and Karamanos &
Tassoulas (1996a, b). Recently, Lee et al. (2005) investigated the effects of plastic anisotropy on the buckling
response of bent cylinders.
1.2
Experimental works on cylindrical members

under bendingbrief summary
Experiments involving pure bending of cylindrical

shells, exhibiting instabilities beyond or near the elastic limit have been reported in the works of Moore &
Clark (1952), Jirsa et al. (1972), Johns et al. (1975),
Reddy (1979), Tugcu & Schroeder (1979), Gresnigt,
(1986), Kyriakides & Shaw (1987), Fowler (1990),
Kyriakides & Ju (1991), Van Foeken & Gresnigt
(2001). These experimental works concerned relatively thick cylinders with diameter-to-thickness ratio
less than 100, and were motivated by the need for safe
design of onshore and offshore pipelines, candidates
for deep-water applications.
Sherman (1976), motivated by the need for safe
design of offshore tubular lattice structures, presented
a series of tests in cantilever and simple-span fabricated cylindrical members under bending loading conditions. The experimental programme gave emphasis
on the ability of cylindrical members to undergo plastic deformation before their failure. The test specimens
have a D/t ratio ranging between 35 and 102.
Significant experimental works on the local buckling of 36 cylindrical beam-columns under bending
and axial loads have been reported in CBISwRI
(Steinman & Vojta 1989, Marlow 1988). This research
was motivated by the need for safe construction of offshore platforms in deep water. The tested members had
D/t ratios equal to 42 and 60. The main purpose of this
research was the effect of external pressure on bending
capacity, but also several non-pressurized tests were

conducted.
Some interesting tests on rather thin-walled cylinders were conducted by Van Foeken & Gresnigt
(1994), motivated by the safe design of thinwalled pipelines under bending and internal pressure.
Although the emphasis in this experimental programme was the effect of internal pressure, some
valuable experimental results in cylinders with D/t
equal to 102 and 107 were reported.
Finally, bending test results on thin-walled coldformed very-high-strength-steel (VHS) members were
reported by Elchalakani et al. (2002). The purpose of
those tests was the determination of deformation limits
for those VHS members. The D/t ratio of the tested
members ranged between 36 and 110.
2.1 Introduction
In pipeline application much research has been carried
out to determine the relationship between D/t ratio and
the bending momentcurvature behaviour.
The available test results show considerable scatter,
which is considered to be caused by variations in the
stress-strain relationship, anisotropy of the steel, the
Bauschinger effect, geometrical deviations, residual
stresses, test conditions, etc.
The manufacturing method (seamless, UO, UOE)
has a considerable influence on the mechanical properties of the steel, especially the Bauschinger effect
and thereby on the local buckling and collapse resistance (resistance to external water pressure as occurs
in offshore pipelines). UOE refers to the manufacturing process of pipe from flat plate via pressing to a
U-shape and pressing with a cap to a O-shape. The
E stands for cold expansion after welding the longitudinal seam. Cold expansion is performed to decrease
the geometrical deviations: to achieve constant diameter and to minimise out of roundness (ovalisation).
For UOE manufactured pipe, a significant reduction in
collapse strength has been observed compared to not
expanded pipe (UO) or seamless pipe (Gresnigt 2000).
In a research programme performed for PRCI (Van
Foeken & Gresnigt 1998), the influence of the manufacturing method on collapse and local buckling
was investigated. The tests carried out in this programme and other relevant experimental data related
to buckling and/or collapse of pipes were collected in a
database. The data were grouped for the different loading conditions and compared with design equations in
the literature.
From the comparison of the experimental data
and design equations, model uncertainties (model
200
EXPERIMENTS ON BENDING STRENGTH

AND DEFORMATION CAPACITY
factors ) and Coefficients of Variation (CoV) were

determined for each design equation. For these cases,
partial safety factors were determined for different
safety levels (probabilities of failure).
Below a summary is given of the main findings
regarding bending and local buckling.
2.2 Design equations
DNV (1996) gives:

Mc = (Do )2 tnom y
(10)
ABS (2001) gives:

Do
Mc = Mp 1.05 0.0015
t
(11)
For the limit strain c (critical buckling strain) and

the limit moment Mc several relationships have been
published (Do is the outside diameter, t is the wall
thickness, D is the average diameter D = Do t,
tnom is nominal wall thickness):
It is noted that according to these equations, the

critical strain c (local buckling) is independent of the
strength of the steel. This is different from Eurocode 3,
which will be explained in a later section.
BS 8010 (1993):
2.3
tnom
c = 15
Do
2
(1)
Gresnigt (1986):
D
< 120 :
t
D
120 :
For
t
For
t
0.0025
D
t
c = 0.2
D
c = 0.5
(2)
(3)
Experimental programme
In this programme four pipes were tested. Three pipes

were manufactured using the UOE process and one
was a seamless pipe. Table 1 gives an overview of the
pipes.
From each pipe section, two tensile coupons were
made in the axial and two in the circumferential direction. The circumferential tensile coupons were flattened. The results of the tensile tests are summarized
in Table 2.
On small coupon test specimens, taken out of the
pipe in circumferential direction from the inside and
outside, the compressive yield stress was determined.
Murphey and Langner (1985):

c = 0.5
t
D
(4)
Table 1.
values).
Summary of measured dimensions (averaged
Test
Type
Wall
thickness
[mm]
B1
B2
B3
B4
UOE
Seamless
UOE
UOE
11.22
17.54
18.99
23.61
Igland (1993):
2
t
c = 0.005 + 13
Do
(5)
DNV (1996):
c =
t
0.01
Do
t
Do
Table 2.
tests).
(7)
B2
(8)
B3
with:
B4
Mp = D tnom y
2
(9)
201
D/t
509.0
514.7
507.9
525.6
0.285
0.078
0.138
0.124
45.4
29.3
26.8
22.3
Material properties of the pipe sections (tensile
Test Direction
B1
BS 8010 (1993) gives for the limit moment Mc :

Do
Mc = Mp 1 0.0024
tmin
Ovalisation
[%]
(6)
ABS (2001):
c = 0.5
Diameter
[mm]
Longitudinal
Circumferential
Longitudinal
Circumferential
Longitudinal
Circumferential
Longitudinal
Circumferential
0.2%
Neckyield
Ultimate Elonga- ing
N/mm2 N/mm2 tion % %
479
429
459
373
474
457
450
466
568
575
533
538
527
548
534
560
39
41
35
36
28
28
33
31
40
41
30
33
27
30
35
38
Table 3. Average compression yield stress in

circumferential direction (0.2%).
20"-18 Outside first

-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0
Specimen
Yield stress (in
B1
B2
B3
B4
476
442
444
402
N/mm2 )
Strain [micro]
-2000
-4000
Strain 1
-6000
Strain 2
Strain 3
-8000
Load [kN]
Figure 3.
Measured compressive force-strain for pipe B2.

20"-19 Outside second
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0
Strain [micro]
-2000
-4000
Strain 1
-6000
Strain 2
Strain 3
-8000
Load [kN]
Figure 4.

20"-24 Outside second
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0
Figure 1. Compressive coupon test set-up. The diameter of

the round test bars was about 4 mm. The strain was measured
with three strain gauges.
Strain [micro]
-2000
20"-12 Inside second

-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-4000
Strain 1
Strain 2
-6000
Strain 3
Strain [micro]
-2000
-8000
Load [kN]
-4000
Figure 5.
Strain 1
Strain 2 -6000
Strain 3
2.4 Bending test set-up
-8000
Load [kN]
Figure 2.
A summary is presented in Table 3. The test set-up

for the compressive coupon tests is shown in Figure 1.
In Figure 2 to Figure 5, from each pipe, one of the
measured compressive force-strain diagrams is shown
(circumferential direction).
2.4.1 Test rig

The 12 m long pipe sections were loaded by a four
point bending scheme. Figure 6 gives a schematic
overview of the test set-up. See also the photographs
with the test specimens. At the two loading positions,
the load was applied by three thin walled steel strips
around the pipe, spaced at about 0.7 meters.
The central part of the pipe section was loaded by a
constant bending moment over a length of about 2.0 m.
202
jack
deflection
Figure 6.
Schematic drawing of the test rig.

center
strain 1
strain 2
strain 6
250
250
strain 3 strain 4
strain 7
250
Figure 8. Instrumentation used to measure deflection and

ovalisation.
strain 5
strain 8
250
Figure 7. Position of strain gauges at centre of pipe.
The two loads (both sides) close to the centre are only
small.
The purpose of these small loads was to make sure
that the discontinuities caused by the load introduction
are as small as possible and do not lead to failure (local
buckling) at or near these load introductions where
the bending moment is at its maximum (the centre
section of the pipe). This type of test set up was applied
successfully before, see Gresnigt (1986).
The force was applied at the top of the two columns
in the test rig on the cantilever. The distance between
the top of the pipe and the bottom of the jack was about
2 meter. This allowed for a large displacement of the
pipe under bending. The loading of the specimens was
displacement controlled.
2.4.2 Strain measurements
At the centre, the pipe was instrumented with eight
single strain gauges. The layout of the strain gauges is
given in Figure 7. The purpose of the strain gauges was
to see if the strain distribution in the constant bending
region would be constant. The strain measurements
were also used to check the deflection measurements
(curvature), see the next paragraph.
2.4.3 Displacements and ovalisations
The central part of the pipe with constant bending moment was instrumented with four displacement transducers; see Figure 8, covering a length of
1500 mm. Three transducers were used to measure the
horizontal ovalisation (diameter change) and one was
used to measure the relative vertical deflection over a

length of 1500 mm.
The measurements were taken at the axis of the pipe.
At the centre of the pipe, two small holes have been
made at opposite sides in the neutral axis to measure
the ovalisation directly (Oval-m). A small rod has been
placed inside through the two holes and a displacement
transducer has been connected. The vertical deflection
was used to determine the curvature over the length of
1500 mm.
The applied displacement of the jacks was recorded
and the forces were measured using load cells.
2.5 Test results

2.5.1 Definition of the limit state local buckling
During bending of thin walled pipe (e.g. D/t > 80),
local buckling occurs fairly suddenly with a sharp
decrease of the bending moment. At the occurrence
of local buckling, the bending moment is at its maximum. Before the maximum moment is reached, local
imperfections grow gradually until at one of the imperfections rather suddenly a real local buckle appears.
Usually, the growth of the local imperfections preceding the occurrence of local buckling can not be
detected by the naked eye.
In case of thick walled pipe, as in the present test
programme, the occurrence of local buckles is much
more gradual. In many cases, the increase of local
imperfections can be seen by the naked eye long before
the maximum moment is reached. When the imperfections become deeper, they gradually have more
influence on the bending moment.
At a certain curvature, a concentration of local
deformations appears, leading to a decrease of
the bending moment and eventuallyat increasing
curvatureto a real local buckle and a greater
decrease of the bending moment.
203
As long as the bending moment increases, the situation can be considered stable. At decreasing bending
moment, curvature will concentrate at the deepening
imperfection or local buckle, and the situation is no
longer stable. Therefore, the limit state for bending
with regard to local buckling (critical curvature) can
best be defined as the curvature at maximum moment
Mmax . It is also noted that the point of first notice of a
local buckle before Mmax is rather uncertain.
In this paper, the curvature at a clear drop in bending moment after the maximum bending moment, is
defined as ultimate curvature. It gives an idea of the
amount of curvature with a still relatively high value
of the bending moment after the critical curvature at
Mmax . This is especially important for deformation
controlled situations where deformation capacity is
needed.
2.5.2 Main results of the bending tests
The main results of the bending tests are summarized in Table 4. The deflections at maximum bending
moment and the maximum bending moment itself are
given. Also the deflections at ultimate deflection (curvature) and the bending moment at this deflection are
given.
Table 4.
Main results of the bending tests.
Test
Subject
Bending
moment
[kNm]
B1
max. moment
ult. curvature
max. moment
ult. curvature
max. moment
ult. curvature
max. moment
ult. curvature
1507
1496
1821
1761
2296
2234
2693
2309
B2
B3
B4
Table 5.
Deflection
[mm]
Strain from
deflection
[%]
16.6
17.4
12.0
20.1
19.3
37.8
25.2
60.7
1.50
1.58
1.10
1.84
1.74
3.41
2.36
5.67
From the deflections, the average bending strains

are determined (average over 1500 mm). The strain at
maximum bending moment is the critical strain (limit
value for local buckling).
The measured strains at the strain gauges are presented in Table 5 and compared with the strains
calculated from the deflections as presented in Table 4.
It is noted that for the seamless pipe B2, the strain
measurements with the strain gauges show rather big
variations along the pipe axes. In the other three pipes
(UOE manufactured), the variations are much smaller,
especially in the tension zone (gauges 15). The variations in both compression and tension zone increase
with increasing curvature.
Apparently, the manufacturing process for seamless
pipe leads to significantly larger variations in the yield
capacity of the pipe wall (wall thickness times yield
stress) than the UOE or UO process.
Considering the above variations, and taking into
account the use of the limit value for the strain, namely
to determine the critical curvature over a pipe length
of two or more diameters, it is logical to take the
strain from the deflections at maximum moment as
the critical strain.
As can be seen from Figure 9 and Table 4, the
difference in maximum bending moment and the bending moment at ultimate curvature (deflection) is only
small. Especially at lower D/t ratios, the bending
moment is nearly constant over quite some curvature (deflection). Therefore, the determination of the
curvature (deflection) at maximum moment cannot
always be very precise, especially at low D/t ratios.
See also the test results of test B2, B3 and B4.
2.5.3 Specimen B1
In Figure 9 the relation between the applied bending
moment and the deflection at midspan over a distance
of 1500 mm is shown. The point of buckling (the
deflection at maximum bending moment) is indicated.
In Figure 10 the ovalisations as function of the deflection are shown. At three points the ovalisations were
Strains from strain measurements (in %).
Reference
Average
15
Average
68
B1-max
B1-ult
B2-max
B2-ult
B3-max
B3-ult
B4-max
B4-ult
1.29
1.52
0.90
1.14
1.73
2.41
2.17
3.89
1.24
1.47
0.62
1.35
1.72
2.01
2.28
4.48
1.28
1.51
0.53
1.62
1.73
3.09
2.38
4.90
1.25
1.46
1.45
0.96
1.75
2.96
2.45
4.96
1.24
1.41
1.07
2.30
1.77
2.72
2.43
5.02
1.34
1.57
0.82
0.94
1.75
3.80
2.17
3.68
1.28
1.43
0.23
0.35
1.57
2.86
2.39
6.16
1.45
1.66
3.01
4.05
1.60
2.50
2.39
7.26
1.26
1.47
0.92
1.47
1.74
2.64
2.34
4.65
1.36
1.55
1.35
1.78
1.64
3.05
2.32
5.70
204
Pipe 20" - B2
2000
1400
1800
1200
Bending moment [kNm]
Pipe 20" - B1
1600
1000
800
600
400
Max. Moment
200
Deflection
0
0
10
15
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
Deflection
400
Max. Moment
200
20
Deflection [mm]
0
0
Figure 9.
10
Bending moment versus deflection for test B1.
15
20
25
30
35
Deflection [mm]
Figure 12.
Pipe 20" - B1
35
Pipe 20" - B2
oval-1
25
30
oval-2
20
15
10
5
0
0
oval-1
25
oval-3
Ovalisation [kNm]
Ovalisation [mm]
30
10
15
oval-2
oval-3
20
oval-m
15
10
5
20
Deflection [mm]
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Ovalisation versus deflection for test B1.
10
15
20
25
30
35
Ovalisation [mm]
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Buckled section of B2 at the end of the test.
measured with external transducers (see Figure 8).

The buckled section of test B1 at the end of the test is
shown in Figure 11.
2.5.4 Specimen B2
of 1500 mm is shown. In Figure 13 the ovalisations as
function of the deflection are shown. At three points
the ovalisations were measured with external transducers. The ovalisation using the rod is presented in
the curve Oval-m. The buckled section of test B2 is
shown in Figure 14.
2.5.5 Specimen B3
205
Pipe 20" - B3
Bending Moment [kNm]
2500
2000
1500
1000
Deflection
500
0
Max. moment
0
Figure 15.
10
20
30
40
Deflection [mm]
50
60

Figure 18.
Pipe 20" - B3
Pipe 20" - B4
50
3000
oval-1
40
oval-2
35
oval-3
30
Oval-m
2500
Ovalisation [mm]
45
25
20
15
10
5
2000
1500
1000
Deflection
500
Max. Moment
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
Deflection [mm]
Figure 16.
40
50
60
70
80
90
Deflection [mm]
Figure 19.
Pipe 20" - B4
70
oval-1
Ovalisation [mm]
60
oval-2
oval-3
50
oval-m
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Deflection [mm]
Figure 17.
Figure 20.
Deformation of B3 at the end of the test.

the ovalisations were measured with external transducers. The additional ovalisation using the rod is
presented in the curve Oval-m. In Figure 17 the
deformation of the pipe B3 at the end of the test is
shown. The buckled section of test B3 is shown in
Figure 18.
2.5.6 Specimen B4
the ovalisations were measured with external transducers. The ovalisation using the rod is presented in the
curve Oval-m. In Figure 21 the deformation of the
206
Figure 21.
Deformation of B4 at the end of the test.
Figure 22.
Table 6.
Strain at Mmax (in %).
Test
Test result
BS 8010
Murphey
Gresnigt
B1
B2
B3
B4
1.50
1.10
1.74
2.36
0.73
1.74
2.10
3.03
1.10
1.70
1.87
2.25
0.88
1.51
1.69
2.10
Table 7. Maximum bending moment with BS 8010

(in kNm).
Test
Test result
BS 8010
Test/BS 8010
B1
B2
B3
B4
1507
1821
2296
2693
1331
1991
2151
2676
1.13
0.91
1.07
1.01
pipe B4 at the end of the test is shown. The buckled

section of test B4 is shown in Figure 22.
2.6
Evaluation of test results
The predictions made by BS 8010 (1993) for the bending tests are presented in Table 6 and Table 7. In Table 6
also the predictions of Murphey and Gresnigt for the
strain at maximum moment are given.
It appears that the predictions of Murphey and

Gresnigt give better results than BS 8010. For further evaluations, see also next section. The test results
for the UOE pipes (B1, B3, and B4) are on the safe
side when compared with the Murphey and Gresnigt
predictions.
The test result for the seamless pipe is slightly on
the unsafe side. However, as stated before, the determination of the critical curvature at low D/t ratios
in this case is not very precise due to the fact that
bending moment is nearly constant over a long curvature. See the Figures with the bending moment versus
deflection, for instance test B2 (Figure 12) where the
difference in maximum bending moment at 12 mm
and the bending moment at for instance a deflection of
17 mm is only a few kNm. A deflection of 17 mm gives
a strain of 4 17 514.7/15002 = 0.0156 = 1.56%.
In view of the difference in post buckling behaviour
(the moment-curvature diagram after the maximum
moment) for thin walled pipe and for thick walled pipe,
it seems reasonable to allow a lower safety level (limit
state local buckling) for thick walled pipe than for thin
walled pipe. Also the loading situation, load controlled
or displacement controlled, has an important influence
on the required safety level for local buckling. In predominantly deformation controlled situations, a lower
safety factor for local buckling should be adopted
than for predominantly load controlled situations, in
particular for thick walled pipes (low D/t ratios).
Especially for low D/t ratios the strain hardening
properties have an great influence on the slope of the
bending moment-curvature (deflection) diagram in the
plastic area and thus on the limit strain at maximum
moment.
The differences between the test results for the maximum bending moment and the predictions of BS 8010
can be made plausible when the tensile test results of
coupon tests in longitudinal direction are considered,
where for the yield stress the 0.2% value is taken.
For the UOE pipe there is no clear yield plateau.
After the 0.2% value, the stress increases with increasing strain (strain hardening). For the seamless pipe
there is a quite distinctive yield plateau, resulting in
no beneficial effect of the strain hardening on the
maximum moment value. Because of the fact that the
critical strain for local buckling is taken as the strain at
maximum moment, the sharp yield plateau has also a
negative effect on the critical strains for local buckling.
It appears that for the tested D/t ratios, cold
expansion is bad for the collapse resistance (external pressure) and good for the critical strain capacity
(bending).
2.7
207
Database of experimental data
In the research programme, a survey has been carried

out of the available experimental data from various
External pressure only,

Bending strain at maximum moment without external pressure,
Bending moment capacity without external pressure,
External pressure/bending strain combination,
External pressure/bending moment combination.
Table 8.
Mean
correction of CoV of Correlation
BS 8010
Igland
Murphey-Langner
Gresnigt
DNV
1.123
0.896
1.076
1.271
0.854
Lowest
0.738
0.738
0.792
0.791
0.790
CoV.
Maximum bending strain - Murphy
0,035
Kyriakides
0,03
Fowler
0,025
Murphy
0,02
Korol
0,015
Oman
TNO
0,01
Reddy
0,005
0
0,005
0,01
0,015
0,02
0,025
0,03
0,035
Predicted strain
Figure 23.
strain.
Predicted strain versus experimental bending
Maximum bending strain

0,05
Kyriakides
Fowler
0,04
BS 8010; equation (1),

Igland relationship; equation (5),
Murphey and Langner relationship; equation (4),
Gresnigt relationship; equation (2),
DNV; equation (6).
Measured strain
0.393
0.311
0.260
0.261
0.292
0,04
This paper deals with the results for the load cases
Bending strain at maximum moment without external pressure and with Bending moment capacity
without external pressure.
2.7.1 Evaluation of test results on buckling strain
The experiments with bending moment only have
been compared with the following equations (see
section 2.2):
Bending strain of pipes.
Prediction model
Measured strain
sources. These data were evaluated and only those

sufficiently documented and relevant for the present
application were put into the database. All selected test
results (including the results in this project) have been
compared with the available prediction equations. Statistical evaluations have been carried out to determine
the best design equation. The experimental data have
been classified in groups with the same loading conditions and in the same sequence. The following groups
have been compared with theoretical predictions:
For the data selection from the database the following

rules have been applied:
All selected bending data
15 < D/t < 50
o < 0.01
In Table 8 the results of the evaluations are given. The
results of the comparisons, between the experimental
strains and the predicted strains are given in Figure 23
and Figure 24. In Figure 23, the bending strains at
maximum moment are compared with the predicted
strains by Murphey. In Figure 24, these strains are
presented as function of D/t and compared with the
different models.
Oman
TNO
Reddy
0,02
Gresnigt
Igland
Murphy
0
10
BS 8010
20
30
40
50
D/t
Figure 24.
Measured strain in the experiments versus D/t.
2.7.2 Evaluation of test results bending moment

The experiments with bending moment only have been
compared with the BS 8010 equations (8) and the
equation of DNV (10).
The measured maximum moment has been compared with the predicted moment capacity. From this
comparison, characteristic values were determined:
A mean correction term (Mc = Mexp ),
A coefficient of variation (CoV) using the mean
correction term.
For the data selection from the database, the same rules
as for the buckling strain have been applied.
The results of the calculations are presented in
Table 9. The results of the comparison are presented
in Table 10 as a function of D/t.
208
Korol
0,03
0,01
The experimentally determined strain at maximum

moment has been compared with the predicted critical strain. From this comparison, two characteristic
values have been determined:
A mean correction term (c = exp ),
A coefficient of variation (CoV) using the mean
correction term.
Murphy
Maximum moment capacity

1,4
Mexp/Mp
1,2
1
0,8
Kyriakides
Fowler
Korol
TNO
BS 8010
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
10
20
30
40
50
D/t
Figure 25. Maximum bending moment versus D/t for

all pipes. The DNV equation with the lowest CoV has the
constant value Mexp /Mp = 1, with Mp = Mc according
to DNV.
Table 9.
Bending moment of pipes.
Prediction
model
Mean correction
of
CoV of
Correlation
BS 8010
DNV
1.144
0.999
0.068
0.067
0.738
0.488
Lowest
CoV.
Table 10.
Limit states with calculated and reduced CoV.

CoV
Limit state Model
Mean
correction
Calculated Reduced
Bending
Murphey- 0.260
strain
Langner
at Mmax
Bending
DNV
0.067
moment
capacity
0.195
1.076
0.050
0.999
2.7.3 Models chosen with their CoV and mean

correction factor
The CoVs for the model uncertainty used in the calibrations have been obtained directly from comparisons
of the model and actual data. This is only acceptable if
no uncertainty is assumed in the parameters entering
the model. Assuming that there is similar uncertainty
in these parameters in the test data and in real life,
it is better to reduce the model uncertainty CoV.
A 25% reduction of the model CoV was chosen. This is
somewhat subjective, but it is an acceptable approach.
In Table 10, the proposed model for the two limit
states is given with the calculated and reduced CoV
for the model uncertainty.
2.8
(out of roundness), yield strength, Youngs modulus,

curvature, axial force, water depth, pipe material and
coating, gravity acceleration, etc.
It can be assumed that the wall thickness, diameter, ovality, yield strength and loads, such as the axial
force and curvature, are stochastic variables. Other
parameters can be entered as a deterministic variable.
Before a probabilistic analysis can be performed, first
the limit state function, the target reliability levels, the
distribution types and parameters have to be defined.
Target reliability levels (-values) have been defined as a function of relative costs of safety measures
and consequences of failure, see Table 11.
A special point of attention is that the target reliability should be defined for some length of the pipe:
a longer pipe has a greater probability of failure. The
increase is not proportional, however, as a result of
correlation of structural properties and loads along the
pipeline. A detailed analysis of this phenomenon was
beyond the scope of the project. The typical lengthy
nature of pipelines makes it necessary to make an
allowance for the length effect.
In this analysis = 3.5 was adopted. It will, however, be necessary to check this with design practice
and modify according to the items as given in Table 11.
Since every company may have its own safety philosophy, partial safety factors were determined for
different -values. A -value range of 2 to 5 was considered. The relation between -values and probability
of failure Pf is given in Table 12.
Statistical data were collected from different
sources, such as Vrouwenvelder (1984, 1991), data
supplied by Statoil for seam-welded and cold
expanded pipe of 20 to 40 diameter and data
obtained at TNO in previous projects. The collected
data relate to wall thickness, ovality, yield strength,
ultimate strength, Youngs modulus, diameter and
Consequences of failure
Relative costs of
safety measures
Little
Some
Moderate
Great
High
Moderate
Low
0.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Table 12. Relation between -values and lifetime

probability of failure Pf .
-value 2
Probabilistic analysis
In the design of deep water pipelines, several variables

play a role, such as wall thickness, diameter, ovality
Pf
209
Target -values (lifetime, examples).
Table 11.
3.5
0.023 0.0013 0.00023 0.000032 0.00000029
ultimate strain. The collected statistical data were analysed and for each group the most appropriate type
of statistical distribution was determined. For further
details on the probabilistic analysis, reference is made
to Gresnigt (2000) and to Van Foeken & Gresnigt
(1998).
2.9
factor, RM is the partial safely factor for the resistance, MR is the resistance to bending moment. For a
reliability index of 3.5 these equations become:
ML 1.09
1
Mu
with Mu =
0.999 MR
= 0.78MR
1.28
(17)
Proposed design equations
The proposed design equations are applicable for D/t

values between 15 and 50. For the yield stress, Youngs
modulus, wall thickness and outside diameter, nominal values are to be used (y , E, t, Do ), using for
UOE pipe the compression yield stress and using the
tension yield stress for other pipe with a different
manufacturing process.
2.9.1 Bending strain at maximum moment
The proposed design formula for the bending strain
with bending moment only (limit state local buckling),
is based on Murphey-Langner:
L SE
1
u
R
with u =
RE
(12)
and:
R = 0.5
t
D
(13)
where L is the resulting strain from the loads, SE is

the partial safely factor (load factor), u is the design
resistance to local buckling, is the model factor as
discussed before, RE is the partial safety factor for
the resistance and R is the resistance to local buckling.
For a reliability index of 3.5 these equations become:
L 1.64
1
u
with u =
1.076 R
= 0, 74 R
1.45
(14)
2.9.2 Bending moment capacity

The proposed design formula for bending moment
only, is based on DNV (1996):
ML SM
1
Mu
with Mu =
MR
RM
(15)
and:
MR = Mp = Do 2 ty
(16)
where ML is the bending moment from the loads, the

factor SM is the partial safety factor (load factor),
Mu is the design resistance for bending, is the model
It is noted that for different phases in the pipeline

design, i.e. installation, operation inside/outside safety
zones, etc. other reliability levels may be adopted and
hence other partial safety factors. Also differences
may be introduced based on whether the loads are load
controlled or deformation controlled (DNV, 1996).
2.10 Concluding remarks for bending pipes
with D/t between 20 and 50
The following concluding remarks apply.
1. For the tested specimens it is found that cold expansion is beneficial for the critical strain capacity
in bending. In collapse tests (Gresnigt 2000), it
was found that cold expansion reduces the collapse
resistance (external pressure). For the combination
of pressure and bending, the effect of cold expansion may be beneficial or not, depending on the
level of the applied external pressure (water depth).
2. In the design equations as considered in the
research the effect of cold expansion on the critical curvature and the collapse pressure was not
included. Modification of these design equations
was recommended. For collapse such modification
is proposed e.g. in ABS (2001).
3. The evaluations and probabilistic calculations have
been made for a D/t range between 15 and 50.
For onshore pipelines with D/t ratios up to 100,
the selected bending moment and bending strain
design models may also be applicable. Whether the
selected models and partial safety factors are the
most appropriate, requires more research.
4. The test results of the three UOE pipes are on the
safe side when compared with the Murphey and
Gresnigt predictions, while the test result of the
seamless pipe is on the unsafe side. It should be
noted that in the evaluation, the curvature at maximum moment is taken as the limit value. Especially
for low D/t values, the determination of the maximum moment is not always precise, because the
bending moment is nearly constant over a long
curvature.
5. Especially for low D/t ratios, the strain hardening
properties have a major influence on the slope of
the bending moment-curvature diagram in the plastic area and thus on the limit strain at maximum
moment.
210
6. In view of the difference in post buckling behaviour

(the moment-curvature diagram after the maximum
moment) for thin walled pipe and for thick walled
pipe, it looks reasonable to allow a lower safety
level for local buckling for thick walled pipe than
for thin walled pipe. Also the loading situation, load
controlled or displacement controlled, has a considerable influence on the safety level for the pipeline
system. In predominantly deformation controlled
situations, a lower safety factor for local buckling
should be adopted than for predominantly loadcontrolled situations, especially for thick walled
pipelines (low D/t ratios).
2.11 Results for thinner walled pipes with D/t
between 50 and 120
The above research is mainly focussed on offshore
application, where the D/t ratio may be very low
(e.g. 20) to resist to the high external pressures and
combinations of external pressure and bending. In
such applications the safety requirements are often
very high, because of the high risks of failure (capital
expenditure and environmental consequences).
For onshore applications, the D/t ratio usually is
somewhere between 50 and 120, depending on the
internal pressure, other loads like imposed bending
due to differences in settlement along the pipeline,
requirements for resistance to impact loading (excavation equipment) and the consequences of failure (cross
country or close to human dwellings; hazardous like
natural gas, oil, chemicals or water).
Requirements can be found in pipeline standards
such as NEN 3650 (2007) and EN 1594 (2000).
In Figure 26 an impression of the scatter in the test
results from various sources is given.
On the basis of these and other test results the
following design equations were proposed (Gresnigt,
1986). These equations were adopted for the Dutch
pipeline standard NEN 3650 (2007) and for e.g. the
European standard for natural gas pipelines EN 1594
(2000), the Canadian Standard for onshore pipelines
Z66296 (1996) and Eurocode 3 Part 4-3 (2007) on
pipelines.
For t/r < 60:
cr = 0.25

t
P r 2 |P|
0.0025
+
3000
r
Et
P
Figure 26. Test results of critical strains (Reddy 1979,

Gresnigt 1986).
Figure 27. Determination of radius to be introduced in the

design rules.
where
(18)
r =
For t/r 60:

cr = 0.10
t
Pr
+ 3000
r
Et
2
|P|
P
(19)
3a
r
(20)
where a is ovalisation due to bending and other loads

like earth pressure as is indicated in Figure 27, P is
internal pressure (positive sign) or external pressure
(negative sign).
211
r
1
The effect of other loads than bending on the

buckling strain is taken into account through the
determination of the local curvature where the local
buckle is expected to develop (the compression
zone). Several tests showed good agreement with this
approach.
Figure 26 also gives an impression of the big deviations from the local buckling strain according to the
elastic equation according to the classical elastic equation for a perfect cylinder. Note also the big scatter. The
big scatter causes a need for rather big partial safety
factors.
Much research has been performed and more is
needed into the factors that are responsible for the
scatter in order to come up with more accurate design
models that enable more economical designs.
3
3.1
STRAIN LIMITS FOR STRUCTURAL

APPLICATIONS
3.2 Main differences with pipeline design

In structures for buildings, bridges, masts, chimneys,
etc., the loads usually are load controlled, whereas in
pipelines often a more deformation controlled situation occurs. The introduction of loads on the pipes is
different. Eccentricities in load introduction may cause
premature local buckling. Also, other types of loading
may occur that are not explicitly taken into account
during the design. These are the main reasons why in
structures the safety level to local buckling needs to
be higher than in pipelines.
3.3 Ultimate load capacity of cylindrical members
in current design practice
Normal force strain limits
In compression, cylinders are more sensible to local

buckling than in bending. Reference is made to the
book of Timoshenko and Gere (1963): Theory of
elastic stability.
In experiments, however, the difference is usually
hard to determine, especially in thicker walled pipes
where local buckling occurs after partly yielding of
the cross section. The main reason is the large scatter
in test results, which usually is much larger than the
difference between the two load cases. In some standards a distinction is made between the strain limits
for bending and for normal force.
Table 13.
In this section, background and an overview are

given of rules regarding strain limits in pipes and
cylinders according to several standards for structural design. Rather big differences can be observed
between different standards.
In current design practice, in order to account for local

buckling, design specifications classify the tubular
members in terms of their cross-sectional geometry
i.e. the value of their D/t ratio.
More specifically, cross-sectional classification
expresses the ability of an axially-compressed cylindrical member (in the absence of Euler global buckling) to attain a certain load level in the inelastic range
without local buckling.
The limiting values of D/t ratio that define various
class ranges are called slenderness limits. Table 13
presents the slenderness limits according to several
national and international specifications, in terms of
Slenderness limits for the classification of cylindrical structural steel members.

D/t limit for bending moment
Country
Standard
D/t plastic limit

for axial
compression
Australia
Belgium
Canada
Germany
Japan
Netherlands
United
Kingdom
USA
USA
European
Union
ASDR 87 164
NBN B51-002 (08.88)
CAN/CSA S16.1-M89
DIN 18800 part 1
AIJ 80
NEN 6770
Full-plastic
limit
First-yield
limit
98.8 2
100 2
97.9 2
90 2
100 2
100 2
76.5 2
70 2
76.7 2
70 2
70 2
129.7 2
100 2
97.9 2
90 2
100 2
100 2
BS 5950
AISC/LRFD
API RP2A/LRFD
93.6 2
96.8 2
66.7 2
61.8 2
44 2
93.6 2
268 2
182 2
EN 1993-1-1
90 2
70 2
90 2
212
3.3.1 Eurocode 3
In the following, and without loss of generality, we
restrict our discussion within the Eurocode 3 (EN
1993) design framework, which follows limit-state
design exclusively. Eurocode 3 is based on state-ofthe-art information for steel structures, and is used
in all European countries. In this design framework,
one may employ two different methodologies to calculate the ultimate compression capacity of cylindrical
members:
The general rules of EC3 (EN 1993-1-1) applied to
cylindrical structural members,
The more specific rules for steel cylindrical shell
design (EN 1993-1-6).
It is important to note that both approaches follow
a limit-state design procedure and, therefore, direct
comparisons can be made.
The first methodology (EN 1993-1-1) is based on
a beam-type consideration of the cylindrical member,
subjected to axial force and bending. The design equations provide the ultimate stress resultants (ultimate
axial load and ultimate bending moment) for steel
cylinders with D/t 90 2 , as shown in Table 13.
Cylinders with D/t > 90 2 are outside the range
of applicability of EN 1993-1-1, and the designer is
referred to EN 1993-1-6.
The second methodology according to EN 19931-6 considers the cylinder as a shell, and provides
the ultimate compressive (buckling) stress. The axial
stress is related to the axial load and the bending
moment through the well-known elastic relationship
from strength of materials:

x = N /(2rt) + M /(r 2 t)
1.10
EN 1993-1-6
EN 1993-1-6 B
EN 1993-1-1
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
50
60
70
80
90 100 110 120 130 140 150

D/t
Figure 28. Normalized axial force capacity of cylindrical

members subjected to axial loading according to Eurocode 3
provisions of EN 1993-1-1 (the short horizontal line till
D/t = 90) versus the provisions of EN 1993-1-6.
213
(21)
For safe design, the above stress should not exceed

the buckling stress of the cylindrical shell. In particular, this second methodology in EN 1993-1-6 offers
two alternatives for the calculation of the buckling
stress. The first is the general methodology for cylindrical shells (independent of the D/t ratio). The second
alternative applies to cylinders with r/t less than 150
(i.e. D/t less than 300). In the following, this latter
methodology is referred to as EN-1993-1-6 B.
The predictions of EN 1993-1-1 and EN
1993-1-6 for the axial compression capacity NRk of
tubular members are compared in graphical form in
Figure 28 for a cylinder with fy = 235 MPa. In this
graph, the partial safety factor M is set equal to 1.
The axial load capacity NRk is normalized by the fullplastic axial force of the cross-section Ny = fy (2rt).
The graph indicates a significant deviation of the corresponding predictions, especially for cylinders with
D/t values between 70 and 90.
In addition, the predictions of EN 1993-1-1 and EN
1993-1-6 for the bending moment capacity of tubular
members are compared in graphical form in Figure 29
( fy = 235 MPa). The partial safety factor M is
neglected (set equal to 1). The bending moment resistance MRk is normalized by the first-yield moment
My = fy (r 2 t). The differences between the two
approaches are quite important. Furthermore, a significant jump of bending moment capacity exits at D/t
equal to 70 when designing according to EN 1993-1-1.
Those observations motivate a further examination of
this topic, towards proposing a unified design methodology. This methodology should be compatible with
the general and the more specialized provisions of
NRk/Ny

= 235/fy , the non-dimensional parameter, where
fy is the yield stress of the steel. In several cases, the
differences between various specifications are quite
significant.
On the other hand, a cylindrical member under axial
load and/or bending moment may be considered as
an elongated cylindrical shell subjected to meridional
compression x . In such a case, one can use shell
buckling theory and design provisions to predict the
buckling strength of the member under consideration,
when subjected to axial load and/or bending moment.
An important note should be stated at this point:
a direct comparison between the buckling load computed through a beam-type consideration of the
cylindrical member and the buckling load computed
through a shell-type consideration may not be possible, mainly because shell-type design approaches are
mainly based on an allowable stress concept (which
is always below the yield stress), whereas beam-type
approaches in nearly all modern specifications follow
a limit-state design approach, which may allow for
inelastic behavior and redistribution of stresses.
0,006
1.30
1.20
Critical Strain
MRk /M y
1.10
HERON
0,005
EN 1993-1-6
EN 1993-1-6 B
EN 1993-1-1
1.00
0.90
ENV - Piling
EN - part 5 and 1-6
0,004
Strain at yield stress
0,003
0,002
0,001
0,000
40
0.80
50
60
70
80
90 100 110 120 130 140 150
60
80
100 120 140 160 180

Diameter/wall thickness
200
220
D/t
Figure 29. Normalized bending moment capacity of cylindrical members subjected to bending loading according to
Eurocode 3 provisions of EN 1993-1-1 (the line starting at
MRk /My = 1.27 till D/t = 90) versus the provisions of EN
1993-1-6.
Figure 30. Critical strains for a combined wall for steel

S480. The critical strains according to the Heron publication
of Gresnigt (1986) are included as well.
0,006
ENV - Piling
EN - part 5 and part 1-6
Strain at yield stress
Critical Strain
0,005
the Eurocodes and would be of significant importance

towards a more rational design of cylindrical members
of moderate wall thickness.
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,001
3.3.2 Other standards

In Europe, several design standards exist that give
rules for the local buckling check of cylinders. It
appears that these rules may result into considerable
differences in the design stresses. In previous sections,
the Eurocode part 11 and part 16 were mentioned.
Examples of other design standards are:
0,000
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Diameter/wall thickness
Figure 31.
S235.
Critical strains for a combined wall for steel
Figure 32.
Example of a combined wall.
Eurocode 3, part 5: Piling the ENV version (ENV

1993-5:1997),
Eurocode 3, part 32: Chimneys (EN 1993-3-2),
The Dutch NEN 1060 (1995) on transmission
towers for electricity (Bovengrondse hoogspanningslijnen).
In the ENV version of the Eurocode on piling a set of
design rules for local buckling was included. In the
transition to the EN versions of the Eurocode 3, it was
decided to concentrate rules on common subjects in
the core documents parts 11 till 112. Therefore, in
EN 1993-5 Piling, reference is made to EN 1993-1-6.
In Figure 30 and Figure 31 a comparison is made
of the design of a tube in a combined wall according
to ENV 1993-5 and EN 1993-5 with EN 1993-1-6.
The significant differences are the result of the
different approaches to the design of cylinders. The
thin walled approach is focused on stresses while
the thick walled approach is focused on strains and
deformation capacity.
In this paper an overview is given of different aspects in

the strength and deformation capacity of cylinders for
pipelines and steel structures for various applications.
214
CONCLUDING REMARKS
4.1
REFERENCES
Scatter in test results
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4.2
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217
Indirect straining of shallow axisymmetric domes: analysis and behaviour

M.A. Bradford, E. Hamed & R.I. Gilbert
Centre for Infrastructure Engineering and Safety, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an analytical model for considering the effects of the indirect straining
of spherical shallow, thin-walled concrete domes. Indirect strains result usually from thermal and shrinkage
effects, and despite cracking and non-linearity precipitating many reported catastrophic failures of these dome
structures, a thorough understanding of their behaviour under shrinkage and thermal straining has hitherto not
been fully established. A numerical example and a parametric study are presented to highlight the capabilities
of the analytical method developed in the paper, and they show that shrinkage and thermal effects indeed play
important roles in the structural safety of shallow, thin-walled concrete domes.
INTRODUCTION
Shallow, thin-walled concrete domes find widespread

use in many engineering structures, such as in storage tanks and silos for granular solids, water and
wastewater tanks, biological and nuclear containment
structures, earth covered domes, undersea structures,
school buildings and the like (Fig. 1). While this
structural system is effective both from the perspectives of structural as well as architectural design,
many catastrophic failures have been reported worldwide (Teng & Rotter 1990, DPW 1978, Takeuchi
et al. 2004, Moncarz et al. 2007). In most cases, the
catastrophic collapses were initiated by extensive
cracking and deformations, which appear to be
a result of thermal and shrinkage/creep effects
(Edwards & Billington 1998). Thus, these indirect
or non-mechanical strains play important roles in the
behaviour and safety of shallow, thin-walled concrete
domes, and are addressed in this paper.
Concrete domes are designed to resist their selfweight as their predominant loading, but the extensive
deformations caused by indirect straining can bring

the safety of the structure into question. Shrinkage
and creep effects generally increase the deformations
of a concrete structure; however the deformations
of shallow concrete domes along their meridian are
partly restrained by the supporting ring as well as by
the membrane tension developed in the circumferential direction (Fig. 2) and so shrinkage (and creep)
may reduce the rise of the shallow dome and increase
the compressive stresses in the dome leading to the
phenomenon of creep buckling (Wang et al. 2006).
The dependence of the creep strains on the level of
the stresses in the dome, and their interaction with
non-mechanical shrinkage and thermal strains, make
an accurate prediction of the structural behaviour of a
dome a difficult task.
This paper presents the development of a theoretical model to study the influence of thermal, shrinkage
and creep straining on the geometrically linear axisymmetric behaviour of spherical shallow concrete domes.
The model accounts for both membrane and bending behaviour. Although geometric non-linearity is
essential for formulating buckling theories, an understanding of the geometrically linear response under
Plane of Spherical Dome
Section A-A
Supporting ring
Long-term behaviour
to
t1>t o
t2 >t 1
A
Antisymmetric buckling
Symmetric buckling
Figure 1.
Shallow, thin-walled concrete dome roof.
Figure 2.
219
Shallow concrete domes under indirect straining.
these indirect strains is needed before turning to their

non-linear behaviour. Herein, shrinkage and creep are
considered as long-term gradual effects, while temperature is considered as a short-term or instantaneous
effect. A variational principle is used to derive the
governing equilibrium equations and boundary conditions, which are solved using the multiple shooting
method (Stoer & Bulirsch 2002). A numerical example and a parametric study are used to articulate and
to provide some insight into the behaviour of shallow
domes under these effects.
(rr rr + )d(vol),
where rr , , rr , are the stresses and strains

in radial and circumferential directions and vol is the
volume of the dome. For the axisymmetric spherical
shallow dome, in which sin ( ) ( ), dZ/dr r/a
in which a is the radius of curvature of the dome,
the external loads are independent of and the first
variation of the potential of the external loads takes
the form
General
The short-term equations for shallow domes are wellknown and are given in many textbooks, such as Gould
(1988) and Zingoni (1997), while for many long-term
prediction models, shrinkage and creep effects can
be introduced by incorporating the concrete constitutive relations only. For completeness and consistency,
a variational principle is used herein to derive the
long-term governing equilibrium equations. The sign
conventions for the coordinates, deformations, loads
and stress resultants of an axisymmetric shallow concrete dome are shown in Figure 3, where all quantities
are independent of the angle .
2.2
Variational principle
At any given time, the variational principle requires

that
(U + V ) = 0,
(1)
where U is the strain energy, V is the potential of the

external loads and is the Lagrange operator of simultaneous variations. The first variation of the strain
energy is
Section A-A
Supporting ring
Z
R
A
a
uo
z,w
r
R
h(r)
2
[kv(r = R)] Rv d
(3)
where qr and qz are axisymmetric external distributed

tangential and perpendicular surface tractions respectively, k is the extensional stiffness of the supporting
ring and R is the radius of the base circle (Fig. 3).
2.3 Kinematics and indirect strains
The instantaneous (initial) strain is obtained by subtracting from the total measured strain at any given
time in the loaded dome the creep, shrinkage and
sudden thermal strains (Gilbert 1988). Assuming
small linear axisymmetric deformations, neglecting the shear deformation effects and assuming an
axisymmetric distribution of the long-term strains
allows the radial and circumferential strains in the
dome at any given time to take the form
w(r, t)
zwrr (r, t)
a
sh (r, z, t) c (r, z, t) T (r, z),
rr (r, z, t) = u0 ,r (r, t)
(r, z, t) =
(4)
u0 (r, t) w(r, t) zwr (r, t)
r
a
r
sh (r, z, t) c (r, z, t) T (r, z), (5)
which uses
rd
+
M
Qrr
Mrr
M
dr
Nrr
N
Figure 3.
(2)
vol
2 R
V =
(qr v + qz w) rd rd
THEORY
2.1

U =
N
Mrr+Mrr,r dr
Nrr+Nrr,rdr
Qrr+Qrr,rdr
Geometry, actions and sign conventions.
u(r, t) = u0 (r, t) zwr (r, t),
in which sh is the (non-mechanical) shrinkage strain,

T is the (non-mechanical) thermal strain, c is the
creep strain and ()r ()/r.
Although the long-term and temperature effects are
coupled, they are usually treated separately. Hence
220
(6)
the shrinkage strain is taken from the ACI recommendations (ACI 1982) which include the influences
of the drying, autogenous and carbonation shrinkage.
Herein, the shrinkage strain is assumed to be uniform
through the thickness of the dome as well as along a
meridian, taking the empirical form

sh (x, z, t) = sh (t) =
t +f
sh
(7)
where and f are parameters which control the mag

is the final
nitude of the shrinkage strain and sh
shrinkage strain at t = .
The creep strain includes basic and drying creep,
and depends on the stress level in the dome, so that it is
a mechanical strain. Because of this, it varies through
the thickness of the shell and along the meridian. The
creep strain is thus a proportion of the (long-term)
mechanical strain given as

w(r, t)
cr (r, z, t) = (t,
) ur (t)
a
zwrr (r, t) sh (t)

(8)

zT (t)
T (z, t) = T Tav (t) +
,
h
(12)
in which
1
[Tin (t) + Tout (t)] ;
2
T (t) = Tin (t) Tout (t)
Tav (T ) =
(13)
where Tin (t) and Tout (t) are the temperatures at time t
at the internal and external surfaces of the dome, h is
the shell thickness and T is the coefficient of thermal
expansion, taken as being constant.
2.4
Equilibrium equations
From the variational principle embodied in Equations 13 and noting that sh = T = 0 and
the variations of the deformations are arbitrary, the
equilibrium equations take the form
(rNrr )r + N qr r = 0,
r
(Nrr + N ) + (rQrr )r + qz r = 0,
a
(rMrr )r M
,
Qrr =
r
(14)
(15)
(16)
where
(t,
) =
(t, )(t, )
1 + (t, )(t, )
(9)
is the ratio of the creep strain to the total strain according to the Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus Method
(Gilbert 1988). In Equation 9, (t, ) is the creep coefficient, (t, ) is the aging coefficient, and is the
time of first loading. In this paper, the ACI recommendations (ACI 1982) are used for the creep strain
according to

(t, ) =
(t )
(t ) + d
where Nrr and N are the radial and circumferential forces, Qrr is the radial shear force, and Mrr
and M are the radial and circumferential bending
moments. These equilibrium equations are similar
to those in many textbooks, such as Timoshenko &
Woinowsky-Kreiger (1959), with the long-term and
temperature indirect straining introduced into these
equations through the constitutive relations discussed
in the following.
2.5 Constitutive relations
From Equations 413 and from Hookes law, the
constitutive relations take the form
( )
(10)
where and d are parameters which control the creep

coefficient and the long-term creep coefficient is
( ) = 1.25 0.188 (, 7).

u
w
w
0
Nrr = (1 )
A( ) u0 ,r +
a
r
a

sh (1 + ) (1 + ) A(t)Tav (t)
(11)
The influence of the thermal effects on shrinkage

and creep are ignored (Baant et al. 2004) so that the
thermal strains are given by
221
u
A( )
N = (1 )
r

(17)

w
w
+ u0 ,r
a
a
sh (1 + ) (1 + ) A(t)Tav (t)
(18)

wr
Mrr = (1 )
D( ) wrr +
r
(1 + ) D(t)T T (t)
h

w
r
+ wrr
D( )
M = (1 )
r
(1 + ) D(t)T T (t)
(19)
(20)
where A and D are the in-plane and bending rigidities

of the dome at the age of loading ( ) or at which the
temperature is considered (t), which are affected by
the aging of the concrete. For unreinforced concrete,
these are
E(t)h
;
A(t) =
1 2
h2
D(t) = A(t) ,
12
together with the boundary conditions. This solution technique allows for consideration of the variable
rigidities due to varying thickness, and is applicable to
any boundary conditions and loading schemes. After
the solutions of Equations 2224 have been obtained,
N and M can be calculated from Equations 18 and
20 respectively.
2.7 Boundary conditions
Invoking variational calculus to minimise Equation 1
produces the boundary conditions as
Nrr = kv
(26)
Qrr = P z
or w = w,
(27)
rr are the external loads and bending

where P z and M
moments at the edges, the over-bar designates prescribed deformations or rotations, and = 1, = 1
when r = R and = 1, = 0 when r = 0.
3
2.6
Field equations
The field equations can be derived from Equations 1416 along with Equations 1721 and
Equation 9. At a given time, they can be stated in
terms of the unknown deformations u and w and the
unknown shear force Qrr as

r (1 + ) wr
A( )
u0 ,r + ru0 ,rr
1 + (t, )(t, )
a

u0
qr r = 0
(22)
r

u0 2r
r
(1 + )A( )
+ 2 (w + ash )
u0 ,r +
r
a
1 + (t, )(t, ) a
2r (1 + )A(t)T Tav (t)
(rQrr )r qz r = 0
+
a
(23)
Qrr =

w,r
D( )
w,rr
+
w,
+
.
rr
1 + (t, )(t, )
r2
r
(24)
Equations 2224 are ordinary differential equations

with variable coefficients in time and space which do
not have a solution in closed form, and so the multiple shooting method is used here for their solution,
NUMERICAL STUDIES
Figure 4 shows the geometry of the dome investigated

in the numerical study, which is intended to illustrate quantitatively the influence of the long-term and
thermal effects on the behaviour of a shallow spherical concrete dome. Welded wire fabric with 6.3 mm
diameter bars at 100 mm centres is used for the reinforcement, the compressive and tensile strengths of
the concrete are 32 MPa and 3.4 MPa respectively,
and the modulus of elasticity at age = 7 days is
taken as 20,220 MPa.
The first case is illustrated in Figure 4 (Case 1), and
it considers the dome and supporting ring being cast
monolithically and separated from the supporting wall
by an elastomeric pad. For this case, the stiffness of
the supporting ring is given by (Billington 1982)
k=
EAring
,
R2
(28)
where Aring is the cross-sectional area of the ring.

Two approaches are considered: the first ignores the
shrinkage and creep of the ring and assumes that its
stiffness in Equation 28 is constant in time; the second introduces time-dependent effects in the ring by
replacing the elastic modulus E in Equation 28 with
the age-adjusted effective modulus
) = [1 (t,
E(t,
)] E( ) =
222
(25)
or wr = w r ,
(21)
while for reinforced concrete these rigidities can be

determined using transformed area theory, in which
the stress-strain relationship for the reinforcement
is assumed to be time-independent but temperaturedependent.
or u0 = u 0 ,
rr
Mrr = M
E( )
.
1 + (t, )(t, )
(29)
2.5
0.35
.0
13
(a)
( ,,t)
Supporting ring
1.5
1
0.5
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
(a) Creep coefficient

600
Section A-A (Case 1)
(b)
500
120
.0m
m
#6.3@100
26.0
Elastomeric
pad
]
sh(t) [
.25
43
43
.25
400
Cast in place
350
500
200
Wall/panel
+
300
100
0
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
t (days)
120.0mm
180
(b) Shrinkage strain
Figure 5.
Time-dependent parameters.

120.0m
Cast in place
Precast dome
Wall/panel
Figure 4.
Geometry of shallow dome.
Using the ACI recommendations and the data reported
by Wang et al. (2006), the adopted values are: sh

=
6
500 10 , ( , t) = 0.8, = 0.6, d = 10
days, (, 7) = 2.35. The variations of the creep
coefficient and of the shrinkage strain are shown in
Figure 5.
For the case that the rigidity is constant with
time, Figure 6 depicts the behaviour of the dome
at times t = = 7 days, t = 100 days
and t = 1000 days. Because of the axisymmetric
nature of the problem, the results are plotted in the
domain r [0, R]. The restraint against deformations of the dome by the supporting ring means that
non-mechanical shrinkage strains are manifested as
mechanical strains and stresses, but these stresses are

ignored before the time of first loading (t = ), and
so the behaviour at t = corresponds to that of the
dome under self-weight only.
Figure 6a shows that the time-dependent effects
significantly increase the perpendicular deformations
with time, with these deformations leading to potential
buckling of a shallow dome. Although the maximum
creep coefficient is only 2.35, the deformation at
t = 1000 days is about 5 times that at t = 7 days,
so that the deformation caused by indirect shrinkage
strain is of the same order as the deformations caused
by creep resulting from the self-weight.
Figure 6b shows that the shrinkage and creep has
a small effect on the tangential deformation; whilst
the creep effect on the self-weight tends to increase
the tangential deformation at the edges, the shrinkage
and its creep effect tend to decrease this deformation.
However, an increase of the tangential deformation
can be seen close to the edge (r = 11.0 m), with
similar behaviour being observed for the distribution
of axial forces. The radial axial force at the edges
decreases with time primarily due to shrinkage and
increases at r = 10.0 m (Fig 6c). However, these
223
35
1.5
t = 1000 days
30
t = 7 days
t = 100 days
20
15
t = 7 days
5
0
6
r [m]
10
12
00
(a) Perpendicular deformation
6
r [m]
10
12
(b) Tangential deformation
500
(c)
-10
(d)
400
-20
300
-30
N [kN/m]
Nrr [kN/m]
t = 100 days
0.5
10
(b)
uo [mm]
w [mm]
25
t = 1000 days
(a)
-40
-50
t = 100 days
-60
0
6
r [m]
100
0
t = 7 days
t = 1000 days
-70
t = 1000 days
200
t = 7 days
-100
8
10
t = 100 days
12
-200
0
(c) Radial force
6
r [m]
10
12
(d) Circumferential force

7
2.5
t = 1000 days
(e)
(f)
2
t = 1000 days
1.5
4
M [kN]
Mrr [kN]
3
t = 100 days
t = 7 days
1
0
0.5
t = 100 days
t = 7 days
-1
0
6
r [m]
10
12
-0.5
0
(e) Radial bending moment
Figure 6.
6
r [m]
10
12
(f) Tangential bending moment
Long-term response of dome.
effects increase the tensile circumferential axial forces

at the edges with time (Fig. 6d). The model also predicts the concentrated bending moments near the edges
of the dome, as shown in Figures 6e and 6f. Using
the variations of the creep coefficient and shrinkage
strains given in Figure 5, the results show that the
long-term behaviour of the dome at t = 100 days and
t = 1000 days are very similar in terms of the internal
forces, but they differ in terms of the perpendicular
deformations.
Figure 7 shows the time-dependent variations of the
deformations, axial forces and radial and circumferential stresses at some critical locations. These results
are compared with the case where the time-dependent

effects of the supporting ring are considered using its
age-adjusted stiffnesses. Figures 7a and 7b show the
gradual increase with time of the deformations, and it
can be seen that when creep of the supporting ring is
taken into consideration, the perpendicular and tangential deflections are about 1.2 and 1.7 times the
deformations without considering creep of the ring.
The increase of the deformations with time, particularly when creep of the ring is taken into account,
in conjunction with the increase of the radial and circumferential forces with time, may precipitate creep
buckling of a shallow concrete dome. Variations of
224
35
2.5
(b)
(a)
30
20
uo (r = 11 m) [mm]
w (r = 0) [mm]
25
1.5
Constant ring stiffness
15
Variable ring stiffness
10
0.5
5
0
7
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
t [days]
100 200 300
400 500 600 700 800

t [days]
900 1000
(b) Tangential deformation

-60
550
(d)
(c)
-62
500
Nrr (r = 10 m) [kN/m]
N (r = 13 m) [kN/m]
-64
-66
-68
-70
-72
-74
-76
450
400
350
300
-78
-80
100
200 300 400
500 600
t [days]
250
700 800 900 1000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
t [days]
(c) Radial force

4
7
(e)
Internal surface (z = h/2)
(f)
Internal surface (z = h/2)

(r = 11 m) [MPa]
2
1
0
-1
-2
rr
(r = 11 m) [MPa]
5
4
External surface (z = -h/2)

Cracking
-3
-5
External surface (z = -h/2)
-4
7
100 200 300
400 500 600 700 800

t [days]
900 1000
(e) Radial stresses
Figure 7.
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
t [days]
(f) Circumferential stresses and cracking pattern
Time-dependent response of dome with and without effect of creep of supporting ring.
the radial and circumferential stresses with time are

shown in Figures 7e and 7f; based on the results in
Figure 6, the stresses are computed at r = 11.0 m
which is the most critical section in terms of the combined axial and bending actions. It can be seen from
Figure 7e, which shows the increase with time of the
radial stresses at the internal and external faces, that
the bending moment produces tensile stresses on the
internal face; these stresses however are smaller than
the tensile stress of the concrete (3.4 MPa). On the
other hand, the circumferential stresses are tensile on
both the inner and external faces (Fig. 7f) and exceed
the tensile strength of the concrete soon after first

loading. These stresses lead to the development of
cracking; the development of these radial cracks is
shown in Figure 7f. Both Takeuchi et al. (2004) and
Moncarz et al. (2007) have reported physical observations of similar cracking, and the model here provides
a quantitative explanation of this cracking pattern.
In most practical cases, the thickness of a concrete
dome is not constant, and gradually increases towards
the supports to resist the increasing bending moments.
In addition, the placement of sprayed concrete seldom results in a uniform thickness. The influence of
225
30
14
(a)
t = 1000 days
Mrr [kN]
w [mm]
15
10
t = 100 days
6
4
t = 7 days
2
t = 7 days
5
0
6
r [m]
10
-2
0
12
0
(c)
-10
N [kN/m]
-20
Nrr [kN/m]
-30
t = 100 days
-40
-50
-60
t = 7 days
-70
t = 1000 days
-80
-90
Figure 8.
(b)
10
t = 100 days
20
t = 1000 days
12
25
6
r [m]
10
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
6
r [m]
10
12
(d)
t = 1000 days
12
t = 100 days
4
6
r [m]
t = 7 days
8
10
12
Long-term response of dome with varying thickness in concrete domes.
varying the thickness of the dome is studied here,

with a sinusoidally varying thickness profile given by
(Fig. 4)

r
1
mm.
(30)
h(r) = 120 1 + sin
2
2R
The distributions of the perpendicular deformation,
radial bending moment and the radial and circumferential axial forces along the meridian at three different
times are shown in Figure 8; the creep effects of
the supporting ring are not considered in this study.
Comparison of these results with those with a constant thickness (Fig. 6) demonstrates that, as expected,
increasing the thickness of the dome decreases the perpendicular deformations (Fig. 8a). However, stiffening
of the dome leads to an increase in the internal axial
forces and bending moments. This illustrative example
demonstrates the capabilities of the proposed model
and solution procedure to handle different types of
shallow thin-walled concrete domes.
Thermal gradients are inevitable and cause stresses
that should be considered in structural analysis and
design. Two thermal regimes are considered herein:
a uniform temperature change between the dome and
its supporting system, and a thermal gradient through
the thickness of the dome shell resulting from different temperatures at the internal and external surfaces
(Heger 1990). These two effects are considered for
the shallow dome in Figure 4 (Case 1), with the
Table 1.
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Tin
Tout
Tav
T
10
0
20
15
10
20
0
15
10
10
10
15
0
20
20
0
four specific thermal regimes given in Table 1; these

temperatures are with respect to a reference ambient temperature of 25 C. The first case describes
a uniform temperature of 35 C under regular summer conditions, the second a warm environment of
45 C at the external surface with no change of internal temperature, the third is applicable for roofs
of tanks containing high temperature liquids or gas
(internal temperature of 45 C with no change of
external temperature) and the fourth case describes a
cold environment condition with a uniform temperature of 10 C.
The behaviour of these domes under thermal
regimes at the concrete age t = 28 days are illustrated in Figure 9. In order to clarify the influence of
the thermal regimes and because superposition of the
long-term and thermal effects is assumed in the theory, the results describe the influence of the thermal
effects only. In addition, the influence of the thermal
gradients on the supporting ring is not considered here.
226
Thermal regimes with respect to 25 C.
10
5
(a)
4
3
Case 1 3
-1
Mrr [kN]
w [mm]
(b)
2
0
-2
-2
-4
-3
-6
-4
-8
-5
-10
0
6
r [m]
10
12
6
r [m]
10
12
(b) Radial bending moment

400
25
20
(c)
(d)
300
15
200
N [kN/m]
Nrr [kN/m]
10
5
0
-5
-100
-10
-200
-15
-20
-25
100
-300
0
6
r [m]
10
12
-400
(c) Radial force
Figure 9.
6
r [m]
10
12
Thermal response of dome under thermal gradients.
The results shown in Figure 9 illustrate that the temperature effects considered in this example influence
the behaviour of shallow concrete domes significantly.
Positive average temperature increments (Cases 13)
induce negative perpendicular deflections (Fig. 9a)
and negative average temperature increments induce
positive deflections and increase the vulnerability of
concrete domes to buckling. However, Figure 9c shows
that a positive average temperature increment leads
to the development of compressive forces along the
meridian, and hence decreases the buckling capacity of the dome. A comparison of the results in
Figure 9b with those in Figure 6c shows that thermal gradients through the thickness of the shell induce
bending moments which are of the same order as the
moments developed by the long-term effects; these
moments may lead to cracking and weakening of the
dome. In addition, Figure 9d also shows that the circumferential forces developed under negative average
temperature increments (Case 4) are of the same order
as those which develop due to shrinkage and creep
effects (Fig. 6d). Nevertheless, it can be seen that
compressive circumferential forces develop in the
dome when subjected to positive average temperature increments (Fig. 9d). These forces may lead
to unexpected buckling modes in the circumferential

direction.
Precast domes are commonly used in modern construction practice, as shown in Figure 4. Under selfweight loading only, these domes are less vulnerable
to long-term effects because the concrete shrinks and
creeps significantly before they are deployed in the
structure. However, since the tangential deformations
of this type of dome are generally restricted by a rigid
supporting ring and a concrete wall or panel, any additional loading may cause significant stressing of the
dome. Because of this, the influence of the relative
temperature increments and decrements (denoted by
Cases 1 and 4 in Table 1) on the response of a precast
dome has been studied here.
Figure 10a shows that the perpendicular deformations induced by the thermal gradients (Cases 1 and 4)
in the simply supported dome are higher than those
developed with a flexible supporting ring (Fig. 9a).
This is because of the restriction of the tangential
deformations at the edges; this effect also leads to
the development of higher internal forces and bending moments (Fig. 10). As a result, simply supported
domes are more vulnerable to thermal effects than
other domes supported by a flexible ring.
227
(b)
(a)
6
6
4
4
Mrr [kN]
4
w [mm]
2
0
Case 1
-4
0
-4
6
r [m]
10
-6
12
500
400
20
300
N [kN/m]
30
10
0
6
r [m]
10
12
(d)
200
100
0
-100
-10
-200
-300
-20
-30
600
(c)
Nrr [kN/m]
(b) Radial bending moment
40
-400
0
6
r [m]
10
Figure 10.
12
6
r [m]
10
12
(c) Radial force
-2
-2
-6
Thermal response of precast simply supported dome.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented a theoretical model for

predicting the long-term and thermal behaviour of
axisymmetric shallow concrete domes; these represent loading caused by indirect or non-mechanical
strains. It has been shown quantitatively that the longterm and thermal effects play important roles in the
behaviour of a thin-walled shallow concrete dome, and
so reliable predictions of these effects is required for
the safe design and performance of these structures.
The model developed herein provides explanations
for some of the damage patterns reported on existing concrete domes and for the physical phenomena
and hazards associated with the long-term and thermal
effects that may be experienced by shallow concrete
domes.
The issues addressed in this paper highlight the
need for an effective approach to be implemented for
long-term and thermal analyses of concrete domes.
The analytical model and the numerical results presented here contribute to the foundation of a theoretical
framework needed to the reliable analysis, effective design and safe use of shallow concrete domes,
and provide a theoretical platform for more complex
non-linear models for investigating the non-linear and

buckling behaviour of shallow concrete domes and
shells.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work in this paper was supported by the Australian Research Council through a Discovery Project
awarded to the first and third authors, and partly
through a Federation Fellowship awarded to the first
author and an Australian Professorial Fellowship
awarded to the third author.
REFERENCES
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Baant, Z.P., Cusatis, G. & Cedolin, L. 2004. Temperature
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Billington, D.P. 1982. Thin Shell Concrete Structures. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
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Department of Public Works, NSW 1978. Construction of

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Edwards, N.P. & Billington, D.P. 1998. FE analysis of
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Gilbert, R.I. 1988. Time Effects in Concrete Structures.
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Gould, P.L. 1988. Analysis of Shells and Plates. New York:
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tanks. ACI Structural Journal 87(4): 445452.
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Analysis. New York: Springer-Verlag.
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229
Vibrational frequencies of a Guastavino spiral staircase shell

P. Mandal
School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Civil Engineering, The , Manchester, UK
C.R. Calladine
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
ABSTRACT: The Catalan technique for building thin-shell vaults and domes from layers of ceramic tiles
bonded together by hydraulic cement was developed extensively in the United States of America by the Guastavino
family: they described this kind of construction as timbrel vaults, because the structures would ring with
a deep tone when jumped upon or struck. This paper is concerned with spiral staircase shells made by this
Guastavino technique, and particularly with the fundamental natural frequency of vibration of the shell, as a
function of the shells geometry and the properties of the material. We have studied many examples of spiral
shells by means of ABAQUS finite-element software. We conclude that both membrane and bending/twisting
behaviour of the elastic shell contribute towards the fundamental natural frequency; and we present simple
general approximate empirical formulas, based on the ABAQUS results, for the fundamental frequency of these
shells.
1
INTRODUCTION
The Rafael Guastavinos, father and son (18421908;

18721950), successfully developed in the United
States the traditional Catalan method for constructing
shell structures from strong ceramic tiles and rapidlyhardening hydraulic cement (Collins 1968, Huerta
2003). Between 1885 and 1962 they constructed hundreds of domes and vaults for railway stations, banks,
libraries, churches, etc. Their largest dome, at the
Cathedral of St John the Divine, New York, has a span
of 41 m.
All of these shell structures were constructed without scaffolding. The trick was to use gypsum plaster
as glue for erecting the first, soffit layer of tiles.
These terracotta tiles, made in the companys kilns,
typically measured 9 18 1 inch (230 460
25 mm). Each new tile was stuck onto the existing
construction by wet plaster, spread like mortar along
the edges; and the plaster usually set during the 10
seconds or so during which the mason held the tile
in place. Accurate location of the tile was achieved
by means of simple and ingenious arrangements of
templates and taut guide-strings.
When the first (soffit) layer of tiles had been
advanced by about 18 inches, the next layer could be
bedded down on top of it by means of copious amounts
of hydraulic cement; and on the following day a further layer could be added. In this way the masons
worked entirely from the upper surface of the shell
under construction, which was always able to support

their weight.
(Precisely the same techniques have been used
recently to construct two shallow domes of span 11 m
at the Pines Calyx Conference Centre near Dover,
Kent, U.K.: see Ramage 2007.)
The Guastavinos called such shells timbrel
vaults, because they resounded like drums or tamborines when jumped upon or slapped. The Guastavinos were thus at pains to distinguish their shells from
the classical, mediaeval style of vault, in which the
component masonry blocks were full-thickness voussoirs, with dry or weak-mortar interfaces. Although
it may have been possible to advance the construction
of mediaeval vaults without the use of much formwork, such vaults were less cohesiveanother term
used frequently by the Guastavinosthan their own
timbrel shells. Provided the Guastavino cement is
strong enough, the two- or three-layer overlappingtile construction of their vaults is more akin to a
heavy-duty layered composite than to a single-layer
mosaic of voussoirs. And the shell behaves as an
elastic continuum, as witnessed by the timbrel
tones.
This Guastavino system was also used to build
staircases of several different kinds (Collins 1968,
Huerta 2003). In the present paper our aim is to study
plain Guastavino spiral staircases, and in particular
to derive simple approximate analytical formulas for
their fundamental frequency of vibration. We hope that
231
our efforts will be useful for any future workers who

may measure, experimentally, fundamental frequencies of vibration of the eponymous timbrel action
of existing or newly-built staircases. Measurements of
vibration by means of accelerometer devices will certainly reveal the fundamental frequencies, as studied
here, although the characteristic timbrel sound may
also involve harmonics on the fundamental, which we
have not studied.
Guastavino spiral staircases were built inwards
from a groove cut into the cylindrical outer wall,
and they had a free, unsupported, inner edge. They
were also secured to horizontal landings at the top
and bottom of the spiral. Photographs exist of several
examples of such staircases under construction (see
Fig. 1 for example); and some staircases of this kind
still survive.
After the outer cylindrical supporting wall had been
constructed, the next stage was to build a spiral, or
helicoidal, shell. Then, finally, the steps themselves
could be addedapparently as non-structural units,
made from tiles or masonry. The workers would build
up the spiral shell from below, standing or sitting
on temporary supports (Ochsendorf 2005). Geometric

accuracy was ensured by a simple system of speciallyplaced taut strings. Tiles in the lowest, soffit layer
could either be laid radially, in straight lines of tapering
tiles, or in parallel circumferential rows, as in Figure 1.
In any case it was not necessary to cut the tiles to shape
with great precisionwhether for a dome, vault or
spiral staircasesince the gypsum plaster for the lowest layer, and the hydraulic cement for the subsequent
layers, readily filled the gaps between the tiles.
Our present plan therefore is to study the fundamental modes and frequencies of a generic spiral-staircase
shell, which we shall treat as an elastic thin-shell
structure.
2
PRELIMINARIES
For the sake of the simplicity we shall consider the

shell to be of uniform thickness, with horizontal radial
cross-sections.
The geometry of the centre-surface of our generic
spiral shell is shown in Figure 2. The obvious cylindrical r, , z co-ordinate system is indicated, and the
spiral surface has the simple equation
z = c,
(1)
where c is a constant length.

The shell itself may be described by a number of
obvious parameters:
b: radius of outer cylindrical support;
a: radius of inner, free edge;
: angle of climb of spiral at outer radius b;
: angle of climb at inner radius a;
: angle subtended in plan by bottom and top horizontal radial edges; and
h: (uniform) thickness of shell.
Figure 1. Guastavino spiral staircase in the First National

Bank of Paterson, New Jersey, ca. 1890. The soffit layer of
tiles is arranged circumferentially. This staircase is elliptical in plan, unlike those analysed in this paper, which have
circular plan-forms. From Collins, 1968, Figure 23A.
Figure 2. Geometry of a spiral surface, showing co-ordinate

system and leading parameters. Components of displacement
u, v, w correspond to co-ordinate directions r, , z.
232
These variables are not all independent. Thus it is

straightforward to show that
the sake of simplicity we shall take Poissons ratio as

zero; so the elastic shear modulus G will be given by
b tan = a tan .
G = 0.5E.
(2)
Further, it will turn out to be useful to define

radius a in terms of a dimensionless staircase-width
parameter q:
q = 1 a/b
(3)
Hence we shall not use a and as working variables:

a can be obtained, if required, from (3) in terms of b,
q, while is given by
tan = tan /(1 q) .
(4)
A plot of against for different values of q is

given in Figure 3.
Throughout the paper angle will be specified in
degrees, and lengths in m. Angle will sometimes be
specified in degrees and sometimes in radians. Where
the choice is not obvious from the context we shall use
the notation d , r respectively.
We shall also need to specify the density and elastic
properties of the shell, which we shall take to be a
uniform and isotropic composite of tiles and mortar.
We shall take the mass density as (kg m3 ) and
the Youngs modulus of elasticity as E(Nm2 ). For
It remains to specify the boundary-conditions for

the shell, along the spiral cylindrical outer edge and
at the horizontal top and bottom landings. We shall
take all of these boundaries to be examples of simple, freely-hinged support capable of providing both
in-plane and out-of-plane shearing forces to the shell.
This is a straightforward assumption along the outer
cylindrical edge, where the shell is lodged in the shallow groove or slot cut into the solid outer cylindrical
wall. Conditions at the junctions between the shell and
the horizontal landings at the top and bottom are not
so clear; but if the shell-construction is set into simple
steps cut into the masonry of the landings, simple
hinged supports are probably indicated there also.
Our plan is to investigate modes and frequencies
of vibration of the plain spiral shell, before the stair
treads are added to it. It is reasonable to assumeparticularly as it will emerge later that in general radial
lines in the shell surface remain straight as a good
approximation in the fundamental mode of vibration,
as revealed by the computerthat the stair-treads act
primarily as added mass; or effectively they increase
the shells thickness as far as mass is concerned, but
not in terms of elastic stiffness.
Our aim, therefore, boils down to producing a simple approximate expression for f , the fundamental
frequency of vibration (Hz) in terms of variables b,
, q, , E and . We shall of course cast our final
expressions in terms of appropriate dimensionless
variables.
3
3.1
Figure 3. Relationship between outer and inner climbangles and , respectively (Figure 2)and staircasewidth parameter q.
METHOD
Strategy
The main question at this stage is what method to use

in order to tackle the problem in hand.
It is well-known, of course, that thin shells can
display some subtle structural effects, by comparison
with simpler structural types such as beams, arches,
plates or frameworks. The essential feature of shell
structures is that they carry the loads applied to them,
whether static or vibrational, by a combination of
membrane (stretching) and flexural (bending)
action. Which of the two is more important in any given
case can depend on the geometry of the shells centresurface, the boundary conditions, and the thickness of
the shell relative to its other dimensions. Some types
of shell may be analysed successfully on the basis of
supposed membrane action, while others can be modelled in terms of their inextensional bending. Which, if
233
(5)
either, of these two extreme assumptions is appropriate

may not be immediately obvious in any given case.
That point was strikingly illustrated by the seminal
controversy between Love and Rayleigh in 1888 over
the nature of vibrations in a thin hemispherical bowl
(Calladine, 1988). Indeed, it turned out that the concept of a boundary layer at the free edge of the shell
had to be invented in order to resolve that controversy.
It follows that an essential aim in analysing the vibration of our simple spiral shell is to understand the basic
mode of action of the structure.
Now when the mode of action of the shell has been
understood in broad terms, it may be feasible to use
Rayleighs energy method in order to obtain approximate expressions for the vibrational frequencies. As
will be seen below, we have had some limited success
with this approach. But such analytical energy computations can become messy and unrewarding in the
present case, mainly on account of the awkward geometry of the spiral surface in comparison with, say, a
cylindrical or conical one.
Our main analytical tool, in fact, has been the
finite-element method, as embodied in the well-known
ABAQUS structural computational software (2006).
In principle, one can readily perform finite-element
analyses systematically on a set of cases spanning
the likely range of each of the shell parameters, and
thus obtain a numerical data-base of fundamental frequencies for a specific range of cases. Then, again
in principle, one can devise empirical dimensionless
expressions to fit such a data-set; and these will constitute an approximate solution to the problem. However,
a fundamental snag with this type of approach is that
it does not necessarily lead to any significant understanding of the structural action of the object under
investigation.
The method which we eventually adopted, after
many explorations, had five distinct stages, which may
be described briefly as follows.
3.2
Stage I
We performed a preliminary set of finite-element

computations of fundamental frequencies for a limited representative set of staircase geometries, paying
particular attention to the corresponding modeforms,
the distribution of stress-resultants and the distribution of elastic strain energy between membrane and
bending/twisting effects.
These studies led to three conclusions: (i) there is a
simple, universal modeform for the fundamental frequencies for most practical staircase geometries; (ii)
there are no significant boundary-layer effects at the
free edge; and (iii) variation of frequency with thickness can be readily described by means of a simple
energy analysis, based on the two-surface model
for the relationship between membrane and bending/

twisting effects (Calladine, 1983).
3.3 Stage II
The simple characteristic mode-form found in Stage I
suggested the pursuit of a Rayleigh-type approximate energy analysis. Although some relatively simple
practical results were obtained, several features of
the necessary computations inhibited further progress
along these lines. Nevertheless, these limited studies
provided useful guidance for future work, including the proper dimensionless forms for frequency
variables.
3.4 Stage III
Returning to ABAQUS, we obtained a larger data-set
of fundamental frequencies for a wider, representative range of staircase geometries, but now without
details of mode-forms, energy distributions, etc. In
particular, we obtained frequencies with three different thicknesses for each set of values of the geometric
parameters , q, , and used these to decompose the
data into separate frequencies attributable to membrane action on the one hand and bending/twisting
action on the other.
3.5 Stage IV
We examined these separate data-sets for membrane and bending/twisting action, and derived simple
approximate dimensionless empirical formulas for
these two distinct modes of structural action.
3.6 Stage V
Finally, in order to check the accuracy of the resulting
pair of formulas, we used them together to predict
the fundamental frequencies of all of the ABAQUS
cases, and compared these predictions with the actual
ABAQUS outputs.
In the following sections we give more detail of our
work in these various stages; and we close by presenting our final formulas, together with a general
discussion.
4.1 Stage I
Our preliminary set of ABAQUS computations consisted of 14 cases in total, all with a = 1.5 m,
b = 2.25 m (so q = 1/3), = 30 (so = 41 ),
and with h = 0.05 or 0.1 m. The main emphasis of
our study was on different values of , which ranged
234
ANALYSIS
Figure 4. Contours of w and v in a cartesian plot of s against

, in 10 steps from 0 along the simply-supported edges (s = 0,
= /2: bold lines) to the maximum value at (s, ) =
(q, 0). On the left: contours of w and v from ABAQUS. On
the right: the simple mode (6, 7). These plots for (, q, ) =
(45 , 0.3, 30 ) are typical of most cases featured in Table 1.
from 38 to 189 . This represented a spiral staircase

of typical dimensions; and the two thicknesses lay on
either side of a typical 3-tile thickness of some 85 mm.
In these runs we paid particular attention to the
modeforms of the fundamental frequencies, as mentioned above. These may be plotted as contours of
displacement-components w, v in the vertical (z) and
circumferential () directions, respectively. For all
practical purposes the component of displacement u
in the radial (r) direction was everywhere zero. Typical contour plots of w and v are shown on the left in
Figure 4, in a cartesian r, space; and it is straightforward to demonstrate that they approximate closely to
the forms shown on the right:
w = bo s cos (/) cos t
(6)
v = (vo /wo ) w,
(7)
where wo , vo are constants. Here o is a constant representing the amplitude of rotation of the radial line at
= 0.
We have also introduced in (6) a convenient dimensionless radial co-ordinate s, defined to be zero at
the outer edge and to increase as radius r decreases
(cf. (3)):
s = 1 r/b.
(8)
Here, also, is the fundamental angular frequency

of vibration. Throughout the paper we shall refer to frequencies as determined by ABAQUS as n (Hz), while
frequencies estimated by energy methods, or by curvefitting of the ABAQUS data-set, will be denoted by
f (Hz), with subscripts and superscripts as appropriate
in a given context.
Expressions (6, 7) make it clear that both w and v
are directly proportional to s, i.e. that straight radii
remain straight. This in turn indicates that there is
no significant bending in the radial direction, and no

boundary-layer effects at the free edgeat least,
for the practical range of thicknesses (relative to outer
radius) considered here. We shall return to this point
in 4.6.
A main reason for focusing initially on the effects of
changing , the plan-view angle subtended by the staircase, was to investigate the effect revealed in our earlier
study of the static response of spiral staircases to load
(Calladine, 2005), whereby the membrane action of
the shell involves, primarily, circumferential stretching strains for larger values of , whereas in-plane
shear strain (r ) can become important for smaller
values of .
Later on (see 4.5) we adopted a simple approximate approach to this feature of the membrane action
of the shell; but at this stage we observed that, broadly
speaking, the product n remained roughly constant
when alone was varied.
As intimated earlier, we discovered at this stage
that, given the fundamental frequency produced by
ABAQUS for a shell of specified geometry, it is
straightforward to compute a good estimate of the frequency corresponding to a change of thickness, by
appeal to an energy argument based on the hypothesis that the mode-form remains the same when the
thickness is altered.
Thus, for membrane action alone a doubling (say)
of thickness doubles both the in-plane membrane stiffness and the mass of a shell element; hence the
fundamental frequency of the shell as a membrane is
independent of thickness. On the other hand, the bending/twisting stiffness of a shell element is proportional
to the cube of the thickness; and so the fundamental
frequency of the shell on account of bending / twisting
is proportional to thickness.
Hence we may write, in general,
f = (A2 + (Bh)2 )0.5
where f is the fundamental frequency according to

the hypothesis that the mode-shape is independent of
thickness, A is the frequency for membrane effects
alone, and Bh is the frequency for bending/twisting
effects alone. A and B are functions of the geometry of the shell (apart from thickness) and the elastic
properties of the material.
In our preliminary series of ABAQUS calculations
we recorded (as mentioned above) the total strain
energies of membrane and bending/twisting action,
respectively; and this enabled us to compute the relationship between A and B, and thus to enable us to
predict, successfully, the fundamental frequency on
account of a changed thickness. In stage IV we shall
present explicit approximate expressions for A and B,
235
(9)
as derived by curve-fitting from our second series of

ABAQUS computations.
4.2
Stage II
Having discovered that the fundamental mode-shape

of vibration of our spiral shell generally took the simple form of (6, 7)to a good approximationwe
decided to investigate the possibility of obtaining,
independently, general expressions for the functions
A, B in (9) by the use of Rayleighs principle (e.g.
Calladine, 1983, Appendix 3).
To apply this method for a given assumed modeshape we need to obtain expressions for:
i. the strain energy of membrane action;
ii. the strain energy of bending/twisting action;
iii. the kinetic energy of the shell.
It follows that (i) and (ii) are proportional to
h2o cos2 t and h3 2o cos2 t, respectively, while (iii)
is proportional to h2 sin2 t. Since the total (i) +
(ii) + (iii) remains constantas the shells energy
oscillates between the strain and kinetic formswe
obtain an expression for , which may be reduced to
the form of (9).
The main task now is to evaluate (i), (ii) and
(iii) by performing appropriate integrations. As far as
membrane action is concerned, it is relatively straightforward to compute (i) in the special case where
r = 0, i.e. on the assumption that is the only component of strain incurring elastic strain energy. This
requires us to set vo = wo tan in (7). The calculations are set out briefly in Appendix 1, and they give
a final result
r fm = 0.5m (0.6E/)
0.5
(q/b) cos sin .

2
(10)
Here m is a function of q2 cos , which is plotted in

Figure 5.
The integrations in (i) and (iii) have to be performed
numerically: they are not particularly straightforward
because expressions for, e.g., and the area of an element of the shells surface, involve somewhat awkward
functions.
Although (10) takes no account of the energy
involved in shear strain r , it does provide some useful
overall guidance. Specifically, fm is inversely proportional to , other things being equal. This will be a
significant pointer to later curve-fitting, in 4.5.
As far as bending/twisting behaviour is concerned,
it is relatively straightforward to evaluate the contribution of strain energy due to the change of twist r
of the surface to the frequency for the assumed mode.
The calculations are set out in Appendix 1. Here we are
explicitly ignoring the contribution to the strain energy
from circumferential change of curvature , which in
Figure 5. Plot of the dimensionless frequency parameters

m and t for membrane-only action in the shell ( 4.2)
and twisting action, respectively. These were derived by
application of Rayleighs method.
some cases can be important, particularly for smaller

values of . The problem here is that the formula for
involves the addition of two terms, involving different
powers of ; and hence the corresponding expression
for strain energy, which is proportional to 2 , involves
three terms, which are messy to deal with. The twisting
contribution alone gives
r ft = 0.5t (0.5E/)0.5 (h/qb2 ) cos .
The function t is plotted in Figure 5. Here again we

find that f is inversely proportional to , other things
being equal.
Overall, for larger values of it is clear that the
strain energy of the shell is dominated by circumferential stretching and twisting; and for each of these
effects separately the contribution towards the fundamental natural frequency is inversely proportional to .
This observation, which surprised us at first, is consistent with our previous remark that the preliminary
finite-element calculationsparticularly those with
two different thicknesses, and hence with different
weighting between membrane and bending/twisting
effectsall showed that fundamental frequencies were
roughly proportional to , other things being equal.
However, any pursuit of Rayleighs method beyond
this point seems to be governed by a law of diminishing returns. Thus, for membrane behaviour it becomes
messy to account for shear strains r , which can
become important for smaller values of . And for
bending/twisting behaviour, as already noted, the
contribution from circumferential bending becomes
tiresome to evaluate.
236
(11)
4.3
Stage III
Our final approach was to begin by assembling a dataset of results by performing a series of production
runs of the ABAQUS programme for a spread of cases
covering a suitable range of each of the variables ,
q, . In all of these examples we took the following
values of b, E, , which are typical for a Guastivino
staircase:
b = 2.25 m,
E = 15 Gpa,
= 2000 kgm3
This choice incurs no loss of generality, since our

Rayleigh analysis (10,11) has already shown us all
of the ingredients of the appropriate dimensionless
variables. Our final choice of values for variables
, q, , h was:
= 45 , 90 , 180 ;
= 0 , 10 , 20 , 30 ;
q = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5;

h = 0.05 m, 0.1 m, 0.15 m.
We included the case = 0a flat annular plate

because we had discovered that frequencies on account
of bending/twisting effects for the other values of
were related to those for = 0 in a very simple way:
see 4.4.
The fundamental-frequency results for 120 of our
total of 180 production runs, for cases with h =
0.05 and 0.1 m, are presented in Table 1. In general,
cases with h = 0.15 m were used to confirm the validity of (9): See 4.6. Columns 14, 6 and 12 give the
leading variables, as above. Column 5 shows the value
of , the climb angle at the inner edge of the shell:
for although we took as our main climb variable, we
realised that values of > 45 , say, would not be practical in a staircase; and we wanted to be able to mark
this practical boundary to our results. Columns 7 and
13 give the product of fundamental frequency n and
r , from the ABAQUS runs.
Each pair of ABAQUS results for the two different
thicknesses, which we denote by n for h = 0.05 m
and n for h = 0.1 m, was then processed in order to
give the contributions fm and fbt for a shell of thickness of h = 0.05 m, corresponding to membrane and
bending/twisting effects, respectively.
From (9) we have
n2 = fm2 + fbt2
(12)
n 2 = fm2 + 4fbt2
(13)
Hence
This method was used to find fbt and fm for all cases
except = 0. In that case, of course, ABAQUS gives
fbt directly, and fm = 0.
The calculation of fbt via (14) can sometimes be
ill-conditioned, if the values of n and n do not differ much. This corresponds to a shell whose action is
dominated by membrane effects; for which an inaccurate assessment of fbt will not be detrimental. Likewise
the computation of fm by (15) for a shell dominated by
bending/twisting effects will tend to inaccuracybut
again of an unimportant sort.
Having in this way obtained separate values of fbt
and fm for shells of thickness h = 0.05 m for the
60 cases covering the chosen values of (3 cases),
q(4) and (5), we tried out numerous graphical plots
(linear, logarithmic) to find the most convenient and
simple empirical formulas for the separate membrane
and bending/twisting contributions to fundamental
frequencies.
4.4
Empirical bending/twisting formula
We soon discovered that if the fbt values for different

values of were first normalised with respect to the
corresponding flat-plate results, = 0, and then plotted against , the results for all values of q and were
well fitted by the simple formula
fbt /fbt(=0) = 1 /100,
for 0 40
(16)
This was a somewhat surprising result, for which

we know of no simple convincing explanation.
Expressing fbt for = 0 in terms of q and was
more complicated. After extensive plotting we settled upon an approximate function of q and which,
together with (16) provides our sought-for empirical
formula for fbt .
r fbt (b2 /h)(/E)0.5
= (0.4/q + 1.5q)(1 + d /900)(1 /100)
for 0.2 q 0.5, 45 d 180 , 0 40

(17)
Here the superscript has been introduced to indicate a final empirical formula. Note that the first two
terms on the RHS indicate that the flat-plate behaviour
is mostly determined by q, with having a relatively
weak effect; and that the fundamental frequency for a
flat plate has a minimum at about q = 0.5, which is
the largest value of q that we have considered practical
for a staircase.
fbt2 = (n2 n2 )/3
(14)
4.5 Empirical membrane formula
fm2 = (4n2 n2 )/3.
(15)
We began by finding a simpler, practical empirical version of the Rayleigh membrane formula (10), already
237
Table 1. Finite-element and approximate-formula results for shells of thickness h = 0.05 and 0.1 m. ABAQUS results
are in columns 7 and 13, while the approximate-formula results are in columns 810 and 1416, respectively. Comparisons
between approximate-formula and ABAQUS results are given in columns 11 and 17. Values of b, E, for all cases are given
in 4.3. See text for further explanations.
1
Serial
number
(deg)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
ABA- APP- APP- APPQUS ROX ROX ROX

n
fbt
fm
f
f /n h

n
fbt
fm
f
f /n
(deg) (deg) (m)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(m)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
64.1
64.6
66.5
64.3
57.2
52.8
59.2
69.1
71.5
64.7
49.4
63.9
82.5
85.4
74.9
49.8
74.0
102
101
81.5
65.0
66.7
69.1
67.3
59.7
51.7
62.1
77.1
81.3
73.1
46.5
72.9
101
106
92.9
44.8
95.8
134
127
105
73.0
74.2
75.4
72.2
63.1
56.7
67.4
82.8
65.3
58.8
52.3
45.7
39.2
50.6
45.6
40.5
35.5
30.4
45.4
40.9
36.4
31.8
27.3
44.0
39.6
35.2
30.8
26.4
68.4
61.6
54.7
47.9
41.1
53.1
47.8
42.4
37.1
31.8
47.6
42.8
38.1
33.3
28.6
46.1
41.5
36.9
32.3
27.7
74.7
67.2
59.7
52.3
44.8
57.9
52.1
46.3
0.0
18.6
30.7
36.5
35.8
0.0
30.8
50.3
58.3
54.8
0.0
42.9
68.6
77.2
68.6
0.0
54.6
85.5
92.6
76.0
0.0
20.9
34.5
41.0
40.3
0.0
38.2
62.3
72.2
68.0
0.0
58.1
93.0
105
93.0
0.0
79.7
125
135
111
0.0
21.6
35.7
42.4
41.7
0.0
41.1
67.0
65.3
61.6
60.6
58.5
53.1
50.6
55.0
64.6
68.2
62.7
45.4
59.2
77.6
83.5
73.8
44.0
67.5
92.5
97.6
80.4
68.4
65.0
64.7
63.1
57.5
53.1
61.2
75.4
81.2
75.1
47.6
72.2
100
110
97.2
46.1
89.9
130
139
114
74.7
70.6
69.6
67.3
61.2
57.9
66.3
81.4
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
121
119
114
103
88.7
102
103
103
96.7
83.7
96.2
102
108
105
90.7
97.4
109
123
120
101
124
122
117
107
91.5
100
103
108
104
89.9
90.7
104
122
122
105
87.9
120
153
151
126
141
139
131
118
99.1
111
114
117
131
118
105
91.4
78.4
101
91.2
81.0
70.9
60.8
90.9
81.8
72.7
63.6
54.5
88.0
79.2
70.4
61.6
52.8
137
123
109
95.8
82.1
106
95.5
84.9
74.3
63.7
95.2
85.7
76.2
66.6
57.1
92.2
83.0
73.8
64.6
55.3
149
134
119
105
89.6
116
104
92.6
0.0
18.6
30.7
36.5
35.8
0.0
30.8
50.3
58.3
54.8
0.0
42.9
68.6
77.2
68.6
0.0
54.6
85.5
92.6
76.0
0.0
20.9
34.5
41.0
40.3
0.0
38.2
62.3
72.2
68.0
0.0
58.1
93.0
105
93.0
0.0
79.7
125
135
111
0.0
21.6
35.7
42.4
41.7
0.0
41.1
67.0
131
119
109
98.5
86.2
101
96.2
95.4
91.8
81.9
90.9
92.3
99.9
100.0
87.6
88.0
96.2
111
111
92.5
137
125
115
104
91.5
106
103
105
104
93.1
95.2
104
120
124
109
92.2
115
145
150
124
149
136
125
113
98.8
116
112
114
0
12.4
24.5
35.8
46.4
0
14.1
27.5
39.5
50.2
0
16.4
31.2
43.9
54.4
0
19.4
36.1
49.1
59.2
0
12.4
24.5
35.8
46.4
0
14.1
27.5
39.5
50.2
0
16.4
31.2
43.9
54.4
0
19.4
36.1
49.1
59
0
12.4
24.5
35.8
46.4
0
14.1
27.5
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
10
11
1.02
0.95
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.96
0.93
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.98
0.98
0.88
0.91
0.90
0.97
0.99
1.05
0.97
0.94
0.94
0.96
1.03
0.98
0.98
1.00
1.03
1.02
0.99
0.99
1.04
1.05
1.03
0.94
0.97
1.10
1.09
1.02
0.95
0.92
0.93
0.97
1.02
0.98
0.98
12
13
14
15
16
17
1.08
1.00
0.96
0.95
0.97
1.00
0.94
0.93
0.95
0.98
0.94
0.91
0.92
0.95
0.97
0.90
0.89
0.90
0.92
0.91
1.10
1.02
0.98
0.97
1.00
1.06
0.99
0.98
1.00
1.04
1.05
0.99
0.99
1.02
1.04
1.05
0.96
0.95
0.99
0.98
1.06
0.98
0.95
0.96
1.00
1.05
0.98
0.98
(continued)
238
Table 1.
1
(continued).
2
Serial
number
(deg)
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
0.30
0.30
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50

fm
f
f /n h
n
fbt

n
fbt
fm
f
f /n
(deg) (deg) (m)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(m)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
(Hz)
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
40
86.7
77.2
50.2
79.9
112
118
103
48.0
109
157
156
130
40.5
34.7
51.9
46.7
41.5
36.4
31.2
50.3
45.3
40.2
35.2
30.2
77.6
73.0
0.0
65.3
105
118
105
0.0
94.1
147
160
131
87.5
80.9
51.9
80.3
112
123
109
50.3
104
153
163
134
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
111
95.5
98.3
114
133
133
114
94.3
133
172
171
142
81.0
69.5
104
93.5
83.1
72.7
62.3
101
90.6
80.5
70.4
60.4
77.6
73.0
0.0
65.3
105
118
105
0.0
94.1
147
160
131
112
101
104
114
134
138
122
101
131
168
174
144
39.5
50.2
0
16.4
31.2
43.9
54.4
0
19.4
36.1
49.1
59.2
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
10
11
1.01
1.05
1.03
1.01
1.00
1.04
1.06
1.05
0.96
0.98
1.05
1.03
12
13
14
15
16
17
1.01
1.06
1.06
1.00
1.00
1.04
1.07
1.07
0.98
0.97
1.02
1.02
obtained in conditions where the shear strain r makes

a negligible contribution. By plotting fm against on
log-log paper, we found that the curves for different
values of q all have the same form, which would indeed
be parabolic on linear scales. In this way we obtained
our initial, convenient representation of the Rayleigh
formula (10):
r fmb (/E)0.5 = 0.4q1.5 (2(/o ) (/o )2 )
where o = 38 20q
for 0.2 q 0.5, 45 d 180 , 0 40

(18)
When the ABAQUS results fm are plotted in the
same way, the parabolic relation appears as above,
but these values are somewhat lower than fm values
from (18) by factors which are smaller for smaller values of and larger values of q: see, e.g. Figure 6.
Evidently we are seeing here the effect of the strains
r , which lower the stiffness overallan effect which
was found to be cumbersome to investigate by the
Rayleigh method (4.2).
Our previous study (Calladine, 2005) of the static
membrane response of a spiral shell in a mode-form
similar to (6, 7), showed that the result of allowing
for r
= 0 was to reduce the modal stiffness, by
dividing the stiffness as calculated on the hypothesis
that r = 0i.e. by considering the strain-energy
attributable to aloneby a factor
1 + (/)2 ,
where is a function of, essentially, and q.
(19)
Figure 6. Logarithmic plots of the membrane-related frequency parameter fm against for cases with q = 0.3 and
0.5. Upper curves from Rayleighs method for a mode with
r = 0. Lower curves from ABAQUS, for different values
of : their position relative to the upper curve reflects the
contribution of shearing strain r .
Although that earlier study used a crude, triangulated version of the geometry of the spiral surface,
there is no reason to doubt the validity of this kind of
formula in the present case. Accordingly, by studying
239
the data shown in Figure 6 and in corresponding

plots for other values of q, we concluded that in
the softening denominator (19) was satisfactorily
approximated by 140q. Consequently the final version of our dimensionless empirical formula for fm
becomes
r fm b(/E)0.5
= 0.4q1.5 (2(/o ) (/o )2 )/(1 + (140q/d )2 )0.5
for 0.2 q 0.5, 45 d 180 , 0 40
It is obvious that our derivation of formulas (17,

20) has involved several curve-fitting procedures
whereby errors may have crept in. The proper test for
this kind of method is to use these formulas in order to
predict the ABAQUS frequencies from which they
were derived by curve-fitting. To do this we note that
by Rayleighs method the final predicted frequency f
is given by
f = ((fm )2 + (fbt )2 )0.5 .
(20)
The above choice of the shear-strain parameter
can be understood by analogy with shear-strain
effects in a simply-supported beam, where the classical
Bernoulli-Euler analysis assumes that only classical bending effects are significant. A simple analysis
of a correction factor for shear-strain effects, by
means of a Complementary-energy analysis, is given
in Appendix 2. It fits well with the last term of (20).
4.6
4.7 Stage V
An anomaly
It may be noticed in Figure 6 that while the ABAQUS

curves for all three values of in cases q = 0.3 nest
well within the Rayleigh curvei.e. they are close to
being simple vertical translations of it in this logarithmic plotthe particular curve for = 90 does not so
nest in the cases q = 0.5. In fact the simple nesting
feature is observed also for the curves corresponding
to q = 0.2 and 0.4 for all three values of , which are
not shown here.
The anomalous behaviour for the case q = 0.5, =
90 was traced back to the fact that for these particular examples, the fundamental waveform according
to ABAQUS departed significantly from the simple
form (6) observed generally in the ABAQUS results,
and used as the basis for our Rayleigh-method calculations.
This anomaly highlights an important general
point. Although we have found that the interaction
between membrane and bending/twisting effects in
the present problem are well-described by the simple
two-surface model, that is not necessarily the case,
especially for the thinner shells. Thus, for very thin
shells the radial bending stiffness may not be sufficient to maintain the radial lines in the shell straight in
the deformed conformation, thereby failing to impose
the simple modeform (6), and all that flows from it.
Further ABAQUS calculations that we have performed
indicate that in general the simple modeform (6, 7)
depends on the value of h exceeding a certain threshold. Fortunately, it appears that for practical staircases
a three-tile-thick Guastavino construction is adequate
to maintain the simple modeform.
In Table 1 columns 8, 9, 10 give values of r fbt ,

r fm and r f , respectively, for all 60 cases where
h = 0.05 m; and column 11 gives the ratio f /n, i.e.
the ratio of frequency given by our empirical formulas
to the frequency given by ABAQUS. Columns 14 to
17 do the same for the shells of thickness 0.1 m.
Inspection of columns 11 and 17 of the table shows
that in general our formulas (17), (20) and (21) predict
the ABAQUS fundamental frequencies to within about
8%. Further analysis excluding the cases = 0 and
> 45 shows that the mean value of f /n (i.e. for
h = 0.05 m) is 0.96, with a standard deviation of 0.04,
while for f /n (i.e. for h = 0.1 m) the corresponding
figures are 0.97 and 0.03. The corresponding figures
for h = 0.15 m (not detailed here) are 1.00 and 0.04.
These mean values represent a typical difference from
the ABAQUS data-set of less than 1 semi-tone in pitch
(a 6% difference in frequency).
Overall, these examples confirm the value of our
formulas (17, 20, 21) for estimating the natural frequencies of spiral staircase shells, to a good first
approximation. It is noteworthy that our empirical formulas, derived from ABAQUS results for h = 0.05
and 0.1 m, work equally well for these two thicknesses
and for h = 0.15 m.
DISCUSSION
5.1 Overall agreement between formulas

and ABAQUS
On the assumption that the range of , q, and h in
our data-set corresponds to a practical set of staircase
geometries, we may note that the average of entries
in columns 7 and 13 of Table 1, excluding the cases
= 0 and > 45 is about 100. Taking a typical value
of r = 2 radians, we obtain a typical fundamental
frequency of about 50 Hz.
That is, of course, the frequency of the shell itself.
The addition of staircase treads might double the mass
for the staircase overall, and thereby reduce the typical
fundamental frequency to about 35 Hz. That frequency
corresponds to a note about 3 octaves below middle C
240
(21)
on the piano, or about the bottom note of a typical

piano, or an open 16 ft organ pipe.
5.2
Mode of action of a given staircase
An obvious question to ask about a given design of

staircase is to what extent its vibrational behaviour
depends on membrane as opposed to bending/twisting
action.
A simple measure of this would be the value of the
ratio fm /fbt = F, say. A value of F = 2 or more would
indicate mainly membrane action, while a value of 0.5
or less would tell us that bending/twisting behaviour
is dominant.
The ratio fm /fbt can readily be computed, for a given
shell, from formulas (17) and (20). Now (20) tells us
that fm increases as both q and increaseat least up
to about = 30 ; while (17) tells us that fbt decreases
as both q and increase, and is directly proportional
to h, other things being equal. It follows that we must
expect membrane behaviour to dominate when q and
are large and h is small.
In any given case (17) and (20) enable us to evaluate
F. But it is useful to obtain a tidy approximation to
F by means of a little more curve-fitting. It turns out
that a simpler formula emerges if we use rather than
as the leading variable. Then we obtain, as a good
approximation:
F=

5/6

fm
b q2
d
=
1
+
fbt
h 150
900

2 0.5

140q
1+
d
(22)
The first term on the right of (22) shows clearly

how F depends on , q and h, while the two terms
in the denominator show the relatively weak effects
of and /q. To a crude first approximation we may
therefore put
F=
b
fm
=
fbt
h
2 5/6
q
150
(23)
This enables us to plot, in Figure 7, on logarithmic

scales for q and , values of h/b for which F = 1.
These lines divide the space into regions where membrane and bending/twisting behaviour, respectively
dominate. If the q, point for a given design lies significantly to the right of the line F = 1 for the given
h/b value, the vibrational behaviour will be dominated
by membrane effects.
The four values of h/b for which the lines have
been drawn in Figure 7 represent a wider-than practical range of thickness. For example, with b = 2.25 the
Figure 7. Logarithmic plot of against q to map, approximately, the ratio F of contributions from membrane and
bending / twisting effects towards the fundamental frequency
of vibration. The lines correspond to F = 1 for the marked
values of h/b. The regions to the right and above these lines
correspond to mainly membrane behaviour, while those to
the left and below correspond to mainly bending/twisting
behaviour.
extreme left line corresponds to a thickness of about

1 tile, while successive lines to the right give thicknesses of 2, 4 and 8 tiles. A typical shell, with
3 layers of tiles, would correspond to a line mid-way
between the two central lines, and staircase designs
with q = 0.4 and = 40 , for example, would be
well on the membrane side of the line F = 1. In
practice a staircase might be designed with = 45 ;
in which case designs with q > 0.4 would be well to
the membrane side of the line.
Notice, however, that no account has been taken
here of the contribution of to the two terms in
the denominator: Figure 7 provides only a crude,
preliminary guide to values of factor F.
5.3 Range of values of
Our motivation for considering some smaller values
of than are likely to be of use in practice was to
obtain an empirical assessment of the bending/twisting
effect, which turned out to be geared to the vibrational
behaviour of a flat plate. For small values of the membrane component of fundamental frequency is roughly
proportional to (see Fig. 6); but fm generally reaches
a maximum at around the value of for which = 40 .
REFERENCES
ABAQUS 2006. Standard version 6.6. ABAQUS Ltd, Genesis Centre, Warrington, WA3 7BH, UK.
Calladine, C.R. 2005. A preliminary structural analysis
of a Guastavino spiral staircase shell. In Essays in the
241
history of the theory of structures, in honour of Jacques

Heyman; edited by Santiago Huerta. Madrid: Instituto
Juan de Herrera: 79102.
Calladine, C.R. 1983, 1988, 2007. Theory of Shell Structures.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Calladine, C.R. 1988. The theory of thin shell structures
18881988. Proceeding of the Institute of Mechanical
Engineers, 202 Part A: 141149.
Collins, G.R. 1968. The transfer of thin masonry vaulting from Spain to America. Journal of the Society of
Architectural Historians, 27: 176201.
Huerta, S. 2003. The mechanics of timbrel vaults: a historical
outline. In Essays on the History of Mechanics, edited by
A. Becci, M. Corradi, F. Foce and O. Pedemonte, 89133.
Basel: Berkhuser.
Ochsendorf, J.A. 2005. Personal communication.
Ramage, M. 2007. Guastavinos vault construction revisited.
Construction History, 22: 4760.
Timoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S. 1959. Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd edition. New York:
McGraw Hill.

= v cos w sin
= v sin w cos
(28)
A.3 Circumferential strain and corresponding

strain energy
For the chosen mode, r = 0 and
= (1/b)(cos /(1 s))(/)
= (/)o tan s2 (cos /(1 s))2
sin(/) cos t
(29)
Integral (i) = total membrane strain energy

(e.g. Calladine 1988, Timoshenko and WoinowskyKreiger, 1959)

= (Eh/2) 2 dA
= (2 /20)(Ehb2 )2o q5 sin2 cos cos2 t j1
(30)
A.1 Geometry
q
where j1 = (5/q5 ) 0 s4 ds/(1 (2s/C) + (s2 /C))1.5
The integration is done for from 0.5 to 0.5
and for s from 0 to q.
Integral j1 has to be evaluated numerically, and its
pre-multiplying constant has been chosen so that
Let be the slope of the spiral at r = b(1 s).

Then
j1 = 1 + 2.5q cos2 ,
tan = tan /(1 s)
A.4
APPENDIX 1
Rayleigh-method calculations
(24)
The area dA of an element of surface (d, ds) is

given by
where C = sec2
(26)
= (/)o s(cos /(1 s))2

(C s) sin(/) cos t
(32)
Hence
r = (1/b) (/s)
= (/b) o Q sin (/) cos t
Components of displacement u, v, w in the r, , z

directions, respectively are (cf. Figure 2)
(33)
where
Q = C(C 2s + (2/C 1)s2 )/(C 2s + s2 )2
(27)
Let , be components of displacement parallel

to the surface at constant s, and perpendicular to the
surface, respectively.
Integral (ii) = total strain energy of twisting

2
dA
= (Eh3 /12) r
= (2 /24)(Eh3 )2o q sec cos2 t j2
242
Change of twist r and corresponding strain

energy
The rotation of a line-element at constant s about a

radius is given by
(25)
A.2 Assumed mode
u=0
v = w tan
w = bo s cos (/) cos t
(31)
=(1/b)(cos /(1 s))(/)
dA = b2 ((1 s)/cos )dsd

= b2 (C 2s s2 )0.5 dsd
q cos2 1
(34)
where
j2 = (1/q)
R2

(1 (2s/C) + (s2 /C))3.5 ds
(35)
and R = (1 (2s/C) + ((2/C 2 ) (1/C))s2 )
Again, integral j2 has to be evaluated numerically,
and the constant has been chosen so that
j2 = 1 + 1.5q cos2 ,
q cos2 1
(36)
A.5 Kinetic energy

Let V be the magnitude of velocity at a typical point
on the surface. The components of velocity are w and
v , so
V 2 = w 2 + v 2 = C w 2 ,
(37)
where
w = w/t = bo s cos (/) sin t.
(38)
Integral (iii) = total kinetic energy

= (h) 0.5V 2 dA
= (2 b4 h/12)2o q3 sec3 sin2 t j4
(39)
where

j4 = (3/q3 )
s2 (1 (2s/C) + (s2 /C))0.5 ds
(40)
Integral j4 has to be evaluated numerically, and the

constant has been chosen so that
j4 = 1 0.75q cos2 ,
q cos2 1
(41)
A.6 Final Rayleigh-method formulas

Formulas (10, 11) follow directly, m and t being
defined by
m = ( j1 /j4 )0.5 ,
t = ( j2 /j4 )0.5
study (Calladine 2005) of the static behaviour of the

shell as a membrane, using essentially a crude, static
version of our present mode (6, 7), concluded that in
some casesparticularly for smaller values of and
larger values of qthe shearing strains r can contribute to a significant elastic softening of the mode.
For present purposes we seek a simple empirical
formula which can match the reduction in fundamental
frequency, below that as given by our Rayleigh method,
according to our ABAQUS data-set, as shown, in part,
in Figure 6.
In general, this shear softening effect in the membrane is broadly analogous to the deflection of a simple
uniform elastic beam on account of shearing effects,
in addition to its deflection according to the classical,
Bernoulli-Euler theorywhich of course disregards
shearing effects.
Thus consider the simple example shown in
Figure 8, of a simply supported beam of length l and
depth d, and of uniform thickness. We set the origin
of an x, y co-ordinate system at the centre of the beam,
as shown. The centre of the beam correspondsso
far as stresses are concernedto the ends of the shell,
= /2; and the ends of the beam to the centre of
the shell.
The simplest way of studying the deflection of such
a beam when subjected to a static load proportional
to cos (x/l), is to invoke the Complementary energy
theorem (Calladine, 1983, Appendix I). This involves,
first, finding a distribution of stress in equilibrium
with the imposed external load; and then evaluating the total complementary energy by integration of
the energy density written in terms of components of
stress; and finally equating it to the work done by the
descent of the load, in order to obtain an approximate
expression for the deflection of the beam.
When this is done only for the bending stresses
as evaluated by the classical beam theory, in which the
stress at a cross-section is proportional to the product of y and the local bending-moment, the method
produces precisely the deflection as given by the
classical formula.
Now a simple equilibrium analysis enables us
to determine also the shearing stress xy at any
(42)
APPENDIX 2
A.7
Estimation of shear softening of the

membrane
The Rayleigh-method study, in 4.2, of the fundamental mode of vibration of our spiral shell as a membrane took account of circumferential strain , but not
of the in-plane shearing strain r . Now our previous
Figure 8. Schematic view of a deep, plane beam, which

we claim as roughly analogous to the spiral shell in its
softening behaviour on account of in-plane shear strain.
243
cross-section: it varies parabolically as 1 (2y/d)2

and is proportional to the local shear force on the
cross-section, as calculated by elementary statical
beam theory. Thus the additional complementary
energy on account of shearing stress can also be
evaluated.
When this is done, it turns out that for our given
loading, the elastic deflection of the beam is larger
than that given by the classical bending theory by the
factor
1 + 2 (d/l)2 .
(43)
Here, as before (5), we have taken the ratio of elastic

moduli of the material G/E = 0.5.
In applying this result, by analogy, to our spiral
shell, we note that:
i. The external length of the spiral, very crudely r b,
is equivalent to length l of the beam
ii. As our Rayleigh-method analysis indicates (29)
that = 0 at the outer edge of the spiral, the corresponding line on the straight beam is y = 0. The
distributions of direct and shearing stress in the
lower half of the beam are broadly similar to those
of the corresponding components of membrane

stress in the spiral shell, even though in the shell
is broadly proportional to s2 , according to
(29), rather than to s. It follows that the depth
of the equivalent straight beam which is broadly
equivalent to the spiral shell is given by
d = 2bq.
Hence our estimated enhanced flexibility factor for

the shell on account of shearing effects is
1 + 8 (q/r )2 ,
(45)
or, when is given in degrees:

1 + (162q/d )2 .
(46)
This is fairly close to our estimated factor (19),

obtained by curve-fitting of ABAQUS results:
1 + (140q/d )2 .
(47)
Indeed, it is also fairly close to results obtained in

our earlier study (Calladine, 2005).
244
(44)
Total bond-slip and friction-dilatancy membrane model

for R/C structures
T.G. Harmon & M. So
Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a framework for including bond-slip behavior in 2D total-strain based models.
The motivation is that tension stiffening and crack closing behaviors are more complex than existing models
can represent. A new model divides a 2D element into bonded and slip regions in the direction perpendicular
to the tensile crack orientation. The bond-slip model allows prediction of crack strains which are necessary for
inclusion of a slip-dilatancy model for shear transfer across concrete cracks. The slip-dilatancy model includes
a crack opening path which is defined as the relationship between crack slip and crack separation. The
friction coefficient is defined with respect to the crack path rather than the crack surface. The model enforces a
relationship between crack slip and crack separation so that shear friction behavior is properly modeled. The
new model is being implemented in the OpenSees framework so that it will be available for validation or further
research by others when implemented.
INTRODUCTION
Total-strain based membrane models for finite element

analysis of reinforced concrete have been developed
in Canada and the US and elsewhere and have been
used successfully to analyze a variety of concrete structures. A major advantage of the total-strain approach
is that consideration of crack widths and crack spacing can be avoided by computing only the average
stress and strain in the concrete and smeared steel.
Bond/slip behavior is dealt with indirectly using a
tension stiffening approach and either fixed or rotating crack models. A fundamental issue with all such
models is shear transfer across cracks. Numerous
methods for computing the reduced shear modulus,
G, have been developed, the simplest being multiplying the shear modulus by a reduction factor, , which
varies between 0 and 1. A method for determining the
shear modulus using shear/slip relationships derived
by Walraven (1981) was developed by Vecchio (1986).
However, this relationship does not apply to cyclic
loading. Furthermore, it does not enforce a functional
relationship between slip and separation so that shear
friction behavior is not properly modeled.
This paper proposes a method for implementing
shear/slip models for shear transfer across cracks for
cyclic loading. The method is based on a model for
shear/slip developed by Wang (1997) which relates
crack slip strain to crack width strain. A new and
simplified bond/slip model is implemented within the
framework of total strain based membrane models in
order to determine the crack strain required to implement the shear model as well as to improve the tension
stiffening behavior.
2
The University of Toronto research group developed a total-strain based reinforced concrete membrane model, Modified Compression Field Theory
(MCFT) which uses rotating cracks (Vecchio 1986)
and has been improved over time as additional monotonic/cyclic panel and shear wall tests have been
performed (Palermo & Vecchio 2003). Their totalstrain based models, MCFT and the later developed
Disturbed Stress Field Model (DSFM), assume alignment of principal stresses and strains for modeling
the reinforced concrete continuum (Vecchio 2000) and
have been shown to successfully predict the cyclic
response of 2D planar structures for the shear wall
database presented in a recent paper (Palermo &
Vecchio 2007). Nevertheless, there are only limited
cyclic wall panel test results available for thoroughly
understanding the response of a reinforced concrete
element under various loading conditions. That is,
the full spectrum of cyclic wall panel or element
response has not been established, particularly for
non-proportional loading. Hsu et al. recognized the
importance of studying elemental behaviors under various cyclic loading conditions and tested wall panels
under proportional biaxial loading to induce a pure
shear condition (Mansour & Hsu 2005). Their CSMM
259
BACKGROUND
model allows for divergence of the orientation of

principal stresses and strains and uses a fixed crack
orientation. However, the behavior of a membrane element under many other cyclic loading conditions still
must be validated.
Both the US and Canadian models make use of the
concept of tension stiffening to account for the tensile
stresses in concrete between cracks. Figure 1 shows
a typical model in which the concrete stress in tension reaches a maximum positive value at cracking and
then decays according to some function of the tensile
strain. This reduction in tensile stress is due to loss
of bond between the concrete and steel. Determining
the decay function for monotonic loading is straightforward. However, difficulties arise when considering
cyclic loading since there is no mechanistic concept
behind the tension stiffening model to guide the development of a cyclic model, particularly with respect
to crack closing. Therefore, a variety of approaches
to loading and unloading as well as crack closing and
opening are used. The intent of this paper is to develop
a simplified model for bond/slip that will allow shear
stress to be predicted from crack slip and dilatancy.
Both the shear slip/model and the bond/slip model are
based on mechanistic principles which then allow them
to be applied under general loading conditions.
This paper evaluates existing concrete constitutive relationships using available panel test data and
attempts to identify windows of improvement. Subsequently, a new framework is developed to include
the identified features in modeling 2D membrane
elements. The new features include bond-slip behavior
in a membrane element based on frictional resistance
of concrete and steel slip surfaces. Moreover, concrete
expansion strains generated by shear dilatancy under
biaxial tension-compression are characterized and are
used to evaluate the crack surface contact stress in
compression.
TENSION STIFFENING BEHAVIOR

FROM EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Residual concrete stresses were derived from shear

panel test data by subtracting the steel stresses from the
total stresses. The panel test results used for this study
are documented in Hsu & Mansour (2005). Figure 2
shows Panel CE2, one of the tested panels, and the
loading condition. Twelve panels were tested for proportional cyclic biaxial stresses that yielded pure shear
at 45 degrees. The reinforcements are oriented in L
and T directions which happen to coincide with the
X and Y directions in Figure 2. The evaluation procedure consisted of determining the residual concrete
stresses by subtracting the steel stresses from the total
stresses. The recorded total strain measures were used
to determine the steel stresses in the reinforcement
orientations, L and T directions, using the steel model
developed by Hoehler & Stanton (2006). This classical
reinforcing steel envelope curve was modified based
on the model developed by Mansour & Hsu (2005)
as shown in Figure 3. The concrete stresses were
also determined from the total strains using two typical models for tension stiffening. These model based
stresses were then compared with the residual concrete stresses to determine if typical tension stiffening
models accurately represent bond/slip.
Figure 2. Typical configuration of available panels and the

loading condition.
Figure 1. Sample (a) tensile stiffening model and (b) crack

closing model.
Figure 3.
260
Sample comparison of steel envelope curves.
(a) Total experimental stress vs. strain in X dir
(b) Total experimental stress vs. strain in X dir
(c) Calculated steel stress vs. total strain in L dir
(d) Calculated steel stress vs. total strain in L dir
(e) Residual concrete stress vs. total strain in X dir
(f) Residual concrete stress vs. total strain in X dir
(g) CSMM-based model
(h) CSMM-based model
(i) MCFT-based model
(j) MCFT-based model
Figure 4.
Analysis: left-CE2 (90 and L,T = 0.54%) and right-CA3 (45 and L,T = 1.7%).
261
3.1
Estimated tension stiffening model
Two different panels, CE2 (reinforcement angles =

0 and 90 and L,T = 0.54%) and CA3 (reinforcement angles = 45 and L,T = 1.7%) were
selected to demonstrate the procedures used to determine concrete behavior. The results are presented in
Figure 4. The recorded test results provide the total
strain-stress relationship of the tested panels in the X
and Y directions with the results for the two panels
in the X direction shown in Figures 4a, b for panels CE2 and CA3 respectively. Strain transformations
were performed for panel CA3 to determine strain
measures in the reinforcement directions. Given the
total strain in the reinforcement directions, the corresponding steel stresses in the reinforcement directions
were calculated. Then, the steel stresses, shown in
Figures 4c, d were transformed to the X and Y
directions, and subtracted from the total recorded
stresses in the X direction to estimate the residual concrete stresses. These residual stresses were
plotted against the total strains and are shown in
Figures 4e, f for the X direction only. They show
the residual concrete material constitutive model,
including tension stiffening effect and crack closing
behavior.
3.2
Results and discussion
Based on the results of the analyses of the panels

given in Figure 4, it is concluded that the two panels represent very different behaviors in that for the
0-90 panel (CE2), the steel bars in both directions
undergo complete hysteretic loops while for the 4545 panel (CA2), the steel stays in tension even when
the proportional loading is zero. The resulting tension
stiffening portion of the residual concrete stress strain
curve for the 45-45 panel, shown in Figure 4f, centers around about 1.5 MPa versus about 0.0 MPa
for the 0-90 panel as shown in Figure 4e. In addition,
both residual concrete relationships exhibit complex
behavior including small loops that are not generally included in tension stiffening models. Additional
panels studied showed widely different residual tension stiffening behavior. Figures 4e-h show the tensile
regime behavior evaluated by two typical tension stiffening models. These existing models tend to simplify
the unloading, crack closing, reloading, and crack
opening behavior for concrete in the tensile regime and
fail to accurately predict the contribution of concrete
in resisting the compressive forces. For both the 90
degree and 45 degree panels, the cracks close while the
total strain is still positive as seen by the compressive
stresses at positive strains in Figures 4a, b. This behavior indicates the presence of plastic expansion strains
due to compressive stress in the transverse direction.
Both the CSSM and MCFT models can include this
effect. However, both fail to capture the shift of the

baseline compressive stress of about 1.5 MPa for
the 45 degree panel as seen in Figure 4f.
4.1 Inclusion of frictional resistance bond-slip

behavior
Many finite element analysis models assume perfect
bond between the reinforcement bars and concrete
elements. However, bond-slip behavior is important
in the cyclic response of reinforced concrete structures if the steel yields. Many bond slip models have
been developed to better predict cyclic response of
concrete structures. Lowes has successfully modeled
bond-slip behavior of beam-column joints by using a
zero-length interface element between a 2D concrete
element and a steel truss element (Lowes et al. 2004).
Bentz (2005) proposed that a tension stiffening model
be based on bond characteristics of the reinforcement.
Nevertheless, a rational model has not been developed
for use in a 2D total-strain based finite element analysis to include bond-slip behavior based on frictional
resistance.
As discussed above, a tension stiffening model
simulates the phenomenon where a cracked concrete
element can carry some tensile forces across cracks
due to bond between steel reinforcement and concrete. Loops in the experimental tension stiffening
curve imply frictional bond resistance. A crack closing
model represents the behavior when a cracked concrete element takes compression that is not carried by
steel reinforcement as the cracks are closed. Therefore,
the effectiveness of reinforcement to transfer tensile or
compressive forces across cracks should be included
in tension stiffening and crack closing models. The
effectiveness of the reinforcement to transfer tensile
forces across cracks is highly dependent on the orientation and material properties of the reinforcement
bars across the cracks.
4.2 Poissons effect (concrete growth strain)

Concrete elements subjected to biaxial tensioncompression loading expand not only because of the
tensile crack strains but also because of compressive stress applied in the direction perpendicular to
the tension direction. Hsu et al. developed Hsu/Zhu
ratios to include this additional concrete growth
effect under proportional biaxial tension-compression
loading (Hsu & Zhu 2002) and suggested a linearly
increasing Hzu/Zhu ratio until reinforcement bars
yield and a constant post-yield Hsu/Zhu ratio of 1.9
for monotonic loading (Mansour & Hsu 2005). This
262
BOND/SLIP AND CRACK STRAIN
growth ratio for cyclic loading was suggested to be 1.0

although it has not been experimentally validated.
4.3
Concrete crack strains
Concrete crack strains should be evaluated based on

the difference between the steel strains and the concrete strains in the direction perpendicular to the
growth direction. The concrete strains must include
the growth strains. A portion of the concrete growth
strains are permanent so that it allows concrete to take
compressive stress even though the total strains are
positive.
5
can be transmitted between the concrete and the steel.

Then, the strain and stress in the concrete remain constant as the steel stress and strain increase as illustrated
in Figure 5b. During unloading, the change in strain
in the slip region in both the steel and concrete are
equal until the compressive stress in the concrete again
exceeds the maximum force that can be transmitted by
bond, this time in compression. Afterward, the strain
and stress in the concrete in the slip region remain
constant until the crack closes. Once the crack closes,
contact stress builds across the crack surface. This
stress is added to the concrete stress in the slip region
transferred by bond.
FRAMEWORK FOR BOND/SLIP

MEMBRANE MODEL
A new framework for reinforced concrete membranes

has been developed which considers the concrete/steel
bond/slip relationship. The model divides the concrete
between cracks into perfectly bonded and completely
unbonded regions as shown in Figure 5a. Transfer of
stress between the steel and concrete in the slip region
is accomplished through inclusion of a friction block
adjacent to the crack. The condition of the crack, i.e.
open or closed, is determined by the crack strain which
is computed as the difference between the steel and
concrete strain in the slip region taking into account the
debonded length factor, . The concrete strain includes
plastic expansion strain due to compressive stress in
the transverse direction. Compressive stresses across
closed crack surfaces are transferred by a crack closing
model. Each of the model components are discussed
below.
5.1
(a) Bonded and slip regions
Bonded and slip regions
The concrete and steel are assumed to be perfectly

bonded until the concrete cracks. Then, the concrete
between two cracks is divided into bonded and slip
regions to represent the smeared bond-slip behavior
as shown in Figure 5a. A portion from the centerline between the cracks to the right hand crack is
enlarged in Figure 5b to illustrate how the bonded
and slip regions are modeled. In this figure, the concrete and smeared steel are represented as bars. The
frictional block representing bond/slip behavior is a
discrete element of zero length located adjacent to the
crack surface. Thus, both the steel and the concrete in
the slip region are subjected to uniform states of stress
and strain. A distributed bond element would be more
accurate, but would make modeling the concrete and
steel much more difficult.
In tension, the steel and the concrete strains are
equal until the stress in the concrete integrated over
a representative area equals the maximum force that
(b) Friction block
(c) Crack strain
Figure 5.
263
Bonded and slip regions.
5.2
Unbonded length factor-
The factor is the fraction of the distance between

cracks that is assumed to be completely debonded from
the steel. is modeled to be consistent with existing
tension stiffening models for monotonic loading in that
the debonded length must increase as the tension stiffening value decreases with increasing strain. In total
strain membrane models, the total stress, , is determined by adding average concrete and smeared steel
stresses:
= cave + save
(1)
For simplicity in developing the bond/slip model,

the average concrete and steel stresses in the tension
stiffening region, cave and save were assumed to be
an exponential function and a linear function of total
strain, respectively.
= AeB + Es
(2)
In Eq. (2), A and B are constants that define the

exponential concrete stress and strain relationship;
is the reinforcement ratio; and Es is the elastic modulus
of the reinforcing steel. The stresses in the bonded and
slip regions should agree with the total stress, , in
order to satisfy the stress equilibrium. For open cracks,
the slip region stress and strain, sl and sl , are:
sl = = sl Es
sl =
Ae
=
Es
(3)
+ Es
Es
(4)
The bonded region stress and strain, b and b , are:

b = = Ec b + Es b
b =
AeB + Es
=
Ec + Es
Ec + E
(5)
stay unbonded. Moreover, the smeared steel will not

yield if a classical stress-strain curve featuring a yield
plateau is assumed because the model assumes a uniform stress distribution in the slip region. Therefore,
once the smeared steel yields at a crack, all the smeared
steel in the slip region would have to yield. For this
reason, the steel envelope curve proposed by Hsu (see
Fig. 3) is concluded to be more appropriate for the proposed model than the classical curve featuring a yield
plateau and strain hardening.
5.3 Bond/slip friction
A friction block is placed between the concrete and
steel bars to characterize the smeared bond-slip behavior, as shown in Figure 5b. The maximum frictional
transfer stress, f sl , in the friction block represents the
maximum stress that can be developed in the concrete due to the bond between the concrete and steel.
The friction stress can be different for tension and
compression.
The frictional stress, f sl , is evaluated by integrating
the bond stress, , over the contact area, N sd, in
the slip region and dividing the total bond force, F sl ,
by the concrete gross area, Ac :
f sl =
F sl
()N sd
=
Ac
Ac
where N = number of bars perpendicular to crack

direction; s = crack spacing; d = diameter of reinforcement bars; and the bond stress, , is proposed to
be a function of total strain, .
However, Eq. (9) is proposed to be further simplified for the analysis, and Figure 6 shows the proposed
maximum frictional stresses in the tension region as a
function of the total strain. The compression friction
was just equal to as shown in Figure 6.
(6)
The total strain, , is calculated by the following

equation:
= sl + (1 )b
(7)
Replacing sl and b in Eq. (7) with expressions

derived in equations (4) and (6) and solving for
yields:
AeB +Es
=
1
Ec +E
1
Ec +Es
1
Ec +Es
(8)
In the proposed model, goes not change during

unloading since concrete and steel in the slip region
Figure 6.
264
(9)
Maximum frictional stress vs. total strain.
When the incremental strain changes sign, the concrete in the slip region behaves elastically until the
friction limit in the opposite direction is reached. This
happens almost instantly since the concrete is very stiff
relative to other components of the model. Also, under
cyclic loading, the tension frictional limit is set to zero
until the previous maximum tensile strain is reached
at which point it is set equal to the value shown in
Figure 6.
5.4
Concrete expansion strain, psl
The experimental results of Panel CE2 show that residual tensile strains increase in both directions under
cyclic pure shear loading for a panel with reinforcement in the 090 degree directions. That is, the
recorded strains for the same Panel, CE2, shown in
Figure 4a, show that the cracks were never fully closed
even though large compressive stresses existed at various points during the loading cycle. To recognize that
the cracks are closed, calculations of concrete strain
must include plastic expansion strain due to transverse
compressive stresses. Hsu has shown that concrete
expands with a ratio of transverse to axial strain equal
to 1.9, once the transverse strain exceeds the yield
strain of the confining steel13 . However, in many
situations, this limiting relationship is not reached.
Palermo & Vecchio (2003) proposed separating
Poissons ratio into an elastic component and a residual
component. A simplified procedure has been adopted
here along with Hsus limiting criteria. Poissons ratio,
, was set to 0.25 for loading and 0.05 for unloading. These values were used for incremental changes
in strain. The Poissons ratio value of 1.9 is used as
an envelope value for the total strain. Application of
these values of Poissons ratio yields a continually
increasing plastic expansion strain, psl , whose value
ratchets upward with each loading cycle.
5.5
sl
= (csl + cr
+ psl ) + (1 )cb
Panel
CE2
CA3
A, MPa (psi)
B
, MPa (psi)
, MPa (psi)
a
b
c
d
3.0 (435)
100
0.0 (0.0)
0.0
0.3 (43.5)
1.5
300
0
0
3.0 (435)
50
1.0 (145)
800
0.6 (87)
4.0
800
0
0.8
and for implementing the shear-slip model based on

friction and dilatancy.
5.6 Concrete contact stress
Once the crack strain becomes zero and the opposing concrete crack surface come into contact, concrete
in the slip region experiences compressive strain and
stress due to the contact in addition to the stress transmitted by bond. Also, the bond stress between the
concrete and the steel increases as the deformations
in the reinforcement regain contact with undamaged
concrete. Equation 12 shows the proposed exponential
relationship between the combined contact and compressive bond stress value, defined as fcsl , and crack
sl
strain, cr
. The parameters a through d of the model
currently are adjusted to fit experimental data.
sl
fcsl = a exp[b(cr
+ c)] + d
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
(11)
Figure 5c illustrates net crack strain resulting from

concrete growth as well as tensile crack strains. This
crack strain measure is used for a crack closing criteria
COMPARISON OF PREDICTIONS
AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Only the X-direction analysis procedures and results

are presented in this paper since the Y-direction results
265
(12)
(10)
Concrete crack strain
(1 )cb
csl psl
Summary of parameters used for the analysis.
Panels CE2 and CA3 were selected to demonstrate

the analysis capability of the proposed model. The
recorded total strains in the X and Y directions were
used to calculate strains and stresses in the slip and
bonded regions based on p, the percentage of strain in
the bonded region. The iteration was repeated until the
stresses in the bonded and slip regions agreed within
a reasonable error range.
The values for parameters shown in Figure 6 and
Equations 8 and 12 were selected to best match the
experimental results due to the limited availability of
cyclic panel test results and are summarized in Table 1.
sl
Crack strain in the slip region, cr
, is determined by
subtracting bonded and slip region strains, cb and csl ,
as well as strains resulting from expansion, psl , from
the total strain, , as shown in Eq. (10) to meet the
strain compatibility condition shown in Eq. (11).
sl
cr
=
Table 1.
were very similar. First, the and p values for the

X-direction were determined. The values rapidly
increased to nearly 1.0 as the steel yielded implying
that slip eventually occurs over almost the entire area.
The p values reduced to nearly zero as the steel strains
became large so that most of the strain occurred in the
slip region.
The total strains are plotted against the concrete
stresses in the bonded and slip regions in Figure 7.
The concrete stresses in the bonded region are
almost the same as the total stresses (see Fig. 4a)
because the strains are small so the steel stresses are
small. The concrete stresses in the slip region are limited in the tension region by the cracking stress and
the tension friction bond stress. In the compression
region, the stresses can become large because of the
combined effects of the increased bond stresses as the
crack closes and because of the crack contact stresses.
Similar plots were made for Panel CA3 but are not
presented here.
Figures 8a, b present the calculated total stresses
for the two panels, CE2 and CA3. The proposed
model captures the behavior very well for both panels even though the current concrete model is linear
(a) Bond-Slip model: CE2
(b) Bond-Slip model: CA3
(a) Bonded region concrete stress

(c) Modified MCFT model: CE2
(d) Modified MCFT model
(b) Slip region concrete stress

Figure 7. Concrete stress in bonded and slip regions for
Panel CE2.
Figure 8. Results: a and c-CE2 (90 and L,T = 0.54%)

and b and d-CA3 (45 and L,T = 1.7%).
266
elastic. Although it is not capable of representing the

degradation of strength of the last cycle, it will be
once the concrete model has been updated. The modified MCFT model incorporates the tension stiffening
model shown in Figure 4i, j but does not include plastic prestrain effects (Vecchio 2000); however, it is able
to produce the experimental results for the most part,
as seen in Figure 8c, d, although it does not accurately
reproduce the compressive stresses as the cracks close
in either panel.
Figure 9 shows analytical tension stiffening behavior predicted by the bond/slip model for two of the
panels compared with the experimental tension stiffening models. The analytical tension stiffening curves
were obtained by taking the analytical total stress values (Fig. 8a, b) and subtracting the X-direction steel
stresses in the same manner as was done with the experimental data to produce the curves in Figures 4e and
5b. The tension stiffening behavior is predicted better
than in the previous models. The hysteretic loops
match the experimental behavior well, particularly

in the sense that they are clearly associated with
increases in the maximum excursions. The bond/slip
friction model assumed here is very simplified; therefore, better results could be obtained with refined
models.
FINITE ELEMENT IMPLEMENTATION:

FRICTION-DILATANCY THEORY
8.1 Friction-dilatancy behavior of concrete

Shear can be transferred across a crack surface by friction provided that there is also a compressive normal
stress. The shear friction concept assumes that a
compressive stress, equal to the yield strength of the
reinforcement crossing the crack, can be developed
when shear slip occurs. The reason is that the crack
surfaces must separate when slipping due to crack surface roughness. In this condition, the crack is open,
but the opposing crack surfaces are still in contact as
shown in Figure 10b. This separation can locally yield
the reinforcement crossing the crack thereby providing the compressive stress in the concrete normal to
the crack surface that is required for developing shear
friction.
The relationship between crack separation and
shear slip is not considered in current FEA constitutive models for cracked concrete. It is nonlinear and
(a) CE2
(b) CA3
Figure 9.
Equivalent tension stiffening for bond-slip.
Figure 10.
267
Slip and separation.
depends on the compressive stress normal to the crack

surface as shown in Figure 10a, which indicates that
increased normal stress tends to flatten the relationship. Vecchio & Lai (2004) derived an expression for
the shear vs. slip relationship that depends on crack
width. However, this relationship does not enforce a
functional relationship between crack slip and crack
separation as shown in Figure 10. Therefore, shear
friction behavior is not truly represented by this type
of model. For example, the fact that the steel crossing a crack surface must be designed to resist both the
normal tensile force and the tensile force in the steel
developed by shear friction, will not be recognized by
this model.
Friction is defined relative to a sliding surface. For
concrete, this surface is normally taken as the crack
surface. However, the friction coefficient, = /
where the terms are defined in Figure 11a, varies
considerably with the amount of slip as shown in
Figure 12 (Wang 1997). It is convenient to define
the friction coefficient relative to the crack opening path which is the relationship between the crack
slip and the crack separation. The friction coefficient becomes = t/p with this definition (see
Fig. 11a), which separates the effects of friction and
dilatancy. Figure 12 (Wang 1997) shows that this
definition of the friction coefficient yields values
that vary relatively little with slip. The value of
varies from about 0.6 to 0.7 based on tests by Wang
(1997).
It is proposed that these complex relationships of
friction and slip-dilatancy be simplified for implementation into finite element analysis. The simplest
model is a constant crack path friction coefficient,
, and a linear crack opening path such that =
cot( ) where is the angle of the crack opening
path (See Figure 11a, b). With this simplified model,
crack strains, which are set equal to crack widths and
slips divided by average crack spacing, can be used
instead of the widths and slips themselves. The problem becomes one of pushing a block up a hill as shown
in Figure 11. The friction coefficient defined with
respect to the crack surface (i.e. = / ) depends
on whether the block is moving up the hill or down
the hill:

sin + cos
+ =
[cos sin ]

cos sin
=
[cos + sin ]
for negative shear (going down the hill).
Crack opening path.
Figure 12.
Frictional coefficient and slip.
(13)
for positive shear (going up the hill).
Figure 11.
(14)
If the normal stress is positive indicating that the

crack surfaces are in contact, then no slip occurs when
the shear to normal stress ratio is in between these
two values. If the crack surfaces are not in contact,
then the shear stiffness may be very small. Zero shear
stiffness will pose convergence problems, therefore a
shear stress vs. strain relationship for this condition is
proposed as follows:
268
Let a = cot ; then, the crack opening path

becomes:
cr = acr

k
12 =
cr1
1
acr
(15)
shear-slip conditions. For the slip region, in the 1

direction,
c12
+
c1 =
(20)
(16)
In the absence of experimental data, the value of

k is chosen to be small, but not so small as to cause
convergence problems.
8.2 Framework for bond-slip friction-dilatancy
model with fixed orthogonal cracks
A framework for implementing the model for fixed
orthogonal cracking of concrete in the slip region is
developed here. Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the first
and second cracking directions which are assumed to
be perpendicular to each other. A variety of conditions
exist, both for bond-slip and for the crack condition,
and for each crack and steel direction.
s1 = 1 c1
The constitutive models for steel and concrete are

non-linear of the form, = f (). For convenience,
E sec is defined as f ()/, as compared to E which is
defined as E tan = /. The steel strain, s1 , can then
be determined from the steel constitutive model.
1 = s1 =
1. Slipping in compression
2. Not slipping
3. Slipping in tension.
1
12
sec +
sec
Es1
Es1
(22)
1
= a(s1 c1 )
cr1 = acr
c1 =
Bond-Slip:
(21)
(23)
c1
12
sec =
sec
Ec1
Ec1
(24)

1

12
12
c1
cr1 = a s1 +
+
=
a
sec
sec
sec
Ec1
Es1
Ec1
Crack:
(25)
1. Crack surfaces not in contact

2. Crack surfaces in contact in positive slip direction

cr1 = a
a. Crack slipping up the hill

b. Crack not slipping
c. Crack slipping down the hill
3. Crack surfaces in contact in negative slip
direction
a. Crack slipping up the hill
b. Crack not slipping
c. Crack slipping down the hill.
The derivation of the total and incremental stressstrain relationships for the most difficult condition
is now given followed by the overall framework for
analysis. For the case where bond-slip is occurring in
tension, the cracks are in contact, and shear slip is
occurring in the positive slip direction:
= (1 ) b + slip
1
b = Db
1
slip = Dslip
12 = c12 + cr1 =
12
G
12 = c12 + cr1 + cr2
12 =
(27)
(28)
1
sec
sec
+ Es1
)
12 (Ec1
12
2
+a
sec + sec +
sec sec
G
Es1
Es2
Ec1 Es1
sec
sec
12 (Ec2
+ Es2
)
+
(29)
sec sec
Ec2
Es2
The incremental stiffness matrix for slipping bond

in both steel directions and both crack surfaces in contact and slipping is obtained from the and equations
where tangent stiffnesses are substituted for the secant
stiffnesses.
269
(26)
If there is slip in the 2 direction as well, then the

total shear strain becomes:
(18)
The D matrix for the bond region is straight

forward and the same for all bond-slip and
1
sec
sec
12 (Ec1
+ Es1
)
+ a sec +
sec sec
Est
Ec1
Es1
(17)
(19)
1
12 (Ecsec + Essec )
sec +
sec sec
Est
Ec1
Es1
For crack surfaces in contact and slipping:
Dslip
1/E
s1
0
=
a/Es1
0
1/Es2
a/Es2
1/Es1
1/Es2

a (Ec1 + Es1 ) a (Ec2 + Es2 )
1
+
+
G
Ec1 Es1
Ec2 Es2
For crack surfaces in contact and not slipping:
tan
0
0
1/Es1
0
tan
0
1/Es2
1
Dslip =

2
1
acr
acr
+
0
0
1/G +
k
k
(30)
From the crack strains and stresses, it is possible to

then find the condition of bond-slip and shear-slip in
all directions.
FINITE ELEMENT IMPLEMENTATION:

FRAMEWORK USING OPENSEES
(31)
For crack surfaces not in contact:
tan
0
0
1/Es1
1
tan
0
0
1/Es2
Dslip =
0
0
1/G
8.3
(32)
Implementation
The incremental material matrix can be obtained from:

1
1
D12 = (1 )(Dc,bond + Ds,bond )1 + (Dslip
) (33)
The incremental material matrix can be used to

determine the new local incremental stresses, 12 ,
once the new incremental displacements have been
obtained and used to obtain the local strains and incremental strains in the potential crack directions, 12
and 12 . The strains in the bond and slip regions as
well as the crack strains are needed to determine the
next incremental material matrix. They are obtained
as follows:
12 = D12 12
(34)
bond = Dc,bond + Ds,bond

12
(35)
slip = [12 (1 ) bond ] /
(36)

s,slip = Ds,slip slip
(37)
s,slip

c,slip = 12
(38)
c,slip = Dc,slip
c,slip
(39)
cr = 12 c,slip
(40)
OpenSees (Open Systems for Earthquake Engineering

Simulation) is a computational platform for structural performance simulation developed within the
NEES (Network for Earthquake EngineeringSimulation) project. The behavior of structural and geotechnical members can be simulated in OpenSees using
a modular approach. Model configuration, numerical solution, and output recorder are independently
defined. The flexibility of this modular implementation enables OpenSees to be enhanced in an opensource fashion in which new components (material
models, element types, etc.) can be included as they
are developed. Currently, the material model that is
capable of performing a nonlinear shear wall analysis
has not been made available. Therefore, a 2D nonlinear R/C material model is developed utilizing available
uniaxial concrete and steel material models.
9.1 FEA modelPCA Wall B2
A shear wall tested by the Portland Cement Association is selected to develop a framework for finite
element implementation. The geometry and details of
the shear wall, B2, is shown in Figure 13a, b. A FEA
model is built using 296 four-node quad plane stress
elements as shown in Figure 1c. The mesh is divided
into three regions: the web, boundary flanges, and the
top slab. The bottom slab was not modeled, but instead
the wall is fixed at the web base. A displacement history was applied at the center node of top slab, and the
corresponding force was recorded.
9.2 Material models
9.2.1 Concrete model
The first crack direction strain, d , and the orthogonal direction strain, r , are calculated to determine
subsequent stresses corresponding to the first crack
270
(a) Concrete 02: stress-strain relationship
Figure 13. (a) Geometry of PCA Wall B2; (b) details taken
from Palermo & Vecchio (2004); (c) FEA model.
(b) Modified concrete 02
directions, d and r , using the uniaxial concrete

model (OpenSees Concrete 02) shown in Figure 14a.
The uniaxial concrete material model was modified to
include the softening effect (Modified Concrete 02).
The envelope curve in the compression region is
revised to be a function of tensile strain in the other
direction as shown in Figure 14b following MCFT.
9.2.2 Steel model
The OpenSees Hysteretic uniaxial material model is
selected instead of the OpenSees Reinforcing Steel
model to represent the reinforcing steel material
behavior because it is a more stable material model
for numerical analysis even though it simplifies the
steel material behavior as shown in Figure 14c.
(c) Hysteretic steel: stress-strain relationship
9.2.3 Reinforced concrete model

Figure 14d combines stress-strain relationships shown
in Figures 14b, c for the reinforced concrete material
model used for this study.
9.3
Crack model
A fixed crack model is employed for the 2D reinforced concrete material model; that is, the first crack
direction is saved and is used to build the concrete
stress-strain relationship for the rest of analysis. The
deviation angle between the first crack and principal
stress directions is neglected in this study but will be
included in the future.
(d) Combined reinforced concrete model
Figure 14.
271
Material models.
9.4 Shear modulus
9.3.1 Definitions
The first crack direction: dr
The reinforcement steel orientation: LT
9.3.2 Concrete model
The concrete strains and stresses in the dr directions:
d
r
dr
d
r
dr
x
y
xy
= [T ( )]
dr
d
d
=
0
0
(41)
r
r
0
d
r
dr
Gc
L
T
0
= [T (
)]
x
y
xy
dL
dL
dT
dT
0
0
0
The analysis results shown in Figure 14b capture most

of the important responses of Wall B2; however, it
was concluded that the initial experimental stiffness,
as reported in Palermo & Vecchio (2004) and shown
in Figure 15a, is not reasonable. The comparison
of the experimental and analytical results is reasonable, however, the analysis results shows significantly
(43)
(47)
9.5 Results of OpenSees analysis
LT
Ec
2(1 + v)
9.3.3 Steel model

The steel strains and stresses in the LT directions:
L
T
0
Gc =
where Ec is the elastic moduli of concrete and is the

poissons ratio of concrete.
(42)
A constant shear modulus, Gc , is used; however, the

shear retention factor, , is highly dependent upon the
geometry of shear walls. The shear retention factor,
= 0.2, was used to analyze PCA Wall B2.
L
T
0
(44)
9.3.4 Material matrix, [Dxy ]

Dxy = [T ( dr )][Dc ][T ( dr )] + [T ( LT )]
[Ds ][T ( LT )]
(a) Experiment taken from Palermo & Vecchio (2004)
(45)
This material matrix is to be modified to implement

the friction-dilatancy model in the future.
9.3.5 Element stiffness, [K e ]

Ke =

[B]T [Dxy ][B]dV
(46)
The element stiffness, [K e ], is determined by using

[Dxy ] matrix shown in Equation 17. The geometry of
Wall B2 determines the global stiffness matrix, [K],
and the nonlinear analysis is performed until the force
equilibrium, Fexternal = Finternal , is satisfied within an
acceptable error range.
(b) Analysis (OpenSees)

Figure 15.
272
Horizontal loaddisplacement of top slab.
less pinching behavior. Nevertheless, the very simple model provided by OpenSees provides surprisingly
good results.
10
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this study, the following

conclusions are drawn:
1. The proposed bond-slip model is capable of representing frictional resistance and bond-slip behavior
in a smeared manner reasonably accurately. It is
acknowledged that a model with distributed bond
stress would be better in this regard.
2. The proposed model determines crack strains
which include the concrete plastic expansion, due
to transverse compressive stresses, under cyclic
loading.
3. The primary benefit of the proposed model as
observed in the current study is that it is better
able to model concrete compressive stresses when
the cracks close than prior models. The model is
also able to capture behavior of panels with various reinforcement directions and ratios. However,
additional benefits are expected once shear/slip is
included in the model.
4. The effective tension stiffening behavior associated
with the new bond-slip model is more consistent
with the experimental data.
5. The friction-dilatancy model for shear-slip behavior has been developed but has not been implemented yet. The primary benefit to be expected
from the model is better predictions of cyclic
behavior.
6. The OpenSees program for finite element analysis is an effective platform for developing new
finite element capability. Reasonable results may
be obtained even with very simple material models.
11
FUTURE RESEARCH
The bond-slip and friction-dilatancy models will be

implemented in OpenSees and evaluated using available experimental data.
Hoehler, M.S. and Stanton, J.F. 2006. Simple

Phenomenological Model for Reinforced Steel under
Arbitrary Load. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 132(7): 10611069.
Lowes, L.N., Moehle, J.P. and Govindjee, S. 2004. ConcreteSteel Bond Model for Use in Finite Element Modeling of
Reinforced Concrete Structures. ACI Structural Journal,
101(4): 501511.
Mansour, M. and Hsu, T.T.C. 2005. Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Elements under Cyclic Shear. II: Theoretical
Model. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 131(1):
5464.
Mansour, M. and Hsu, T.T.C. 2005. Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Elements under Cyclic Shear. I: Experiments.
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 131(1): 4453.
Palermo, D. and Vecchio, F.J. 2003. Compression Field
Modeling of Reinforced Concrete Subjected to Reversed
Loading: Formulation. ACI Structural Journal, 100(5):
616625.
Palermo, D. and Vecchio, F.J. 2004. Compression Field
Modeling of Reinforced Concrete Subjected to Reversed
Loading: Verificaton. ACI Structural Journal, 101(2):
155164.
Palermo, D. and Vecchio, F.J. 2007. Simulation of Cyclically Loaded Concrete Structures Based on the FiniteElement Method. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 133(5): 728738.
Sittipunt, C., Wood, S.L., Lukkunaprasit, P. and Pattarattanakul, P. 2001. Cyclic Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Structural Walls with Diagonal Web Reinforcement.
ACI Structural Journal, 98(4): 554562.
Vecchio, F.J. and Collins, M.P. 1986. The Modified
Compression-Field Theory for Reinforced Concrete
Elements Subjected to Shear. ACI Journal, Proceedings,
(83): 219231.
Vecchio, F.J. 2000. Disturbed Stress Field Model for Reinforced Concrete: Formulation. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, 126(9): 10701077.
Vecchio, F.J. and Lai, D. 2004. Crack Shear-Slip in Reinforced Concrete Elements. Journal of Advanced Concrete
Technology, Japan Concrete Institute, 2(3): 289300.
Wang, E.H. 1997. Composite Confined Concrete. PhD.
thesis, Washington University in St. Louis.
Walraven, J.C. 1981. Fundamental Analysis of Aggregate
Interlock. Proceedings, ASCE, 107(ST11): 22452270.
Zhu, R. and Hsu, T.T.C. 2002. Poisson Effect in Reinforced
Concrete Membrane Elements. ACI Structural Journal,
99(5): 631640.
REFERENCES
Bentz, E.C. 2005. Explaining the Riddle of Tension Stiffening Models of Shear Panel Experiments. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 131(9): 14221425.
273
Experimental investigation of concrete under multiaxial extension: loading

path dependent stress-strain behaviour
M. Petkovski & P. Waldron
The University of Sheffield, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a methodology for experimental detection of changes in mechanical properties of concrete under multiaxial compression and the findings of an experimental investigation of concrete
under triaxial extension. Series of 100 mm cubic specimens with different moisture content were tested under
cyclic loading to the extension meridian of the strength envelope (Lode angle = /6) at several levels of
hydrostatic confinement. The tests were performed by using two types of deviatoric loading: (i) conventional
triaxial extension and (ii) reduced triaxial extension; and two different cycling sequences, by progressively
increasing or decreasing the hydrostatic confinement. In addition to general stress-strains relationships recorded
during the loading cycles, the stress-strain behaviour of the material was investigated by measuring the stresses
during short periods of constant strains and by stress-probing in the three principal stress directions, both applied
at various stress states during the tests. The results provide evidence for the influence of loading history on the
stress-strain and creep-relaxation behaviour of the material as well as a link between the global (macroscopic)
stress-strain behaviour of the specimens and the development of damage (or strain localization) within the fabric
of the material.
INTRODUCTION
The concrete in massive structures such as dams,

nuclear reactor vessels or piers in long span bridges is
generally subjected to multiaxial compression, under
three different principal stresses (1
= 2
= 3 ). The
analysis of the load-deformation behaviour of these
structures requires a three-dimensional model in which
the material is treated as a continuum.
Most of the data on the behaviour of concrete under
multiaxial compression have been obtained in triaxial
cell tests on cylindrical specimens (Franklin & Hoek
1970). The triaxial experiments showed the significance of increasing confinement on the stress-strain
relationship of concrete, such as a gradual transition
from brittle to ductile post-peak behaviour (Newman
1973, Jamet et al. 1984, Smith et al. 1989) and changes
in the damage mechanism from diffused microcracking to development of few large macrocracks
at high levels of confinement (Sfer et al. 2002). The
triaxial cells proved a useful and relatively inexpensive machines and with the recently developed GIGA
triaxial cell in Grenoble concrete can be tested to axial
stress of up to 2500 MPa, at confinements of up to
850 MPa (Vu et al. 2005).
The main limitation of the triaxial tests is that the
three principal stresses cannot be controlled independently. The true multiaxial testing machines such as
the manually operated rig at the University of New

Mexico (Mills & Zimmerman 1970) or the stress
controlled, fluid platen machine at the University
of Colorado (Scavuzzo 1982), enabled investigation
of concrete outside the compression and extension
meridional planes (i.e. at Lode angles of /6 and
/6). In addition to tests under multiaxial compression with three different principal stresses, the
researchers in Colorado tested concrete under cyclic,
staircase, piecewise-uniaxial and circular loading
paths. The tests in the Colorado rig emphasized the
importance of the platen-specimen interaction and
their influence on the multiaxial compression test
data. This interaction was carefully examined in the
Eindhoven test apparatus, based on three independent loading frames equipped alternatively with brush
platens and PTFE-coated rigid platens (Van Mier
& Vonk 1991). The results showed that the lowest
friction restraint in the post-peak region was provided by PTFE coated platens. Another limitation to
the experimental research on concrete was the lack
of facilities capable of testing concrete under multiaxial compression at elevated temperature. Most
of the knowledge in this area is based upon uniaxial compression tests with only few experimental
investigations under biaxial compression, performed
at the University of Brounschweig (Thienel &
Rostasy 1996).
275
The previous experimental investigations on confined concrete provided valuable data to modelers, especially on the shape of the strength envelope (PNS
Peak Nominal Stress surface), cyclic behaviour,
damage patterns and stress-strain behaviour in the
post-peak region. However due to a combination of
various restrains, related to limited loading capacity, inadequate boundary conditions and above all
relatively crude control systems, researchers were
prevented from undertaking more sophisticated experiments needed for (i) establishing direct links between
damage development and the globally observed stressstrain behaviour, (ii) separating the time dependent
(viscous) from plastic strains, (iii) detecting the shapes
of loading (yield) surfaces and (iv) investigating the
influence of temperature changes on the behaviour of
concrete under multiaxial compression.
The investigation of all these issues was the reason for developing mac2T , the new test facility at The
University of Sheffield.
Figure 2. mac2T load frames, supports and system for

measuring displacements and deformations.
MULTIAXIAL TEST FACILITY
The mac2T test facility for multiaxial compression of

concrete at elevated temperature (Fig. 1) was designed
and developed by researchers at The University of
Sheffield. After its completion in 2001 it was used in
over 200 complex, multi-phase experiments on concrete and rock, at ambient and elevated temperature.
Figure 1.
mac2T multiaxial test facility.
The design of the rig is based on three interlaced,

independent frames (Fig. 2), capable of delivering
400 MPa on 100 mm cube specimens, at temperatures of up to 300 C. The two horizontal frames (X
and Y) float on low-friction roller bearings, whereas
the vertical frame is supported on a servo-controlled
actuator (4th actuator) which maintains the centroid
of the specimen at the same level during the test,
thus ensuring that the three loading axes intersect at
the centroid. Each loading frame is equipped with a
servo-hydraulic actuator on one side and a load cell
on the other (Fig. 3). Compared to a loading system
based on 6 actuators and 6 load cells, this design
is not only less expensive but also produces more
compact loading frames, thus reducing the potential
for large snapback once the material reaches its peak
stress.
The deformations of the specimen are measured by
using a system of 6 laser interferometer units, comprising laser heads and linear interferometers, fixed to
the supports outside the rig, and linear retro-reflectors
installed in tubes which run through the actuator rams
and platens. At the specimen end of each of these tubes
there is a steel pin, which protrudes through the loading platens and the PTFE film and contacts the face of
the specimen (Fig. 3).
The accuracy of the deformation measurement system depends on the wavelength of the beam rather than
the measured range. Hence, it can be used, without
interruption, for both initial positioning of the actuators (over distances of up to 150 mm) and, after
resetting the scales, for measuring the deformations
of the specimen (with accuracy of 106 m).
276
Figure 3.
sequence terminates when a = 3 becomes greater

than a pre-determined value given as a ratio of the minimum a recorded in this sequence (e.g. 1.2a,MIN ).
Similar preprogrammed sequences (subroutines) such
as a and b in strain control, c in stress control are
used for post-peak loading under equal-biaxial compression. More complex sequences, such as stress
probing are programmed in several steps: (i) load a
(in stress control), while keeping b = c = 0 (in strain
control), (ii) unload a to the level at the beginning of
the sequence, while keeping b = c = 0, (iii) load b
(in stress control), while keeping a = c = 0 (in strain
control), . . . etc. Since stresses change while strains
are kept constant, the last step in the sequence is loading or unloading of all three axes to the stress levels
at the beginning of the sequence, setting the stress rate
to 0 for the axis that reached that level and terminating
the sequence (and moving to the next) when the stress
rates are 0 in all three axes.
A detailed description of the mac2T rig, its control procedures and testing capabilities is given in
Petkovski et al. 2006.
Cross section of loading frame X.
The heat in the rig is generated by 6 ceramic band

heaters wrapped around the heating platens on each
side of the specimen. The actuators and the load cells
are kept at ambient temperature, by flushing cold
water through cross-drilled cooling platens installed
adjacent to the heating platens (Fig. 3).
In addition to the position control of the vertical
frame, the laser interferometer and the heating/cooling
system, another key feature of the facility is the fully
programmable data acquisition and control software
developed by the first author. The Windows-based program integrates all measuring devices, both analogue
(load cells, auxiliary LVDTs and thermocouples) and
digital (laser system) and closes the control loops for
the 4 actuators and the heaters.
Complex loading and temperature cycling experiments can be composed from a number of preprogrammed sequences. The simplest sequence is
loading/unloading in stress control performed at
a given loading rate (a /t), with given stress
ratios (b /a and c /a ), and stress limit (a,LIM );
where a is the leading axis (actuator), and a , b ,
and c could be any combination of the three principal stresses 1 , 2 , and 3 . When the stress in the
leading axis reaches the limit, the program moves to
the next sequence. Another sequence, a in strain
control, b and c in stress control, used for loading in the post-peak region, involves automatic peak
detectionit terminates when a drops below a given
ratio of the peak stress recorded during the sequence
(e.g. 0.9a,MAX ). Note that this is peak detection in
a multiaxial compression sense: if the loading rate is
negative, for example in reduced triaxial extension,
where 1 = 2 are kept constant under stress control
and the minor principal stress 3 is reduced, then the
3.1 Stiffness matrix and damage

When concrete structures are treated as a tridimensional continua, the generally non-linear relationship
between stresses and strains is usually expressed in
incremental form as {} = [D]{}. The operator
[D], that links the 6component stress increments to
6component strain increments, is the tangent stiffness matrix of the material (which can also be written
as a 4th order tensor Dijkl ). In most existing constitutive models the non-linear behaviour of the material
is described numerically by changes in the [D] operator, controlled by functions designed to comply with
experimental observations in which the stress-strain
relationship is measured at the surface of the test
specimens, assuming that their interior is an inelastic
isotropic continuum.
While it is clear that the observed non-linearity
is a result of changes in the fabric of the material
such as micro-cracking and water movement, the distributed nature of micro-cracks justifies the continuum
approach. However, even if the micro-cracks are uniformly distributed through the entire volume of the
specimen, their orientation is unlikely to be completely
random, even at relatively low load levels. As the load
increases and the stresses approach the peak level and
the micro-cracks grow and coalesce, the assumption of
anisotropy becomes less and less realistic. In the postpeak region, as the macroscopic deformation increases
further, the growing cracks form well defined strain
277
STIFFNESS MATRIX AND STRAIN

LOCALISATION
localization planes. At this point the assumption

that the material is a continuum is no longer
justified.
This transition from relatively isotropic to clearly
anisotropic continuum and further, from continuum
to discontinuum, in principle, can be detected experimentally, by using acoustic emission (AE) equipment
or by unloading the specimens and inspecting them
under microscope or by using some other imaging
method. In practice however, both techniques are still
problematic, except for detecting relatively advanced
levels of localization. The investigation of the early
stages of micro-crack development and orientation
is limited by the low resolution of the current AE
measurements and the fact that the cutting of specimens for microscope inspection often introduces significant damage that obscures the micro-cracks. At
present, there is practically no experimental data
that can be used to establish a link between the
observed stress-strain behaviour and the real amount
and character of damage inside the test specimens.
Or, in other words, there is no direct link between
the damage in the material and the tangent stiffness
matrix [D].
3.2
Acoustic tensor
Acoustic tensor Qjk is a 2nd order tensor that is

obtained when the stiffness matrix (expressed as a
4th order tensor Dijkl ) is pre- and post-multiplied
by the same direction vector (ni = nl ): Qjk =
ni Dijkl nl . It is clear that the acoustic tensor contains
some directional characteristics of the [D] operator.
The acoustic tensor was first used in the context of
acceleration waves in solids (Hill 1962), where it
was shown that if the determinant of the acoustic
tensor (|Q|) is zero, the speed of the acceleration
waves will vanish in that direction. Later it was found
that the zero determinant corresponds to the loss of
uniqueness of the incremental response (or bifurcation condition, Rudnicki & Rice 1975), and loss of
ellipticity of the system of differential equations governing the local rate equilibrium (Bigoni & Hueckel
1991).
Other properties of the [D] matrix can be used to
detect a discontinuity in the material, but the acoustic
tensor detects not only the existence of a discontinuity plane but also determines its orientation. Thus, as
the material changes from elastic isotropic continuum,
through increasingly inelastic and anisotropic continuum to a formation of discontinuity, if the tangent
stiffness operator is known for any stress state along the
load history, the acoustic tensor can be used to describe
the evolution of damage in the material, in both magnitude and direction. The stiffness matrix [D] however,
has never been measured experimentally. This paper
presents an effort to do just that.
3.3 Experimental determination of tangent stiffness

matrix
The stress probing procedure, which can be performed
at any stress state, comprises three small stress probes
in each of the three principal stress directions. In each
stress probe pi, the stress i increases by a small
increment i,pi , while the strains in the other two
directions are kept constant j,pi = k,pi = 0. The
strain in the probe direction increases by i,pi , while
the stresses in the other two directions change by j,pi
and k,pi .
When the three probes are completed (Fig. 4-a), the
measured stress and strain increments can be used to
calculate the terms of the stiffness matrix (Fig. 4-b).
In multiaxial compression tests only the principal
stresses and strains can be measured. This means that
only the terms of the upper 3 3 submatrix of the
full 6 6 [D] matrix can be obtained experimentally.
The other terms are adopted from the elastic stiffness
matrix (Fig. 4-c).
3.4
The damage in the material and the globally observed

stress-strain behaviour of the test specimen can be
linked by monitoring the changes in the [D] matrix
and their effect on changes in the determinants of the
acoustic tensor (|Q|) for all possible direction vectors.
This can be visualised by creating a surface connecting
the tips of all the direction vectors with lengths equal
to the corresponding |Q|. If [D] represents a linearelastic, isotropic material, the value of |Q| will be the
same in any direction and the resulting |Q|-plot will
be a sphere with radius |Q|.
The link between damage, [D] and the shape of the
|Q|-plot is illustrated in Figure 5, showing a hypothetical experiment in which a cube made of linear-elastic,
isotropic material is subjected to three direct tension,
loading-unloading probes in each of the three principal
stress directions. In the first step the applied stresses
are small and the material responds in a linear elastic manner in all three directions. The D-matrix is
symmetric, with three equal diagonal and six equal offdiagonal terms. The resulting |Q|-plot is a sphere. In
step 2, 1 is first increased until small cracks, normal to
the applied load, appear at the surface of the specimen.
When the three small tensile stress probes are repeated,
the term 1 p1 /1 p1 will be smaller than the other
two diagonal terms, and the off diagonal terms 1 p2
and 1 p3 will be smaller than 2 p3 = 3 p2 .
The resulting stiffness matrix will produce an elliptic |Q|-plot, with |Qmin | in the 1 direction indicating
emergence of a localisation plane normal to the load,
as expected under uniaxial tension. In the third step,
the cracks are larger, all 1 terms are reduced, whereas
278
Experimental detection of strain localisation

from global stress-strain measurements
Figure 5. Illustration of experimental determination of the

link between globally observed stress-strain behaviour and
the damage of the specimen. Stress probing experiments can
be used to determine the changes in the tangent stiffness
matrix (and corresponding acoustic tensors) as a result of
damage evolution.
|Qmin | = 0 in the 1 direction, which indicates discontinuity in a plane normal to the applied load. In an
idealized experiment like this, the other two probes,
in 2 and 3 directions, show that 3 p2 = 2 p3 ,
as if the lateral direction probes are performed on two
separate linear elastic prisms.
EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROGRAMME
The experimental programme comprised a total of 14

experiments in which (N) normal moisture (air-dried)
and (D) oven dried specimens were tested under both
(R) reduced triaxial extension (reducing 3 while keeping 1 = 2 constant), and (C) conventional triaxial
extension (increasing 1 = 2 while keeping 3 constant). The plots of all the tests are shown in
Figure 6, where is hydrostatic, is deviatoric axis,
and the extension meridian of the strength envelope is
calculated by using the Li-Crouch model (Li 2005).
Figure 4. Stress probing for experimental determination of

tangent stiffness matrix.
the other terms remain unchanged, resulting in further reduction of |Qmin | and further narrowing of the
|Q|-plot. In the last step, the crack extends across the
entire specimen and 1 p1 /1 p1 = 0, producing
RN1, RD1: reduced triaxial extension, starting

from hydrostatic confinement 1 = 2 = 3 =
110 MPa, and applied in three loading-unloading
cycles, followed by monotonic reducing of 3 until
reaching peak stress.
CN1, CD1: conventional triaxial extension, applied
in deviatoric cycles (three cycles followed by loading to the peak), performed at two levels of confinement (starting from higher confinement, than
unloading to a lower level).
279
RN2: similar to CN1/CD1, but in reduced triaxial

extension; the two hydrostatic confinement levels
were chosen to provide peak stress points close to
those recorded in CN1/CD1.
CN2/CD2: conventional triaxial extension tests
(three repeats of CN2) in which the load was applied
in four deviatoric planes, at gradually increasing
confinement levels, in each plane applying a single
load cycle to the peak. At four stress levels in the
loading branches of each deviatoric cycle, the tests
included strain holding (stress relaxation) followed
by stress probing sequences. In the strain holding
the strains in the three principal directions were
held constant for 300 s and then the three stresses
were returned to their initial values, recorded at the
beginning of the sequence. These were followed by
stress probing sequences comprising three successive small stress probes for detection of the terms
of the D-matrix.
CN3: exactly the same tests (two repeats) as
CN2/CD2, but performed at different four levels
of hydrostatic confinement.
Figure 6. Load paths in the different triaxial extension tests

(Lode angle = /6) performed in the research programme; shown in principal stress space: hydrostatic
axis, deviatoric axis.
RN3/RD2: reduced triaxial extension tests, performed in four deviatoric cycles, starting from
high confinement and gradually reducing to that of
RN1/RD1 tests. In each deviatoric cycle, the material was tested by using the same strain holding and
stress probing sequences as in CN2/CD2 tests.
5.1 Global stress-strain behaviour: strength and

deformability
The results of reduced triaxial extension tests in
which the specimens were loaded to peak in deviatoric planes starting from higher confinement, then
gradually reducing, as in tests RN2 (Fig. 7), RD2
and RN3a/b (Fig. 8), show that multiaxial compressive loading to the peak (and just post-peak) does not
reduce the strength of the material. The stresses at
peak P1 recorded in test RN2 are very close to those
recorded in tests RN1 & RD1 (see Figure 6). This does
not necessarily imply that loading to the peak (or even
slightly post peak) does not produce any damage in the
material, but that the damage is such that it has little
influence on the subsequent strength and stiffness of
the material, even at lower confinement levels (as long
as the confinement levels is sufficiently high).
The conventional triaxial extension tests however,
do show strength degradation in the second loading
cycle, with the peak stresses lower than P1 recorded in
Figure 7. Load paths of two extension tests shown in principal stress space: (CN) conventional triaxial extension (1 =
2 > 0; 3 = 0) and (RN) reduced triaxial extension
(1 = 2 = 0; 3 < 0). N stands for normal moisture
(air dried) specimens.
280
TEST RESULTS
Figure 9. Stress-strain response and loading path in principal stress space: three conventional triaxial extension tests
(oven dried and normal-moisture concrete).
Figure 8. Influence of moisture content on global stressstrain response: oven dried and normal moisture concrete
tested in reduced triaxial extension.
the RN tests (Fig. 7). This indicates that the strength

of the material depends on the loading path.
In Figure 8 is shown the comparison between the
results from two nominally identical tests in which one
oven dried (D) and one air dried, or normal moisture
(N) specimen, were loaded in reduced triaxial extension in 4 deviatoric planes, starting from gradually
reducing hydrostatic confinement. The stress-strain
response shows that while the peak stress is not significantly affected by the moisture content, the deformations are markedly reduced by removing the free
moisture from the pores. This suggests that the time
dependent effects (creep and stress relaxation) play
important role in the behaviour of the material under
multiaxial compression conditions. In the otherwise
identical principal stress space plots, the response
in the first cycle of test RN3a shows much larger
stress relaxation during the 300 s periods of constant

strains: larger creep-relaxation for normal moisture
than oven-dried concrete. This is important because
it suggests that even relatively small differences in
loading rates (within what is considered as static loading conditions) may lead to different deformations,
and potentially different stress distribution in large
concrete structures.
In Figure 9 are compared the results of three conventional extension tests, one on oven-dried (CD2) and
two on air-dried, normal-moisture specimens (CN2a
and CN2c). The nominally identical loading paths,
this time in deviatoric planes starting from increasing
hydrostatic confinement levels, have produced similar stress-strain response as the reduced extension
tests: the oven-dried concrete showing slightly higher
strength and less deformation (stiffer response). One
interesting result from all three tests is that the peak
281
strength reduces in each successive deviatoric cycle,

resulting in a new (damaged) shape of the strength
envelope (dotted line in Figure 9).
This change in the strength envelope, not noticed in
reduced extension tests, may not be an effect of loading path on development of damage, but a result of the
strain rates near and at peak stress. In all tests presented
here, when the stresses approached the peak stress, the
control in the two principal stress directions (in conventional extension tests) or the minor principal stress
direction (in reduced expansion tests) was switched to
strain, and all tests were performed at the same strain
rate of 105 /s. Clearly, controlled straining rate in two
directions (with unlimited rate of extension at constant stress in the third direction) does not create the
same stress-strain conditions as controlled extension
strain applied at the same rate in the least compressed
direction (with unlimited compaction rate at constant
stress in the other two directions). It is possible that
an increased extension strain rate in reduced extension tests may lead to similar peak stresses as those
recorded in conventional extension tests.
5.2
Global response and strain localisation
The stress probing procedure, described above, was

applied in both reduced and conventional extension
tests, at four, gradually increasing stress levels in each
deviatoric load cycle, in tests with deviatoric cycles
starting from either increasing or decreasing hydrostatic confinement levels. In Figure 10 are shown the
plot of the loading path of test CN2a (Fig. 10-a),
with the expected localisation plane (Fig. 10-b) and the
stress strain plots of the probing sets recorded in the
first deviatoric loading cycle (probing sequences 14)
together with the resulting |Q|-plots (Figs. 10-c and d).
The |Q|-plot generated from probe sequence 1
(Fig. 10-d) is nearly spherical, indicating mainly
linear-elastic material behaviour. However, the shapes
of the |Q|-plots produced from the D-matrices
recorded at higher stress levels do not suggest emergence of a localisation plane normal to the minor
principal stress, as expected in triaxial extension tests
(Fig. 10-b). The reason for this distortion is that the
response in the three stress probes (i) does not depend
only on the tangent stiffness matrix, and (ii) does not
return the correct stiffness matrix.
A close inspection of the stress-strain response to
the three probes (Fig. 10-d) shows that during the first
probe (1 ) in sequence 2, the stress in the second
major principal stress direction (2 = 1 ) is reduced
instead of being increased. Also, the stress increase
in the minor principal stress direction (3 ) is almost
as large as that in the probing direction, instead of
being lower than that measured in the linear-elastic
response. This is a result of rate-dependent stressstrain behaviour: when probing in 1 -direction the
Figure 10. Triaxial extension test for measuring [D] (and

|Q|) by using stress probing: (a) load path in space, (b)
expected localisation plane, (c) acoustic tensor plots generated from data recorded in the first loading cycle, and
(d) stress-strain response to probing in the first loading cycle.
strains in the other two directions are kept constant

(2 = 3 = 0); the suddenly stopped compaction
in 2 -direction results in strain relaxation; whereas
the stopped expansion in 3 -direction leads to stress
increase in this direction. Similar effects can be noticed
in the second and third probe in sequence 2, and
they became far more pronounced as the stress level
increased (sequences 3 and 4). This means that the
stress strain response does not depend only on the tangent stiffness matrix which (as defined here) is not rate
dependent.
Another response feature, which in fact distorts the
D-matrix (and consequently the acoustic tensor plots),
can be observed in the stress-strain response to the
282

|Q|) by using stress probing: (a) load path in space,
(b) acoustic tensor plots generated from data recorded in the
second loading cycle, and (c) stress-strain response to probing
in the second loading cycle.
first two probes in sequences 24. The plastic strain

after loading-unloading in directions 1 and 2 -should
be the same, as 1 and 2 are equal at the beginning of the probing sequences. The probe responses
in Figure 10-d show that they are not equal: the residual strain after the first probe is always larger. The
reason for this is that the first probe moves the loading
(or yield) surface outwards, so that the loading branch
of the next probe is, at least partly, behind the surface,
or within the elastic corethe stress space where the
material behaves as linear-elastic.
The situation changes at the beginning of the second deviatoric cycle, as shown in Figure 11. Here
the first three probe sequences (57) are performed

|Q|) by using stress probing: (a) load path in space,
(b) acoustic tensor plots generated from data recorded
in the four deviatoric loading cycles. |Q| plots obtained
from probes performed within the yield surfaces show
development of a strain localisation plane normal to the
minor principal stress 3 .
within the yield surface, which has been extended (or

moved) at the end of the first deviatoric cycle (as
shown by the hypothetical yield surface contour in
Figure 11-a). Consequently, the stress-strain response
in the first 3 probing sequences (57) shows a nearelastic behaviour (Fig. 11-c). However, the resulting
|Q|-plots show that the loading stiffness differs in
the three probing directions, indicating that there is
a localisation plane normal to the minor principal
stress direction (3 ), as expected in the extension
283
tests. This changes again, when the specimen is loaded

beyond the yield surface (probe sequence 8), when the
response to the new probes is again dominated by rate
dependent effects and when the yield surface is again
moved (or expanded) to the right of the plot.
This pattern, repeated in the response to probing performed in the subsequent deviatoric cycles
(probe sequences 912, Fig. 12), suggests that this
technique can be successfully applied in experimental detection of damage magnitude and direction of
the emerging discontinuities in the material, provided that the probing is performed within the yield
surface.
A similar methodology can be used for experimental detection of the actual shape of the yield surface.
In these experiments the specimen should be first
loaded deviatorically to the peak. During the subsequent, closely spaced deviatoric cycles, single probes
in one of the major principal stress directions can be
frequently performed as the load increases, and, once
the residual strain upon unloading exceeds some predetermined value (signalling that the stresses reached
the yield surface), the specimen should be unloaded
to the hydrostatic axis, the confinement increased and
then loaded in a new deviatoric cycle, again up to the
yield surface.
CONCLUSIONS
The research presented in this paper leads to two

important conclusions:
1. The stress-strain behaviour of concrete under multiaxial compression is strongly influenced by the
loading rates. While this is generally true for any
stress state, the results of this investigation show
that under multiaxial compression the stress-strain
relationship is sensitive to very small changes is
stress/strain rates (static load conditions), and that,
in addition to stress relaxation, under certain stress
conditions, the stresses in the material may increase
under constant strain. This may affect the shape of
the strength envelope and, in large structures treated
as continua, it could lead to significant stress-strain
redistribution.
2. The presented stress-probing technique can be used
in establishing a direct, experimental link, between
the globally observed stress-strain relationship of
the specimen and the damage in the material. More
importantly, in addition to providing a measure of
the magnitude of the damage, this experimental
approach can also be used in detecting the orientation of the emerging discontinuity, at an early
stage of damage development, when the material
still behaves as a continuum.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are most grateful to the consortium
of companies from the British nuclear industry and
the Higher Education Funding Council for England
(HEFCE) for supporting the development of the mac2T
facility, and to MoD (programme HTR) for sponsoring
the research presented in this paper.
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Vu, X.H., Gabet, T., Malecot, Y. & Daudeville, L.
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284
Numerical modelling of heated structures: nature, requirements

and benchmarks
Martin Gillie
ABSTRACT: Performance-based design codes for fire design are becoming more widely available. To be used
to full effect they require numerical modelling of heated structures to be undertaken which is a challenging task.
This paper discusses the requirements of numerically modelling heated structures with reference to simple cases.
It proposes two benchmark tests against which analysis tools can be checked to ensure they are capturing all the
required effects.
INTRODUCTION
Most building structures are required by design codes

to be able to resist fire. However, until recently the
manner in which fire loading has been handled by
design codes has been different to the manner in
which other loads such as gravity, wind and earthquake have been handled. Whereas it has been normal
to ensure structures are able to resist these sorts of
loads by means of rationally based calculations, fire
resistance is conventionally assessed by reference to a
test known as the Standard Fire Test. This test bears
little relation to the kind of fires that are likely to
occur in real structures and requires that the structural system tested bears very little resemblance to
the behaviour of any but the simplest real structures.
The shortcomings of the Standard Fire Test (BSI 1987)
have been highlighted by many authors from both fire
dynamics and structural engineering perspectives, e.g.
Drysdale (1985). Despite this, the test (or tabulated
results of it) is still widely used for routine structural
design. Increasingly, however, designers are recognising the lack of rationality that relying on the Standard
Fire Test involves and also finding that the limited
range of structures to which it may be applied restricts
the opportunities for using economic and innovative
structural fire safety designs.
Some fire design codes have now introduced the
possibility of designing structures to resist fire by
calculation. In principle therefore it is now possible
for designers to treat fire loading in the same manner as any other form of load. However, for this to
happen it must be possible for designers to predict
with confidence how a structure will respond to fire.
Considerable research effort has been dedicated in
recent years to providing the knowledge needed for
this and much progress has been made. It turns out that
structural behaviour in fire in all but the simplest cases
is much more complex than analyses based solely on
loss of material strength due to heating can predict.
A key aspect of the findings is that treating structural
elements, such as beams and columns, in isolation in a
fire analysis is insufficient. For accurate results to be
produced, either the behaviour of whole structures or
the behaviour of parts of structures with appropriate
boundary conditions must be considered. As a result in
all but the most straightforward cases numerical analyses are required to accurately predict the strength and
behaviour of structures in fire.
At present determining the fire resistance of complete structures by calculation is only being carried
out by a few designers who have close links with
researchers. As a consequence the complexities of
analysing heated structures and the associated numerical modelling requirements are not widely appreciated.
This means designers who wish to analyse heated
structures but who do not have links to the research
community are forced to conduct analyses in an
ad hoc manner with the possibility of key phenomena not being considered. The difficulties of such a
situation have been appreciated for some time in, for
example, the field of shell structures. As a result this
area now has design guidance (Rotter 2002) and codes
(CEN 2007) that give a framework for using numerical
analyses in the design process. Currently there is no
such guidance in area of structures in fire.
This paper has three purposes. Firstly, it will explain
why analysing and designing structures for fire loading is a particularly challenging task in structural
engineering. It will then discuss in detail a simple
problem of a heated beam that highlights the importance of including a number of effects when analysing
285
heated structures that may be ignored for ambient

temperature analyses. Finally it proposes two benchmark tests for the analysis of heated structures. The
purpose of these tests is to provide problems that will
allow for it to be shown that given computer codes can
predict the behaviour of heated structures accurately
and that they capture all the relevant phenomena.. They
will also provide some standard results against which
analysts can check their modelling approaches.
2
THE NATURE OF STRUCTURAL

BEHAVIOUR IN FIRE
Analysing and designing structures for fire loading

is a particularly challenging problem for structural
engineers. To see that this is the case it is worthwhile contrasting the analysis processes for ambient
and high-temperature structural design. At ambient
temperature a fortuitous combination of facts regarding loading, material behaviour and design requirements mean that greatly simplifying assumptions may
be made. In fire conditions these assumptions no
longer hold and both analysis and design become
correspondingly harder.
At ambient temperature the actions on a structure typically result from a combination of wind and
gravity loading. Such actions are forces and are (or can
reasonably be assumed to be) non-varying when estimating strength. As a result the stresses in structures
can be regarded as constant for each load case and
it is straightforward to design for sufficient strength.
Simplifications may be made as a result of most commonly used structural materials being very stiff. This
means that deflections can be considered to remain
small and geometric non-linearity can be neglected in
analyses. In most structures, small deflections are also
ensured by serviceability requirements. Furthermore,
it is usually possible to assume either linear elastic or
rigid-plastic material behaviour, further simplifying
the analysis process by removing the difficulties of
handling material non-linearity in calculations. This
simplification is even possible with concrete, which
is a non-linear material, by use of equivalent stress
blocks.
The situation at elevated temperatures is very different for several reasons. The actions on a heated
structure are primarily temperatures, or more fundamentally heat-fluxes, that result from exposure of the
structure to hot gases and radiation. These produce
heating and, subsequent to a fire or as a result of firefighting, cooling of the structure. Since not all parts
of the structure heat at the same rate, and because
structural elements expand when heated, stresses are
produced within the structure. Whereas the stresses
in a structure at ambient temperature may be considered constant, this is not the case in a heated
structure because thermal equilibrium will not occur

during a typical fire. The inter-play between thermal
expansion, restraint to this expansion and the large
deflections commonly present in fire conditions, also
result in stresses within structural members varying
during a heating-cooling cycle. There is no reason
why the largest stresses should occur simultaneously
with the peak of either the applied heat fluxes or the
structural temperatures. A further complication is that
heating and cooling will not occur simultaneously in
all parts of a structure. This means stresses may be
increasing in some areas but decreasing in others.
High temperatures also affect structural materials
mechanical properties with key factors being loss of
linearity, strength, modulus and a clear yield point.
These changes mean that not only do the stresses
within a heated structure change with time but so too
does the structures strength, and this must be considered during analyses. A second consequence of
heating is thermal expansion. If this is restrained in
any way, large stresses will result. Thermal expansion also frequently causes large deflections to be
present in heated structures. As these deflections are
caused by the changing length of heated members
it is not necessarily the case, as at ambient temperatures, that they indicate impending failure. Indeed
it may be the case that large deflections allow thermally induced stresses to be relieved. However, large
deflections do mean it is necessary to account for the
effects of geometric non-linearity in structural analyses if accurate results are to be produced. The above
discussion shows that to get an accurate prediction of
structural behaviour at high temperature it is necessary to consider in analyses all the following factors
that may typically be excluded or disregarded under
ambient conditions: material non-linearity, geometric non-linearity, and time- and temperature-varying
strength. If a structure is to be designed to resist
fire using a performance-based approach it is necessary to ensure it has sufficient strength and fulfils
other design requirements during the entire period it is
exposed to temperatures above ambient. The complex
and time varying nature of both stresses and strength
in heated structures means it is not possible to identify a most serious set of applied temperatures in the
same way as a most serious load case can be identified at ambient temperature. Fire loading is a very
rare example in structural engineering where all these
phenomena need to be considered simultaneously to
predict behaviour. Blast and earthquake loading offer
two somewhat comparable forms of loading but in
these cases other simplifications, such as assuming
a lumped mass, may be considered.
The complexity of the behaviour of heated structures has traditionally not been recognised in fire
safety design calculations because assessing fire resistance has almost always been done with reference to
286
the Standard Fire Test or has assumed that individual

elements of structure may be considered in isolation
from each other. In other words, structural fire design
has tended to assume statical determinacy. In these
conditions high temperature strength calculations only
need to account for loss of material strength to obtain
a reasonably accurate critical temperature. However
almost all real structures contain a degree of redundancy and simplistic calculations will not provide
accurate estimates of strength.
BEAM EXAMPLE
To illustrate the discussion in the previous section

a simple example structure will be considered as
shown in Figure 1. It consists of a single beam exposed
to fire, the behaviour of which will be considered
when it is uniformly heated to 800 C and then cooled
again. This arrangement was chosen as the simplest
example of a heated structure for which the effects of
geometric non-linearity, material non-linearity, complex boundary conditions and time varying forces all
become important. The problem was chosen with the
aim of it being sufficiently detailed to be representative of reality while also being simplified sufficiently
to allow for unproblematic interpretation of results.
The beams material properties were, therefore, taken
to represent an elasto-plastic steel with a yield strength
reducing linearly from 250 MPa at 0 C to zero at
1000 C. Youngs modulus and the coefficient of thermal expansion were taken to be independent of temperature and equal to 207 GPa and 1.2 105 C1
respectively. These details are shown graphically in
Figure 1. In addition to temperature loading, a uniform
mechanical load 4300 N/m was applied to the beam.
This load was chosen so that it could just be sustained

when the beam was simply supported and heated to
800 C. Both ends of the beam were free to rotate
but varying degrees of lateral restraint were applied
ranging from no restraint (simply-supported) to full
restraint (pinned). Intermediate values of restraint are
expressed as a percentage of the beams axial stiffness,
which was not temperature dependent.
Such a beam would typically be part of a larger
structure, however, at ambient temperature it would
normally be designed as simply-supported, and thus
any interaction with a surrounding structure ignored.
Such an approach has also traditionally been taken for
high temperature design with the sole effect of temperature assumed to be loss of material strength. The beam
could thus be designed with forces derived from equilibrium equations. Taking this approach the mid-span
moment in the beam would be
M=
wL2
= 537.5 Nm
8
(1)
and at 800 C the moment resistance of the beam

would be
y bd 2
250 (1 800/1000) 353
=
4
4
= 535.9 Nm
Mr =
so the beam would be considered adequate for the

applied loads. Moreover, the analysis would indicate
that no axial forces would be present in the beam; that
deflections could be calculated from standard results
and that after the heating-cooling cycle the beam would
35mm
Pinned supports with

varying lateral restraint
35mm
1m
CrossSection
T
250MPa
0C
Temperature history
of the beam
Figure 1.
1000C
Variation of yield stress with

temperature
Beam example Problem definition.
287
Increasing T
T
A
800C
(2)
Temperature dependent
material behaviour
150000
Axial Force (N)
100000
Cooling
50000
0
-50000
-100000
Heating
Buckling
-150000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Temperature(c)
Pinned supports
75% support stiffness

Simply supported
Figure 2. Beam example Axial force predicted by a

materially and geometrically non-linear analysis.
Mid-span deflection (m)
0
-0.01
-0.02
Rapid deflections
after buckling
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
Residual deflections
after cooling
-0.07
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Temperature(c)
Pinned supports

% support stiffness
Simply supported
Figure 3. Beam example Deflections predicted by a

materially and geometrically non-linear analysis.
be in an elastic state with the same deflections as before

heating. This sort of analysis works well at ambient
temperature as the assumptions on which it is based
(small-deflections, simple boundary conditions, no
axial forces) are valid. However, as discussed above, at
elevated temperatures none of these assumptions are
valid. The justification for such crude analyses has
always rested on the claim that they are conservative
and safe. The following analysis will show this to be a
false assumption.
To obtain a more realistic estimate of the behaviour
of the beam being considered, the results of a fully nonlinear analysis are presented in Figures 2 and 3. The
analyses were conducted using the Abaqus finite element software with a numerical scheme that assumes
quasi-static conditions and so does not account for
inertia effects. The axial forces (Fig. 2) increase
rapidly on heating as a result of thermal expansion
being restrained against lateral supports. The rate at
which the axial forces develop is directly related to
the stiffness of these supports. At a certain point the
beam buckles and deflections increase rapidly (Fig. 3).

As a consequence the axial forces reduce because previously restrained thermal strains can now be released
by geometric lengthening of the beam. The axial forces
continue to reduce until the end of the heating, partly
for this reason and partly due to loss of material
strength with temperature. The large curvatures in the
beam that result from the deflections produce significant plastic strains. On cooling therefore there is a
residual tensile force in the beam with a magnitude
greater than 50% of full tensile strength of the beam,
even when only limited axial restraint is present.
The behaviour of the beam with the simple support
conditions, as assumed in the traditional approach to
calculating the strength in fire, is included in Figures 2
and 3. It is immediately apparent the behaviour of the
beam with even slightly different support conditions
to these (e.g 5% lateral restraint) is very different
significant axial forces and deflections are predicted
that are completely ignored by a simple analysis. Such
forces have potential to affect other parts of a structure
or to result in compartmentation breach and should
therefore be accounted for in any performance-based
analysis of structural behaviour. More serious is the
fact that any axial force in a beam will reduce its
moment capacity below that estimated by a simple
analysis with the possibility of it being unable to support the loads for which it is designed. On cooling the
residual tensile forces in a beam with any end restraint
are a significant proportion of its axial capacity and
certainly well above the axial capacity of typical connections. Connection failure in fire is a serious hazard
to firefighters and any remaining occupants of a structure. Consequently, these forces should be taken in to
account in design.
Figures 2 and 3 and the foregoing discussion show
clearly that the boundary conditions assumed when
predicting behaviour in fire are crucial for getting
accurate results. It is also clear that temperature
dependent material properties have a strong effect on
behaviour. What is less clear from these figures is
the effect of non-linear geometric effects on structural
behaviour. To establish the importance of these effects,
the example beam was modelled in an identical manner
to before but with no consideration of non-linear geometric effects. The results are shown in Figures 4 and
5. The magnitude of the axial forces are now considerably larger than previously since the relief of thermal
expansion by increase in geometric length is no longer
accounted for. The maximum value of axial force is
now controlled solely by yielding and the stiffness of
the lateral supports. The axial capacity of the beam
is indicated in Figure 4; as result of bending moments
being present this is never fully attained in the example
being considered.
The predicted deflections (Fig. 5) are also different to when geometric effects are considered (Fig. 3)
288
300000
Cooling
Axial Force (N)
200000
100000
0
-100000
-200000
Axial capacity
Heating
-300000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Temperature(c)
Pinned supports

Simply supported
Figure 4. Beam example Axial forces predicted by a

materially non-linear analysis.
0
be obtained. More generally, this example has shown

that the forces and deflections in heated structures can
not be predicted without an analysis that accounts for
the wide range of phenomena mentioned earlier. Further, even in simple cases such as this, relying on a
traditional analysis that assumes statical determinacy
will not only produce an incorrect result but possibly an unconservative one. The effects of time are
included in the analyses by the proxy variable of temperature. As heating is uniform throughout the beam
and no time dependent phenomena (e.g creep) are
present, representing time explicitly is not needed.
If heating were not proportional, as is likely in real
structures, a physical representation of time would be
needed.
BENCHMARKS
Heating
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
-0.35
Cooling
-0.4
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Temperature(c)
Pinned supports

Simply supported
Figure 5. Beam example Deflections predicted by a

materially non-linear analysis.
in both pattern and magnitude. Predicted deflections

are larger than in earlier analyses and continue to
grow, or are stable, in the cooling phase. Since neither
P- effects nor catenary action are accounted for in
the analysis, deflections are determined entirely by
the axial forces and bending moments in the beam,
and by the material properties. During heating deflections increase for all cases as material on the upper
and lower surfaces of the beam yields due to loss of
strength with temperature. For higher support stiffnesses deflections continue to increase on cooling, a
counter-intuitive result that arises from the beam yielding in tension and as a result losing bending strength
more rapidly through this mechanism than it gains it
by material recovery on cooling. For the cases with
weak lateral restraint (up to 25% of the beam stiffness) deflections are constant upon cooling. In this
case the beam has not fully yielded in tension and so
gains strength on cooling.
Figures 4 and 5 thus highlight the absolute requirement of including non-linear geometric effects in any
analysis of a heated structure if reliable results are to
Given the difficulties associated with numerical modelling of heated structures, it would be desirable if
there were benchmark problems against which analysts could check their modelling approaches and the
suitability of software. The remainder of this paper
proposes and specifies two such benchmarks.
Benchmark 1 is the example problem just considered with a boundary stiffness of 75%. This problem
has the advantage of being sufficiently simple for the
structural behaviour to be appreciated rapidly but still
has sufficient complexity to demonstrate the capability
of a numerical model to capture many relevant effects.
A comparison of several predictions of the axial forces
in the beam is given in Figure 6 where it can be seen
that all the analyses considered give closely aligned
predictions. Of interest is the Abaqus explicit dynamic
analysis. This has real time units and includes inertia effects that show up in the slight oscillations seen
in the predicted response. The oscillations are caused
150000
100000
Axial Force (N)
Mid-span deflection (m)
-0.05
50000
-50000
-100000
Heating
-150000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Temperature(c)
Figure 6. Predictions of axial force for Benchmark 1 from

various analyses and numerical schemes.
289
Cooling
by the application of the dead load over a period of 1 s.

If this loading were performed more slowly the oscillations would be smaller but the computational effort
greater.
Benchmark 1 offers a basic case and many aspects
of it can be checked against hand calculations. For
design much more complex problems need to be modelled and so Benchmark 2 aims to provide a measure
against which the ability to model real structures can
be assessed. The complexity of larger scale problems
means they are not readily checked by hand calculations. In addition, since even experimental situations
are difficult to characterize accurately, suitable test
data for precisely defining a benchmark case directly
are not available. To avoid these problems the second benchmark presented in this paper is a simplified
version of the first Cardington British Steel fire test
(Bravery 1993; Kirby 1998) conducted in 1996 on a
composite steel-concrete structure in the UK. This test
has been modelled in detail by many authors (Gillie et
al. 2001; Bailey et al. 1996; Sanad et al. 1999; Burgess
et al. 2001; Elghazouli et al. 2000) all of whom found it
a challenging task, in part due to the inevitable uncertainties about the material data and the temperature
distribution within the structure. By simplifying the
details of the problem it is possible to obtain a tightly
defined benchmark but by keeping the definition sufficiently close to the actual test it is still possible to
compare results with test data, at least in terms of
trends and key features.
The geometry of the second benchmark is shown in
Figure 7. It consists of several bays of a steel-concrete
composite structure with one secondary beam and an

associated area of floor slab subject to heating. Symmetry boundary conditions are present at all edges of
the structure. The boundary condition at the edge of
the heated area implies that the full span (9 m) of the
floor slab and secondary beam are exposed to fire, not
just the portion shown. The other boundary conditions
strictly imply further fires at some distance from the
one indicated. However, these boundary conditions are
sufficiently distant from the heated area for them to be
a good approximation to a stiff surrounding structure.
The benchmark can thus be taken to represent a local
fire in a large composite frame. Vertical support is provided by a column at the intersection of the primary
beam and the heated secondary beam. The boundary
condition here is taken as fully fixed.
The gravity loading on the structure is a UDL of
5 kN/m2 over the entire slab. Temperature loading
consists of heating the secondary beam indicated to
800 C and the shaded area of slab so that is has a
mid-surface temperature of 300 C with a linear gradient of 4.6 C/mm. This results in an upper surface
temperature of 0 C and a lower surface temperature
of 600 C. Following heating the structure is cooled to
ambient temperature (0 C). Heating and cooling are
linear through time.
Material properties at ambient temperature are
given in Table 1. Both steels are taken to be elastoplastic while the concrete uniaxial compressive properties are taken from Eurocode 2 and shown in Table 2.
Concrete peak compressive strength at ambient temperature is taken as 45 N/mm2 and the tensile strength
1500
Web=6
Flanges=10
300
165
Column
Secondary beam
dimensions
3000
Heated
Web=10
Flanges=15
3000
Secondary
beams
Area
600
3000
230
1500
Primary
beam
130 deep
4500
6 diam mesh
200 centres
9000
Figure 7.
Geometry of Benchmark 2. Dimensions in mm.
290
Primary beam
dimensions
Section through
slab
Table 1. Ambient temperature material properties for

Benchmark 2.
E GPa
C1
y MPa
Mild Steel
Rebar
Concrete
210
210
0.3
0.3
0.25
1.2 105
1.2 105
1.0 105
350
450
Axial force in the heated beam. (N)
Material
5e+06
Table 2. Ambient temperature concrete stress-strain

behaviour.
Strain
0
13.4
26.1
43.0
45.0
0
0
0.000536
0.001036
0.001536
0.002036
0.002536
Deflection of tested beam at mid-span (mm)
3e+06
2e+06
1e+06
0
-1e+06
-2e+06
-3e+06
-4e+06
0
Figure 9.
100
200
300
400
500
600
Temperature of heated secondary beam( c)
700
800
Forces in the heated beam for Benchmark 2.
400000
Force in slab perpendicular to secondary beam

Force in slab parallel to secondary beam
200000
0
Force per unit width (N/m)
Stress MPa
Axial force in the heated beam
4e+06
Cardington test 1
Abaqus model of test
Abaqus model of Benchmark 2
-200000
Cooling
-400000
-600000
-800000
Heating
-1e+06
-1.2e+06
-1.4e+06
-50
-1.6e+06
-1.8e+06
0
-100
Heating
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
-150
Figure 10.
Forces in the heated slab for Benchmark 2.
Cooling
-200
-250
0
Figure 8.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Comparison of mid-span beam deflections.
as 5% of this (2.25 MPa). Loss of strength for all

materials is linear with temperature and reaches zero
at 1000 C.
Figure 8 shows a comparison of the deflections of
the mid-span of the heated beam in Benchmark 2 as
predicted by an Abaqus model together with those of
the actual test data from Cardington. The results of
a full analysis of the test are also shown. It is clear
that the general pattern and magnitude of the deflections is the same in all cases and also that the aim
of simplifying the test data has been metthe deflection behaviour in the simplified case is smoother than
in the real situation but otherwise very similar. The
benchmark and numerical model include the response
during cooling although this was not monitored during
the test so experimental comparisons are not possible.
It has been shown that the almost linear pattern of

deflection against temperature in the Cardington test
is misleading as it disguises a range of complex nonlinear phenomena (Gillie et al. 2001). Consequently,
plots of the axial force at mid-span in the heated beam
and of section forces within the concrete slab are also
included as part of the benchmark to ensure that the
behaviour of structure is fully represented. Figures 9
and 10 show these quantities.
The paper has highlighted and discussed the complexities of modelling structures at high temperature with
reference to examples. The requirement for including a
range of phenomena that may be ignored or simplified
when analysing other forms of structural behaviour has
been highlighted. It is also been established that structural behaviour should be considered through a full
heating-cooling cycle when designing for fire loading if the most deleterious structural condition is to be
291
CONCLUSIONS
identified. Two benchmark problems have been proposed that will enable modelling techniques and codes
to be tested.
REFERENCES
Bailey, C.G., I.W. Burgess, and R.J. Plank (1996). Computer simulation of a full-scale structural fire test. The
Structural Engineer 74(6), 93100.
Bravery, P.N.R. (1993). Cardington large building test facility. Technical report, Building Research Establishment.
BSI (1987). BS476 Parts 2023: Fire Tests on Building
Materials and Structures. BSI.
Burgess, I.W., Z. Huang, and R.J. Plank (2001). Non-linear
modelling of steel and composite structures in fire. pp.
115. Proc. International Seminar on Steel structures in
Fire.
CEN (2007). Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part
16: General Rules: Supplementary Rules for Shell
Structures. CEN.
Drysdale, D. (1985). An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. John

Wiley and Sons.
Elghazouli, A.Y., B.A. Izzuddin, and A.J. Richardson (2000).
Numerical modelling of structural fire behaviour of composite buildings. Fire Safety Journal 35(4), 279297.
Gillie, M., A.S. Usmani, and J.M. Rotter (2001). A structural analysis of the first Cardington test. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 56(6), 581601.
Kirby, B.R. (1998). The behaviour of a multi-storey steelframed building subjected to fire attack, experimental
data. Technical report, British Steel.
Rotter, J.M. (2002). Shell buckling and collapse analysis
for structural designthe new framework of the european standard. In Festschrift for Prof Chris Calladine.
Cambridge University Press.
Sanad, A.M., J.M. Rotter, A.S. Usmani, and M.A. OConnor
(1999). Modelling of composite building behaviour under
fire. In Proceedings Interflam99, Volume 2.
292
Deflection of semi-rigidly connected beams

B. Ahmed
BUET, Dhaka, Bangladesh
T.Q. Li
Ove Arup, UK
D.A. Nethercot
Imperial College London, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a theoretical analysis for the serviceability deflections of semi-rigidly
connected beams under central point loading, third point loading and uniformly distributed loading. Using the
moment area theorem and assuming elastic behaviour, explicit expressions have been derived for end moment,
maximum deflection and its location for each load condition when different levels of rotational restraint are
present at each end of the beam. These have been incorporated into an EXCEL workbook, from which design
charts have been prepared for end moments, location and magnitude of maximum deflection. These permit an
accurate allowance for the beneficial effects of end restraint to be included in deflection calculations, through a
simple modification to established practice. For standard sections and a given deflection limit the limiting span
to depth ratio may readily be obtained.
INTRODUCTION
When designing according to limit states principles,

it is customary to focus on conditions at both the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state
(SLS). Since the former is directly concerned with the
safety of the structure, it is not surprising that it has
received far greater attention through the development
of ever improved techniques to predict the maximum
load carrying capacity of various structural arrangements. However, it is becoming increasingly common
in practice to find that behaviour under service conditions actually controls. This suggests that behaviour
at SLS should be subject to more scientific investigation so that better balanced designs result. For frame
structures subjected to essentially static loading, the
most important SLS is normally permissible deflections (Saidani and Nethercot 1993). Under conditions
of lateral loads this usually takes the form of overall or inter-storey drift limits; for gravity loading it
is normally the deflections of beams due to imposed
load. For non-sway frames designed according to
the principles of simple construction, the latter
requirement normally involves treating the beams as
simply supported. It is customary when considering

serviceability behaviour to use elastic analysis.
It was early in the last century that laboratory
studies (Young and Jackson 1934, Rathbun 1936) of
the behaviour of practical forms of (riveted) beam
to column connections for steel frames revealed that
nominally pinned arrangements actually possess some
degree of rotational stiffness. Research in this area
(Benussi et al 1989, Anderson and Najafi 1994, Xiao
et al 1994 and Li et al 1996), especially over the past
two decades, has provided methods for estimating this
stiffness for a number of practical arrangements. When
it is recalled that the central deflection of a fixed-ended
beam is only one fifth that of an equivalent simply supported beam, it becomes clear that allowing for even
modest degrees of end fixity when estimating serviceability deflections should lead to worthwhile benefits.
This is all the more important when it is realised that
such benefits are achievable with no change to established practicerotational stiffness is present in the
joints even though it is not normally allowed for in
the calculations. In this context it is of interest to note
that when pre-cambering beams so as to offset dead
load deflections, fabricators normally work to a figure
293
that is rather less than the full calculated simply

supported deflection. However, the making of an
explicit allowance for end restraint when conducting
design calculations to estimate serviceability deflections is not normal practice.
This paper utilises basic structural analysis to derive
closed form solutions for the maximum deflection
for an end-restrained beam under various loading
arrangements. By rearranging the results into a suitable form, it is possible to include allowance for end
restraint as a simple modification to the usual serviceability deflection check. It is also shown how,
when using standard structural sections, the results
may be recast in terms of permissible span/depth ratios
corresponding to a target allowable deflection.
GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR END

MOMENTS
Figure 2.
Semi-rigidly connected beam with two point load.
Following normal practice, deflection calculations at

the serviceability limit state are determined using elastic analysis. Figures 1 to 3 (Hasan 1998 and Alam
1998) shows the relationships between the applied
loading and the elastic moment diagrams for the three
load cases: central point load; pair of third point loads
and uniformly distributed load considered in the paper.
The beam is also assumed to be provided with rotational support stiffnesses KA and KB at the ends A
and B. Fig. 4 illustrates the deflected shape, slope and
tangents required for the application of the moment
area theorem.
From the definition of rotational stiffness:
A =
MA
KA
and B =
MB
KB
Figure 3. Semi-rigidly connected beam with uniformly
distributed loading.
Figure 4. Deflected shape showing tangents and location of

maximum deflection.
Figure 1.
loading.
Semi-rigidly connected beam with central point
Using the moment-area theorem from Figure 4 in

conjunction with Fig. 1,
294
A =
tBA
L

1
1
2L MB L L
MA L
A =
EIL
2
3
2
3

1 L PL L

+
4 2
2
1

MB L PL2
L
EI
+
=0
+
MA
KA
3
6
16
B =
1
f2 =
EI
KB
L
3
(1)
B =
F
F
= MBA
=
MAB
MA =
MA =
F
MAB
f1
EI
KA
L
3
L
EI
L
K +3
2

L
36 KEI + L3
L
2
(3)
Where:
F
= PL
MAB
8 (fixed end moment at support A for centre
point loading)
$
%
1
f1 =
EI
KA
L
3
L
6 KEI + L3
36
$

MB =
PL
8
2

L
EI
L
K +3

EI
KB
L
3
L
2
2

L
36 KEI + L3
L
2
(5)
Where:
F
= PL
MBA
8 (fixed end moment at support B or centre
point loading)
(8)
m(6 + mn)
4 (3 + mn) + m (4 + mn)
(10)
f2 (KA , KB ) =
mn (6 + m)
4 (3 + mn) + m (4 + mnn)
(11)
KA
EI /L
and n =
KB
KA
Figs. 5 and 6 show the variation of f1 and f2 with m

and n for cases where the right hand connection stiffness is smaller than or equal to the left hand connection
stiffness.
It can be seen from Figs. 5 and 6 that the connection
moment for semi-rigidly connected beams is sensitive
to the exact level of connection stiffness only when
m is small. Once m exceeds 10 further increases in
295
L2
12
f1 (KA , KB ) =
m=
F
f2
MB = MBA
(7)
Where:
2PL
9
(fixed end moment for uniformly distributed load).

Thus it can be seen from equations 3 to 8 that the
end moments for the semi-rigidly connected beams are
equal to the fixed end moment of the corresponding
rigidly connected beam multiplied by the same function in all load cases. Thus general equations for end
moments can be written as:
&
F
f1
MA = MAB
(9)
F
f2
MB = MBA
(4)
L
EI
L
K +3
(6)
(fixed end moment for third point loading).
PL
8
L
2
(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2)
2

L
36 KEI + L3
Equations (3) and (5) give the general expression

for end moments for beams having different support
stiffnesses when loaded with a central point load.
Similarly, for third point loading and uniform loading, using Figs. 2 to 4, expressions for end moments
are obtained that are exactly the same as those given
by equations 3 and 5. Thus factors f1 and f2 remain
unchanged (since they depend only on the member
properties and support arrangements), the fixed end
moments vary with the loading type and are well
known as given below:
F
F
= MBA
=
MAB
tAB
L

1
1
L 1
MA L M B
EIL
2
3
2

2L PL3
L
+
3
16

PL2
L
EI
MA L
+ MB
=0
+
6
KB
3
16
%
L
6 KEI + L3
Since, BC = B
1.6
(24MA + 24MB + 12PL)x2 48MB Lx + (8MA L2
End moment factor f1
1.4
+ 16MB L2 3PL3 ) = 0

f
f22 13 ( f1 f2 4) (3 2f2 f1 )
2
x
=
L
( f1 f2 4)
(12)
1.2
n = 0.00
1.0
n = 0.25
0.8
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
0.6
n = 1.00
0.4
0.2
Substituting for f1 and f2 in equation (12) the location

of the maximum deflection can be obtained as follows:
From Figures 1 and 4(a),
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
Figure 5.
max = tBC
Variation of f1 with m and n.
max =
1.2
End moment factor f2
1.0
max =
0.8
n = 0.00
Px3
1
2MA x3 + MB (3Lx2 2x3 ) +

6EIL
6EI
(13)
Px3
P
2f1 x3 + f2 (3Lx2 2x3 ) +

48EI
6EI
(14)
n = 0.25
0.6
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
0.4
0.2
0.51
0.50
0.0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0.49
X/L (CPL)
m = KAL/EI
Figure 6.
Variation of f2 with m and n.
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
0.48
n = 0.50
0.47
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
0.46
0.45
0.44
connection stiffness have little influence on connection

moment.
General Expression For Location and Magnitude of
Maximum Deflection
Semi-rigid to simply supported beam

deflection ratio (CPL)
Since the maximum deflection occurs at point C,

c = 0 and,

MA L MB L PL2
1
+
B =
EI
6
3
16
40
50
60
70
1.00
0.80
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
n = 0.50
0.60
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
0.40
0.20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
Figure 8. Variation of maximum deflection ratio for central

point load.
296
30
Figure 7. Variation of maximum deflection point for central

point load.
BC = B C
MA x2
MB (2Lx x2 )
Px2
+
2LEI
2LEI
4EI
20
m = KAL/EI
Central point load:

Assuming that the maximum deflection occurs at
point C at a distance x from the right support (see
Figures 1 and 4) and using the moment area theorem:
BC =
10
Table 1.
Location and magnitude of maximum deflection for the three load cases.
Load case
Location of maximum deflection
Equation no.
f2 f22 13 (f1 f2 4)(3 2f2 f1 )

(f1 f2 4)
Central point load
x
L
third point load
x
L
Uniform
24
Load case
Calculation of deflection magnitude
Central point load
EI max
PL3
1
= 48
third point load
EI max
PL3
Uniform load
(9 6f2 )
x 3
L
EI max
L4
1
54
1
72
(6f2 9)2 12(f1 f2 )(4.5 f1 2f2 )

6(f1 f2 )
x 2
L
(8 + f2 f1 ) + 6f2
x
L
16
(f1 + 2f2 3) = 0
18

3f2 + 2 Lx (f1 f2 4)
x 2
15
x 2

9 4f1 Lx + 2f2 2 Lx 3
x 2
15 Lx 1

x
L
1
162
17

x
2f1 Lx f2 3 2 L
Thus:
19
0.51

1 x 2
x
EI max
=
3f2 + 2 ( f1 f2 4)
3
PL
48 L
L
0.50
0.49
0.48
From Equations 15 in conjunction with equation 12,

EI
is independent of P and is a
it can be seen that max
PL3
function of KA , KB and EI /L.
Figure 7 shows the variation of the location of the
maximum deflection with connection stiffnesses and
the ratio of end stiffness for central point loading.
For any beam-to-column connection it is possible to
estimate the end stiffness, thus the location of the maximum deflection can readily be obtained using this
figure. Fig. 8 shows the ratio of the maximum deflection for the semi-rigidly connected beam to that for
an equivalent simply supported beam for central point
loading. Once the deflection ratio is known it can be
utilised in several ways:
Calculating the maximum deflection when the connection stiffnesses, beam section, span and loading
are known.
Calculating the required beam section by trial and
error, when beam span, load and allowable deflection are known.
Calculating possible combinations of required end
stiffnesses for a known beam section, span, load and
allowable deflection.
In a similar fashion equations for the other two load
cases under consideration can also be derived; these
are shown in Table 1.
X/L (TPL)
(15)
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
0.47
n = 0.50
0.46
n = 0.75
0.45
n = 1.00
0.44
0.43
0.42
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
Figure 9. Variation of maximum deflection point for third

point load.
Figs. 9 and 10 show the variation of the location

of the maximum deflection and the variation of the
deflection ratio between the semi-rigidly connected
and simply supported cases for third point loading.
Figs. 11 and 12 provide the same information for
uniform loading.
It can be seen from equations 13, 17 and 19 that for
all load cases the maximum deflection can generally
be expressed as:
max = sr + ss
where sr is the reduction in deflection due to semirigid joint action from that of the pin connected beam
297
12
ss is dependent on the loading type but is not

directly dependent on the end conditions and is
given by:

deflection ratio (TPL)
1.00
0.80
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
0.60
n = 0.50
ss =
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
ss =
ss =
0.40
Px3
6EI
PL
2
2
162EI (27x L )
5
3
x
(L
x)
24EI
Central point load
(20)
Third point load

Uniformly
distributed load
(21)
(22)
0.20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
Figure 10. Variation of maximum deflection ratio for third

point load.
0.52
0.47
X/L (UDL)
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
0.42
0.37
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
0.8
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
0.6
1.00
0.4
Maximum deflection ratio (KA = KB)

deflection ratio (UDL)
Figure 11. Variation of maximum deflection point for

uniformly distributed load.
Knowing the end stiffness the end moments may

be obtained, using these the location of the maximum deflection may then be computed. Using the end
moments and the location of the maximum deflection, the magnitude of the maximum deflection can
be obtained.
In order to compare the maximum deflection ratios
between the three load cases, Fig. 13 has been produced for the case of KA = KB . It can be seen that the
deflection ratio between semi-rigidly connected beams
and simply supported beams is almost independent of
the load types. It can also be noticed that once the
connection stiffness (KA ) to EI /L ratio is greater than
10, further increases in connection stiffness have little effect on the beam deflections. Within this range
the assumption that deflections are no more than one
third of the simply supported values is both reasonable
and safe. Trial calculations for a range of representative connections suggest that whilst 10 may well not
be achievable in many practical situations, a figure
of 5 implying a deflection of approximately one half
the simply supported value is a very reasonable basis
for deciding whether a more accurate calculation is
justified.
0.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
Figure 12. Variation of maximum deflection ratio for uniformly distributed load.
0.90
0.80
0.70
CPL
TPL
0.60
UDL
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0
(ss ) and is given by:

sr =
2MA x3 + MB (3Lx2 2x3 )

6EIL
40
60
80
KA to (EI/L) ratio
Figure 13. Maximum deflection ratio for the three load

cases when KA = KB .
298
20
GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR REQUIRED

SPAN TO DEPTH RATIO
3.1
L
= f3
d
Rectangular section
Centre point load:

Equation 15 may be used directly to compute
the maximum L/d ratio corresponding to a chosen
deflection limit by substituting a suitable expression
for I . For example, using a rectangular section having
3
dimensions b d, I = bd
12 and thus:
L
=
d
L
=
d
1
6PL4
2MA
allow Eb
12P
x3
*
+ MB (3Lx2 2x3 ) +
x3
6L3
13
13
x 2
allow Eb
12P
13
(23)
Figure 14 shows the variation of f3 with connection

stiffness (KA ) to EI /L ratio (m) and connection stiffness ratio (n) for a central point load. Expressions for
the other two load cases are similar and are given in
Table 2.
Figs. 15 and 16 show the variation of f4 and f5 with
and n for third point loading and uniformly distributed
load respectively. The span/depth ratio factors f3 , f4
and f5 have also been tabulated in Table 3.
Using the permitted deflection, beam span, selected
width of the beam and load, the maximum L/d
can easily be computed from the equations given in
Table 2.
3.2
UK UB or UC section
In order to be able to use equations 15, 17 and 19 to

evaluate the maximum allowable span/depth ratio for
UB sections, the following studies have been carried
out to provide an empirical relationship between the
second moment of area (Ixx ) and the beams overall
3f2 + 2 Lx (f1 f2 4)

1
allow Eb 3
12P
1
48
6.00
5.00
span/depth ratio factor f4
5.50
n = 0.00
5.00
n = 0.25
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
4.50
n = 1.00
4.00
4.50
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
n = 0.50
4.00
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
3.50
3.00
3.50
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
Figure 14.
Table 2.
Load case
CPL
TPL
UDL
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
m = KAL/EI
Variation of span/depth ratio factor f3 .
Figure 15.
L/d ratio for UK UB and UC sections for various load cases.

Calculation of L/d ratio for rectangular sections
L
d
= f3
L
d
= f4
L
d
= f5

allow Eb
12P
1
3
allowx Eb
12P
Eballow
12L
1
3
1
3
f3 =

f4 =
f5 =
1
1
[3f2 + 2 Lx (f1 f2 4)]
23
1
48
( )
1
54
1
( Lx )2 [9 4f1 Lx + 2f2 (2 Lx 3)] 162
1
72
( Lx )2 [15 Lx (1 Lx ) 2f1 Lx f2 (3 2 Lx )]
x 2
L
1
3
299
No.
24
1
3
25
depth and its unit weight. From various trial studies it

has been found that the sections Ixx has a quite consistent relationship with the product of the unit weight
and the square of the section overall depth as shown
in Fig. 17. Through regression analysis, it has been

found that the best fit relationship is:
Ixx = 2.08 105 WD2
(26)
0.008
7.50
0.007
Second moment of area (m4)
7.00
6.50
n = 0.00
n = 0.25
6.00
n = 0.50
5.50
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
5.00
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
4.50
4.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
15
20
unit weight (kg/m) times overall depth (m) square
m = KAL/EI
Figure 16.
Table 3.
Figure 17. Relationship between Ixx and WD2 of UB

sections (Wunit weight; Doverall depth).
Span/depth ratio factors f3 , f4 and f5 (for rectangular sections).

Factor (f3 ) for centre point load
Factor (f4 ) for third point load
Factor (f5 ) for uniformly

distributed load
KA /KB
KA /KB
KA /KB
KA /(EI/L)
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
60
3.63
4.05
4.24
4.35
4.42
4.47
4.51
4.53
4.56
4.58
4.59
4.60
4.61
4.62
4.63
4.64
4.65
4.65
4.66
4.66
4.66
3.63
4.19
4.47
4.65
4.78
4.88
4.96
5.03
5.09
5.13
5.17
5.21
5.24
5.27
5.29
5.32
5.34
5.36
5.37
5.39
5.40
3.63
4.29
4.61
4.82
4.96
5.06
5.14
5.20
5.25
5.30
5.33
5.36
5.39
5.41
5.43
5.45
5.47
5.48
5.50
5.51
5.52
3.63
4.37
4.71
4.92
5.06
5.15
5.23
5.29
5.33
5.37
5.41
5.43
5.46
5.48
5.49
5.51
5.52
5.54
5.55
5.56
5.57
3.63
4.44
4.79
4.99
5.12
5.22
5.29
5.34
5.38
5.42
5.45
5.47
5.49
5.51
5.53
5.54
5.56
5.57
5.58
5.59
5.59
3.04
3.41
3.58
3.68
3.74
3.78
3.82
3.84
3.86
3.88
3.89
3.90
3.91
3.92
3.93
3.93
3.94
3.95
3.95
3.95
3.96
3.04
3.53
3.79
3.96
4.08
4.18
4.25
4.32
4.37
4.42
4.46
4.49
4.52
4.55
4.57
4.60
4.62
4.64
4.65
4.67
4.68
3.04
3.62
3.92
4.11
4.25
4.34
4.42
4.48
4.53
4.58
4.61
4.64
4.67
4.69
4.72
4.73
4.75
4.77
4.78
4.79
4.80
3.04
3.70
4.02
4.21
4.34
4.44
4.51
4.57
4.62
4.65
4.69
4.71
4.74
4.76
4.78
4.79
4.81
4.82
4.83
4.84
4.85
3.04
3.76
4.09
4.28
4.41
4.50
4.57
4.62
4.66
4.70
4.73
4.75
4.78
4.79
4.81
4.83
4.84
4.85
4.86
4.87
4.88
4.25
4.84
5.13
5.29
5.40
5.48
5.54
5.58
5.62
5.64
5.67
5.69
5.70
5.72
5.73
5.74
5.75
5.76
5.77
5.78
5.78
4.25
5.01
5.43
5.72
5.93
6.10
6.24
6.35
6.44
6.53
6.59
6.65
6.71
6.76
6.80
6.84
6.88
6.91
6.94
6.97
6.99
4.25
5.13
5.61
5.93
6.15
6.32
6.45
6.56
6.65
6.72
6.78
6.83
6.88
6.92
6.95
6.98
7.01
7.03
7.06
7.08
7.09
4.25
5.22
5.72
6.03
6.24
6.40
6.52
6.62
6.69
6.76
6.81
6.85
6.89
6.93
6.96
6.98
7.00
7.02
7.04
7.06
7.07
4.25
5.29
5.77
6.06
6.25
6.39
6.50
6.58
6.65
6.70
6.75
6.79
6.82
6.85
6.87
6.90
6.92
6.94
6.95
6.97
6.98

The maximum span/depth ratio is equal to the factor given in this table times
allow Eb
12P
1/3
for CPL and TPL load cases.

1/3
Eb
For UDL load case, the maximum span/depth ratio should equal to the factor given in this table times allow
.
12L
EYoungs modulus; bwidth of the rectangular section; Ppoint load; uniformly distributed load; Llength of span;
allow allowable deflection.
300
where:
Predicted second moment of area (m )
0.008
0.007
Ixx second moment of area about the major axis

units of m4
W unit weight of the section in units of kg/m
Dthe overall depth of the section in units of m
0.006
0.005
0.004
Equation 26 has been plotted against the accurate

values in Fig. 18, which shows the maximum difference between the predicted and the accurate values
to be about 10% with most of the differences being
less than 5%. A similar process has been used for UC
sections for which the equivalent of Equation 26 is:
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
0
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

Accurate second moment of area (m4)
Ix = 2.163 105 WD2
Figure 18. Predicted second moment of area versus the

accurate value for UB sections.
0.003
0.0025
Fig. 19 illustrates the comparable accuracy.

Using equation 26 and equations 15, 17 and 19,
the equations for the maximum permitted span to
depth ratio for the three load cases studied have been
obtained and are listed in Table 4.
Factors f6 , f7 and f8 for UB as well as UC sections
are given in Figs. 20, 21 and 22 respectively. These
factors are also listed in Table 5.
0.002
14.00
0.0015
13.00
12.00
0.001
L/D factor f6
Predicted second moment of area (m4)
0.0035
(27)
0.0005
0
0
n = 0.00
11.00
n = 0.25
10.00
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
9.00
n = 1.00
8.00
0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035
7.00
Accurate second moment of area (m4)
6.00
0
Figure 19. Predicted second moment of area versus the

accurate value for UC sections.
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = KAL/EI
Figure 20.
Table 4.
10
Span/depth ratio factor f6 for central point load.
L/d ratio for UK UB and UC sections for various load cases.
Load case (Eqn. No.)

Centre point load (28)
Third point load (29)
Calculation of L/d ratio for rectangular sections

L
EW allow
1
f6 =
d = f6
P
L
1 x 2
x
48 ( L ) [3f2 + 2 L (f1 f2 4)]

L
EW allow
1
f7 =
L
d = f7
P
x
1 x 2
x
1
54 ( L ) [9 4f1 L + 2f2 (2 L 3)] 162

L
EW allow
1
f8 =
d = f8
wL L
x
1 x 2
x
x
x
72 ( L ) [15 L (1 L ) 2f1 L f2 (3 2 L )]
(for UB Section)
Uniformly distributed load (30)
= 2.08 105 = 4.56 103
= 2.163 105 = 4.65 103 (for UC Section)
301
Table 5.
KA /
Span/depth ratio factors f6 , f7 and f8 (for UK UB and UC sections).

Factor (f6 ) for centre point load
Factor (f7 ) for third point load
Factor (f8 ) for uniformly

distributed load
KA /KB
KA /KB
KA /KB
(EI/L) 0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.00 0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
60
6.93
8.56
9.45
10.03
10.46
10.79
11.06
11.28
11.47
11.63
11.77
11.89
12.00
12.10
12.18
12.26
12.33
12.40
12.46
12.51
12.56
6.93
8.88
9.91
10.57
11.03
11.38
11.65
11.86
12.04
12.19
12.31
12.42
12.51
12.59
12.67
12.73
12.79
12.84
12.89
12.93
12.97
6.93
9.13
10.23
10.91
11.37
11.70
11.96
12.16
12.32
12.45
12.57
12.66
12.74
12.82
12.88
12.94
12.98
13.03
13.07
13.11
13.14
6.93
9.34
10.47
11.15
11.59
11.91
12.15
12.34
12.49
12.61
12.72
12.80
12.88
12.94
13.00
13.05
13.09
13.13
13.17
13.20
13.23
5.31
6.30
6.77
7.05
7.23
7.36
7.45
7.53
7.59
7.63
7.67
7.71
7.74
7.76
7.78
7.80
7.82
7.84
7.85
7.86
7.87
5.31
6.90
7.77
8.34
8.75
9.05
9.30
9.49
9.66
9.79
9.91
10.01
10.09
10.17
10.24
10.30
10.35
10.40
10.45
10.49
10.53
5.31
7.11
8.05
8.64
9.05
9.35
9.58
9.77
9.92
10.04
10.15
10.24
10.31
10.38
10.44
10.49
10.54
10.58
10.62
10.66
10.69
5.31
7.29
8.26
8.85
9.25
9.54
9.76
9.93
10.07
10.19
10.29
10.37
10.44
10.50
10.55
10.60
10.64
10.68
10.72
10.75
10.78
8.76
10.66
11.61
12.18
12.56
12.83
13.03
13.18
13.31
13.41
13.49
13.56
13.62
13.68
13.72
13.76
13.80
13.83
13.86
13.89
13.91
8.76
11.22
12.67
13.68
14.45
15.06
15.57
15.99
16.36
16.67
16.93
17.17
17.38
17.57
17.74
17.90
18.04
18.17
18.28
18.39
18.49
8.76
11.63
13.30
14.43
15.26
15.90
16.40
16.81
17.14
17.42
17.66
17.87
18.04
18.20
18.33
18.46
18.56
18.66
18.75
18.82
18.89
8.76
11.94
13.67
14.80
15.60
16.19
16.65
17.02
17.32
17.56
17.77
17.95
18.10
18.23
18.35
18.45
18.54
18.62
18.69
18.75
18.81
8.76
12.15
13.86
14.91
15.63
16.16
16.56
16.88
17.14
17.35
17.53
17.68
17.81
17.93
18.03
18.11
18.19
18.27
18.33
18.39
18.44
6.93
8.16
8.74
9.08
9.30
9.45
9.57
9.66
9.73
9.79
9.84
9.88
9.91
9.94
9.97
9.99
10.01
10.03
10.05
10.06
10.08
5.31
6.64
7.37
7.87
8.24
8.53
8.77
8.97
9.13
9.28
9.40
9.52
9.62
9.70
9.78
9.86
9.92
9.98
10.04
10.09
10.14
The maximum span/depth ratio is equal to the factor given in this table times
EW allow
L
P
for CPL and TPL load cases.

allow
For UDL load case, the maximum span/depth ratio should equal to the factor given in this table times EW
P L .
EYoungs modulus; bwidth of the rectangular section; Ppoint load; uniformly distributed load; Llength of span;
allow allowable deflection; W unit weight of the section; = 4.56 103 for UB section and = 4.65 103 for UC
section.
19.00
11.00
18.00
10.00
17.00
n = 0.00
L/D factor f 8
L/D factor f7
16.00
9.00
n = 0.25
8.00
n = 0.50
n = 0.75
n = 1.00
7.00
n = 0.00
15.00
n = 0.25
14.00
n = 0.50
13.00
n = 0.75
12.00
n = 1.00
11.00
10.00
6.00
9.00
8.00
5.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
m = K AL/EI
m = K AL/EI
Figure 21.
Figure 22. Span/depth ratio factor f8 for uniformly distributed load.
Span/depth ratio factor f7 for third point load.
DESIGN CHARTS AND WORKED EXAMPLE
Figures 5 and 6 provide the coefficients (with respect

to connection stiffness ratio KB /KA (n) and ratio of
connection stiffness KA to beam stiffness EI /L (m)

required for computing the end moments. Figures 7,
9 and 11 provide the location of maximum deflection with respect to n and m. Figures 8, 10 and
302
12 give the deflection ratio between the semi-rigidly

connected beam and the equivalent simply supported
beam. For a known span, load, permitted deflection
and preferred ratio of KB /KA it is possible to obtain
the required beam section using the equations given in
Tables 1 and 2.
Worked example:
Check the serviceability deflections for a 356
171UB51 over a 6 m span subject to an imposed loadof
200 kN at midspan. The maximum permitted deflection is span/250 and the end supports may be assumed
to provide rotational stiffnesses of 2.0 104 kNm/rad
and 1.0 104 kNm/rad.
From section tables overall depth D = 355 mm and
unit weight = 51 kg/m.
From Equation 26 EI /L = 2.05 106 2.08
5
10 WD2 = 4.57 106 N.m
1 107
KB
=
= 2.19
EI /L
4.57 106
KB
KA
= 0.5
From Fig. 20 f6 = 9.35.

Using Equation 28 allowable
L/D = 4.56 103 9.35

2.05 1011 51 1
= 19.5
200
250
Actual L/D = 6000/355 = 16.1 O.K.
If treated as simply supported KA = KB = 0 gives,
using Fig. 18, f6 = 6.9 and allowable L/D = 14.4 not
acceptable.
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The preliminary work of this paper started as a
research project by the first author in BUET, subsequent improvements to the analyses and design method
proposed in the paper were contributed by the second
and the third author.
REFERENCES
KA
2 107
=
= 4.38
EI /L
4.57 106
and n =
deflections. Relatively small amounts of end restraint

were found to have a significant effect; for many practical arrangements of steel beam, columns and beam
to column connections deflections of no more than
one third of the value calculated assuming simply supported end conditions may be assumed. The results
have also been recast in a form that gives maximum
span/depth ratios corresponding to a given deflection
limit.
CONCLUSIONS
Basic structural analysis has been used to derive

explicit expressions for the maximum deflection of
beams subject to either central, third point or uniform
loading allowing for the presence of unequal levels
of rotational restraint at either end. These permit the
beneficial effects of semi-rigid joint action to be readily incorporated into the prediction of serviceability
Alam, M (1998). Numerical analysis of semi-rigidly connected beam deflection, BSc. Thesis, Dept. of Civil
Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology.
Anderson, D and Najafi, A A (1994). Performance of composite connections: major axis end plate joints, Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 31, 1994, pp
135144.
Benussi, F, Puhali, R and Zandonini, R (1989). Semi-rigid
joints in steel-concrete composite frames, Construzioni
Metalliche n. 5 1989.
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Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.
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of flush end plate composite connections with unbalanced moment and variable shear/moment ratios: part 1:
experimental behaviour, Journal of Constructional Steel
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111118.
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behaviour of composite beam-column connections, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 31, 1994, pp
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of welded and riveted connections, Canadian Journal of
Research, 1934, II, No. 1, pp 62100, and II, No. 2, pp
101134.
303
Sensitivity study of a historic bridge Goole swing bridge

Minjie Cai & David M. Merrett
Corus Railway Infrastructure Services, York, UK
ABSTRACT: Goole swing bridge is a six span half through deck type railway bridge, with the longest swing
span being the object of this study. Formed by three parallel hog back main girders (two I-shape side girders and
one box centre girder) with circular central support & upper turning frame bearing on to 26 roller wheels and then
to a lower support frame, the loading behaviour of this effectively three-span continuous structure is complex.
This study examines the behaviour with the main focus on the sensitivity to the initial out-of-straightness on
geometry, the sensitivity to the connections between cross girder ends and main girder webs and how well they
behave as a U-frame. A set of FE models including main structure and some sub-models were constructed to
explore the loading mechanism.
Keywords: swing bridge, wrought iron, representative geometry deformations, partial U-frame effect, sensitivity
study, ULS, SLS.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
History
Goole Swing Bridge is one of four large swing bridges

on the former North-Eastern Railway system. It was
said to be the second largest railway swing bridge when
built (Bywell, 1907). The structure carries two railway tracks over the River Ouse near Goole, on the
Doncaster to Hull line, and currently carries mixed
passenger and heavy freight trains.
The bridge was designed by Thomas E Harrison
with the five fixed spans constructed by Butler &
Pitts of Stanningley, and the swing span, including
the hydraulic machinery (steam powered to the 1980s,
now electrically), by W.G. Armstrong & Co. of Newcastle upon Tyne. Sir (later Lord) William Armstrong
described this bridge in his 1869 Presidential Address
to the Society of Mechanical Engineers. It was listed
as a grade 2 structure in 1968.
Goole bridge crosses over the winding course of the
river Ouse (Figure 1) with the 250 ft swing span located
in the main navigation channel on the east side of the
river, and the other five fixed spans of 116 ft each
completing the crossing (4 to the west and 1 to the
east). River traffic has legal precedence over the railway, and providing a swing bridge solved the problem
of how to carry the railway over the water at minimum
height without closing the upper reaches of the river
to craft with masts or fixed funnels. River traffic has
massively declined in recent decades, but the river is

still navigable for substantial ships up to Selby.
The swing span (Figure 2) functions as follows:
when it is open to rail traffic, the weight of the span
is shared between the central turning frame (seated
on 26 roller wheels) and on three sliding blocks at
each end (one under each main girder) on top of three
pier columns (Figure 3); when the bridge needs to be
swung open, both bridge ends are jacked up on the
hydraulic knuckle gears within the end trimmer girders, the sliding blocks are withdrawn, the ends are
jacked down until free with the whole weight taken
centrally, and then the whole span rotated (via a cogged
drive wheel engaging with a rack on the upper turning frame) circa 90 degrees to clear the water ways for
shipping purposes.
1.2 Project background

Since the bridge was constructed in 1869, there has
been a long history of repairs and modifications along
with shipping incidents to the structure. The main
changes to the swing span are as follows:
305
Replacement of roller wheels

Deck replacement (cantilevered portions)
Packing of cross girder ends
Repair and replacement of the run on trimmer
girders and immediately adjacent cross girders
Figure 3.
Figure 1.
Sliding block(knuckle gear behind).
Map of Goole swing bridge.
Figure 4. Cross girder end packer, gap & local main girder
flange deformation.
Figure 2.
Goole bridgeswing span.
Strengthening of main girder end web plates and

stiffeners
Replacement of pier 3 columns after a collision
Raising of the central overhead bracing and Helmsmans cabin
New waybeams and tracks
Installation of cantilevered side equipment platforms at the span ends
Renewal of original steam engines and sealing up
of the deck coal hole hatches
Replacement lock bolt housing
Hydraulic pipework replaced
Of most significance for this study was the 1911

deck replacement, with the new cross girders being
placed between the originals and attached to the main
girder web panels (rather than at the web stiffener positions), via a riveted stiffened end connection. Beneath
the cross girder ends there are also independent packer
plates seated on the main girder bottom flange, some
of which are in full contact with cross girder underside,
others where there is a gap between, often in association with local deformation in the main girder bottom
flange (Figure 4). This set of changes eliminated the
original U-framing to the main girders on the cantilevered parts of the bridge, weakening the restraint
against lateral torsional buckling of the main girder
compression flanges. An earlier simple assessment of
the bridge showed this was potentially reducing the
capacity of the swing span outer main girders (the centre box girder is naturally more stable) below the line
requirements.
306
This further study was commissioned to more accurately determine the real loading capability of the
existing structure.
2
2.1
MODELLING
Mesh types for modelling.
Feature of
the model
Analysis
type
Model of
swing
span
Non-linear QTS4/
elastoTTS3
plastic
Element Note
Introduction
This study is the first to explore the loading capacity

of the swing span considering initial geometric out-ofstraightness, geometrical and material non-linearity,
and the restraining influence of the web connected
cross girders on the main girders. The main focus here
is the behaviour and the capacity of the connections
between the main girder webs and the cross girder
ends. The commercial finite-element (FE) package
Lusas (FEA a&b, 2005) was chosen for the analysis.
The main girders and original portion of the deck
over the turning frame and machine room are wrought
iron, while the replacement cross girders, rail bearers,
and connections in the cantilevered portions are all
steel.
The RA 1 assessment load positioning was chosen
to match the bridge & track geometry in a practical way
for modelling purposes (with the heavy RA1 wheel
loads distributed at nominal 2 6 centres along the
rails, approximating the distribution to base plates, but
also fitting with the cross girder spacing, and with the
uniform partial RA1 loading beyond).
Thick shell elements were used for the main girder
web, flange, and angle & gusset web stiffener together
with the beam elements representing the main girder
web/flange angles and web tee stiffeners. The three
central box cross girders and top Helmans cabin transoms, plus the deck end trimmers were also modelled
with shell elements, whereas the other cross girders and railbearers were modelled by beam elements.
The way-beam and adjacent walkways and small deck
plates were not represented. The important connection
between the main girder and cross girder was finally
modelled by a joint member (JSH4), using property
values derived from a separate sub-model (see later).
Table 1 is the list of the elements selected for modelling. The elements in each model are all numerically
integrated/compatible.
2.2
Table 1.
Mesh convergence study
The other important step besides element choice in an

FE analysis is to find a suitable mesh for modelling.
The accuracy of an FE model is largely dependant upon
having appropriate meshing to be able to reproduce the
loading behaviour of the structure both overall, as well
as locally in critical areas of interest, without making
the exercise computationally excessive or sacrificing
too much on the accuracy of the required results.
BTS3
Main
Linear
girder and
elastic
cross girder
connection
HX8M
Roller
wheel
support
Linear
elastic
QTS4
PN6
Computation time, which in complicated models

such as here can be significant, and increases as
the mesh gets finer. In order to reduce the computational time & live within our hardware capacity,
symmetry was exploited along the centre box girder
mid-plane and half of the span. Thus only one quarter of the complete structure was analysed in the mesh
study.
Five different types of analyses were to be undertaken in the main modelNatural Frequency analysis,
Linear analysis, Materially Non-linear analysis, Geometrically Non-linear analysis and Geometrically &
Materially Non-linear analysisaimed at isolating
different aspects or effects.
Seven different mesh densities with appropriate
boundary conditions were considered for their effect
on three key variables (i.e. the lowest elastic buckling
loads in the eigenvalue buckling analysis, the lowest
natural frequencies in the eigenvalue frequency analysis, and a materially non-linear analysis that was used
to compare load-deflection plots and stress contour
plots). The results from the mesh convergence runs
were used to make sure that the later results derived
from the model would be acceptable and to calculate
the deviation of the final mesh adopted for global
analysis against the idealised results for an infinite
number of elements. This deviation was then used in
this case to determine an appropriate upward adjustment to the normal f 3 partial safety adjustment factor
307
QTS4/
TTS3
Thick shelltakes
account of
membrane, shear
and flexural
deformations
3-noded beam
includes shear
deformations
Thick shelltakes
account of
membrane, shear
and flexural
deformations
Volumetakes
account of all
effects
Thick shelltakes
account of
membrane, shear
and flexural
deformations
Solid continuum
takes account
of all effects
Figure 5.
Meshed model adopted.
Table 2.
Abstract of natural frequencies.
Mode
Natural frequency
(Hz)
MPF (%)
Note
1st Horizontal
1st Dominant
Horizontal
2nd Dominant
Horizontal
3rd Dominant
Horizontal
1st Dominant
Vertical
1st
2nd
2.11
2.13
0.1
36.3
6th
3.02
12.9
13th
7.84
12.0
60th
11.41
49.0
for the subsequent results. The mesh adopted after this

work is shown in Figure 5.
2.3
Natural frequency analysis
A natural frequency analysis with un-factored permanent (dead and superimposed dead) loads on the whole
structure was undertaken.
The forms and values of the natural frequencies
were examined. The lowest significant (taken as the
first high mass participation factor [MPF] which indicates mobilization of a large portion of the structure)
vertical natural frequency was used to determine the
dynamic impact factor for live loads and the lowest
significant lateral/horizontal frequency was used to
check if the limiting resonance criterion for rail vehicles passing over the bridge was met (ERRI, 1996).
Table 2 shows the results on the natural frequency of
the structure.
The structure did not reach its first significant vertical component in its vibration until the 60th mode.
Therefore, the first 60 natural frequencies of the swing
span were derived from a linear elastic eigenvalue frequency analysis. It was not deemed necessary to find
further frequency modes beyond the 60th mode, as the
60th mode is the first mode to have a significant vertical component in its vibration and so would be the
frequency most likely to be excited by a passing train.
This mode is therefore relevant to the calculation of
dynamic impact factors for vertical loads.
2.4
Figure 6.
Operational live load cases.
girder web end panels, peak bending moment stresses

in the main girder flanges-both sagging in the propped
cantilevers and hogging centrally over the turning ring
arrangement at mid span-and bearing effects over the
centre ring support points). The results were then used
to determine the exact extent of the loaded lengths to
be used and the location of the heavy RA1 axles to produce the worst loading configurations at those points.
The results were also interpreted to identify influence
line lengths for the impact factor calculations.
In addition, 7th & 8th load cases with no live train
load were required to cover the jacking up of the bridge
ends and for the span in swing mode. In the latter case,
the bridge sits on the centre ring support and is subject
to the dead and superimposed dead loads only. There
would also be radial forces when it starts and stops
being turned, but they were not considered significant
for the purposes of this study and were not examined.
Load cases and influence line analysis
It is not practical to increment a load train across the

span when undertaking a non-linear analysis on such
a big model. Six potentially critical configurations
of live train loads on the swing span were therefore
identified (Figure 6).
Influence line analyses were undertaken related to
each baseplate position across the span, to identify
the effect at the previously identified and/or expected
positions of greatest concern (e.g. shear in the main
2.5 Linear analysis and sub-modelling

A static linear analysis was required to get an initial
reference view of the load dispersion and the structure
behaviour under specific load cases.
Representing each cross girder and end connection
was not possible without making the overall model
impractically large. Therefore, given the significance
of the connection stiffness between the main girder
webs and cross girders ends, linear analysis was used
308
Figure 7.
Side main girder-cross girder connection.
on two sub-models detailing the connections (FEA,

2005 a))one for the centre main girder and one for
the side main girders (Figure 7), due to their differing
geometries.
The connection sub-models have also been analysed
for both support and lack of support from the packers
between the ends of the cross girders and the main
girder bottom flanges. This is based on a survey of
the bridge showing a number of gap between the cross
girder ends and the packers, as previously described,
and therefore the unreliability of this load path (no
definitive physical connection alongside some local
deformation of the main girder bottom flange suggesting real load transfer via at least some of the
packers). The packer loads are determined by the
relative closing-up/opening-up of the gap.
Results from the sub-models provided an estimate
for the elastic stiffness of this connection (including
lower and upper bound estimates for different assumptions in the sub-models). This was then used in the
main bridge model (FEA, 2005 b)) and as previously
indicated, and the resulting load effects in the connections in the main model were then fed back into the
cross-girder to main girder connection sub-models to
explore the detailed effects in the existing connections.
The same procedure was also used to look at sample
strengthening options for the connections.
An additional sub-model for a central roller wheel
was also created and run with a similar back analysis
(also linear only). Linear analyses were also carried out
on the main model to determine the additional effect
of horizontal nosing, braking and traction effects on
the main girder capacities.
2.6
Materially non-linear analysis
A materially nonlinear analysis was used to investigate

the influence of the material plasticity.
The major concern about the material non-linearity
of the structure lies in the fact that the major parts of the
bridge are either wrought iron or early steel (Pre 1905).

Plastic global analysis of wrought iron structures is not
allowed in the current railway bridge assessment code.
This is understood to be based upon concerns over the
lower ductility limits of wrought iron, its potential to
laminate & its great variability in properties. However,
for global bending any laminar weakness in the tension
flange will not normally be in the critical plane, and
the compression flanges were heavily riveted together.
Any yield was expected to be relatively localized (at
supports and connections), but significant in terms of
overall deflection, and therefore plastic analysis was
regarded as important to consider.
Following examination of data sets given in a
major study of old railway bridge material properties
(Beagles, 1993), and using those results where the
gauge length was stated, it was considered appropriate to use an upper strain limit of 8% for wrought
iron plates (for uncorroded samples), based on calculation of the mean value minus two standard deviations
(as used for other property limits). However, the
same report suggests corrosion/pitting can significantly reduce ductility, so this value needs treating
with care to circumstances.
The non-linearity of the material (wrought iron) has
been represented simplistically in the model: before
yield, the material is elastic with the Youngs modulus
representing the linear relationship between stress and
strain; at yield the material is assumed to become fully
plastic (Youngs modulus = 0), ignoring the real hardening response in the plastic zone where the Youngs
modulus gradually decreases as the stress continues
to increase. This will produce a conservative capacity
estimate for most of the results.
2.7
In addition, a geometrically nonlinear analysis was

taken to investigate the influence of the large deflections, large rotations and large strains. Under geometrically non-linear analysis, the structure is loaded
incrementally beyond the elastic limits of the material. Initially, yielding failure is usually restricted to
localised areas. But as the loading is increased, the
extent of the yielding spreads, deflections increased &
out of plane effects amplified and eventually this leads
to overall collapse.
Representative simplified deformations derived
from site survey measurements were applied to give
an initial out-of-straightness of the structure. The
measured top flange deformations are assumed to be
caused by the whole girder rotating about a line running along the girder at cross girder connection level. It
has been assumed that the relative rigidity of the whole
decking system will ensure that the bridge is largely
straight at deck level (due to access difficulties the bottom flange out-of-straightness was not measured in the
309
Geometrically non-linear analysis
survey). Against the underlying assumptions in current

codes for straightness and verticality, the distortion of
the two I-shape side main girders is quite significant.
2.8
Geometrically & materially non-linear analysis
Finally, a materially and geometrically non-linear

analysis was undertaken to investigate the combined
impact, and to establish the ultimate collapse strength
of the bridge and its failure mechanism, or demonstrate
adequate reserve capacity.
2.9
Definition of ULS and SLS limits
Figure 8.
In order to determine the structure capacity, both SLS

(Serviceability Limit State) and ULS (Ultimate Limit
State) criteria need to be considered.
The ULS limit is usually defined as the onset of collapse. If this has not occurred at a loading level well
above that required for the structure, then it is normal
practice on complex model to terminate the analysis
at this point since adequate ULS capacity has been
demonstrated and given the need to avoid unnecessary
time or cost. Because of the wrought iron and early
steel ductility, an ultimate strain limit (8%) was set up
as second controlling parameter of the ULS limit. For
critical individual elements, engineering judgment is
required to establish the point where localised deformations might begin to compromise the ability of the
structure to reach its full ultimate potential, such as
with the cross to main girder connections. A further
ULS limit is taken as substantial local yielding of the
element under consideration, defined here as when
roughly one third of the element cross section has
reached yield or starts to buckle.
The SLS limit is defined here as the point of first
significant yield equating to the onset of localised
plastic deformation or buckling.
Appropriate load factors are applied to calculate the
final ULS and SLS element capacities.
3
RESULTS
The following results were obtained from the analysis:

3.1
Load-displacement curve
Typical load-displacement curves are shown in

Figure 8 for the load case 3 (single track full span
loaded).
The curves show the effects from the support
arrangements and live load configurations. In general, it is clear that there is limited non-linearity
(both geometric and material) in the structures gross
behaviour under this loading magnitude. This trend
matches the contour plot which shows very little
and wholly localised yielding (material nonlinearity)/buckling (geometric nonlinearity) at or close to

the supports.
3.2 Impact of initial geometry out-of-straightness
As indicated, simplified deformations derived from
site surveys were applied to the initial model.
Results from the analyses with or without the out-of
straightness show very little difference as long as the
analysis itself (i.e. live load configuration, model mesh
and construction as well as the analysis type adopted)
are comparable.
The suspicion must be that the imperfection definitions for steel design may be more relevant to
thin-walled steel structures, which are more sensitive
to those initial geometric imperfections. But for heavy
civil structures such as bridges, they are less meaningful because of the relatively much thicker plates which
are more subject to yield of the material than buckling.
3.3 Sensitivity study of the connection
As one the most important concerns in the assessment of this bridge, the nominal vertical displacement
of the cross girder relative to the main girder bottom
flange was tabulated. This is to confirm if the loading
will generate compressive contact through the packers
allowing for the real gaps noted in a number of the
actual bridge connections.
Figure 9 shows the calculated relative gap between
the main girder and cross girder for all four rows
of connections by cross girder position. The relative
deformation in the diagram indicates a closing up
effect if the number is negative and a positive number shows an opening up effect. As can be seen, the
loaded part of the bridge shows a closing up of the gap
by at least 0.51 mm; and a maximum closing up of
5.9 mm in Case 3 and 2.1 mm in Case 4, exceeding
some of the site measured gaps.
With this initial reference case, a sensitivity study
was carried out to determine the effect of changing
310
Load-displacement curve.
Figure 9. Relative gap between main girder and cross girder

(west half loaded).
the derived component sub-model values in the main

model.
The equivalent member properties (for the end and
packer connections) were set at 12.5% and 400% of
their original values in different runs and in different
combinations. These large ranges had little effect on
the overall behaviour of the main bridge models, and
therefore these checks were considered sufficient to
justify the accuracy of the main model results (i.e. the
global results from the main model are generally sound
with/without the additional load path between the cross
girder and main girder bottom flanges).
The only exception to this is in the natural frequency
analysis results. There is around a 10% decrease when
the connection is stiffened compared with the standard
model, especially for the key first significant vertical
mode (the 60th one in the standard connection model,
but the 75th in the modified connection model), which
will be the one when the bridge is most substantially
excited by a passing train.
The back analyses of the sub-models under different
load cases show that the gap closing-up or openingup is not only location and gap size dependent but also
load case dependant. Without a proper connection, the
presence of the packers therefore has an unpredictable
effect on the structures local behaviour.
Results from the connection sub-model (with a fully
effective connection via the packer) using the loading
from one half span two tracks loaded case 4 are shown
in Figure 10.
Compared with the same model without packer support, the stress is significantly reduced and since the
connection is sufficient under certain load levels the
provision of the packer is beneficial in this regard
(however high local stresses in the main girder bottom
flange were conversely indicated in some cases).
Therefore, there are 3 different scenarios for load
transmission via the packing plates:
1. 100% effectivewhere there is full initial contact & compressive closing up loads.
Figure 10. Stress contour plot of main girder and cross

girder connection with packer support sub-model.
2. Partially effectivewhere there is an initial gap

between the cross girder and packing, which closes
up under the train loads and then transmits load.
3. Ineffectivewhere there is a larger gap such that
the closing effect under live loads is insufficient to
close the gap and allow load transmission, or where
the joint tends to open up.
It is of note that the current assessment rules are
generally based on ultimate checks. However whilst
this may demonstrate adequate strength, if there is
plastic deformation in the connection, this can potentially invalidate the conventional assumption on the
joints behaviour and therefore of the main girder
compression flange restraint.
In simply supported half-through bridges using

I-beams, the top flange, which is in compression, has
to be provided with lateral stability by some means.
As direct cross-bracing cannot normally be added due
to the conflict with the train paths (unless the girders are very deep), U-frames are normally used to
resist the potential for lateral torsional buckling of
the main girders. This is where the vertical stiffeners on two main girders, together with an attached
transverse cross girder which is part of, or attached
to, a continuous deck, forms a co-planar transverse
U shaped frame, which laterally restrains one main
girder compression flange relative to the other, and
via the deck relative to the adjacent U-frames. This is
a very important stability feature of the half-through
type bridge.
There obviously has to be a moment connection
between the cross-members and the main girders to
achieve this. Under railway loading, this connection can be subject to onerous loading, due to the
additional deflections/rotations from live loads on the
311
CONCLUSIONS
deck/transverse member of the U-frame, offset by the

ability of the main girder to rotate with the cross girder
ends at positions away from any rigid supports.
This compares to the use of box section main girders, which have high lateral and torsional stiffness,
but which can conversely suffer worse local moment
effects at the deck to main girder connection.
Whilst the original conventional U-frames were
destroyed on this bridge, it is clear that the load from
the end of the cross girder can still be transferred via
both the vertical end connections to the main girder
web and thence to nearby stiffeners, albeit with a lower
overall stiffness, and also via the packing plate between
the bottom flanges of main and cross girders. The latter
is subject to the cross girder being properly seated on
the packs in the dead and live load state. The degree of
load transmission via the packing plates will depend on
the relative deflection of the two members, as well as
what real gaps exist on the bridge. The original survey
showed a sizeable gap under at least one cross girder
end and smaller gaps under others as well as some local
deformation in the bottom flanges connections of the
outer main girders near the ends of the swing span.
There are also locationsalmost entirely on the centre
girder or on the unloaded side or on the unloaded parts
of the spanwhere the cross girder ends are likely to
open up and therefore not transmit load.
The Goole swing bridge features both U-frame
action, albeit via the weaker web panels, and with
deck continuity essentially limited to the rail-bearers
(and waybeams) as well as box girder stability (centre
main girder). In addition, it is a three span continuous
bridge with varying girder depth and sections, along
with an unusual central support arrangement which
staggers the support points to the centre and outer girders. Finally, the variable cross girder and main girder
connections also have their effect on the analyses.
The following conclusions arise from this study of
the bridge, some of which have potentially wider application to other half-through and box girder bridges:
The main girder out-of-straightness makes virtually
no difference to the results despite exceeding current tolerance limits. This raises questions about
the emphasis put on straightness and the use of the
particular forms of strut buckling criterion for compression flange assessment in current bridge design
and assessment codesit suggests, at least in the
particular circumstances and geometry herethat
there may be considerable conservatism in them.
Lack of proper co-planar U-frames does not lead
to compression flange instability here within a
load range going well beyond the line capacity
requirement. This is probably due to the torsional stiffness and stability provided by the center
box girders, the very heavy span end trimmer

girders stabilizing the outer girder ends, the reduced
main girder depths near the ends with correspondingly reduced U-frame moment arm height, and the
proximity and strength of the lateral bracing system formed by the center ring together with the
Helmsmans cabin support in the central hogging
region.
U-frame action in half-through bridge is potentially quite variable. It significantly depends on the
effectiveness of transferring the bending moment to
the cross girder via the connection between them.
The effect might be negligible if the cross girder
bending stiffness is far less than the main girder
connected part (i.e. very deep hog back main girder
to the shallow cross girder without enhanced connection details), or if local yield occurs in the
connection.
The cross girder to main girder connections here are
still significantly overstressed under the worst load
cases even with the packer support (which is not
assumed to have been the part of the original design
concept) and this unexpected load path appears to be
causing problems to the main girder bottom flange
in places. Hence one obvious remedy is to sufficiently strengthen the cross girder end connection
to carry the required loads without the unreliable
and problematic packers, and to remove the latter.
As a weakened (partial) U-frame type halfthrough bridge, additional transfer of load between
cross girder and main girder will increase loads on
the connection, but do little to improve the capacity
of the main girder. However modelling shows that
the effect here is not large.
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Engineers, London, England.
BSI. 2000. Steel, concrete and composite bridgesPart3:
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Bywell, E.M. 1907. Swing and other opening bridges
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ERRI. 1996. ERRI Report D181/RP6 for limiting lateral
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FEA. 2005a. LUSAS Modeller User Manual, FEA Ltd,
Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, UK, Version 13.413.7.
FEA. 2005b. LUSAS Modeller User Manual, FEA Ltd,
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Iron and Early Steels, BR research report LR MF 115.
312
Mechanics of debonding in FRP-plated RC beams

J.G. Teng
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
J.F. Chen
Institute for Infrastructure and Environment, The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
ABSTRACT: Both the flexural and shear strengths of Reinforced Concrete (RC) beams can be substantially increased using externally bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) reinforcement in the forms of
sheets/strips/plates (all referred to as plates for brevity). Failures of such FRP-plated RC beams often occur
by debonding of the FRP plate from the RC beam in a number of distinct modes. This paper provides a summary
of the current understanding of the mechanics of debonding failures in FRP-plated RC beams largely based
on the research of the authors and their co-workers. A systematic classification of possible debonding failure
modes is presented following a brief outline of the common strengthening methods. The interfacial stresses
and bond behaviour between FRP and concrete are then discussed before the mechanisms and processes of
debonding failures are examined. Furthermore, advanced strength models for the key debonding failure modes
are presented. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of future research needs.
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening reinforced concrete (RC) structures

with externally bonded fibre reinforced polymer
(FRP) composites has become a popular technique in
recent years (e.g. Teng et al. 2002a; Holaway & Teng
2008). The technique may be used to enhance the loadcarrying capacities of RC beams, slabs and columns
as well as the ductility of RC columns through lateral
confinement.
Both the flexural and shear strengths of RC beams
can be substantially increased using externally bonded
FRP reinforcement in the forms of sheets/strips/plates
(all referred to as plates hereafter unless specific
differentiation becomes necessary). Failures of such
FRP-strengthened RC beams (also referred to as FRPplated RC beams) often occur by debonding of the
FRP plate from the RC beam in a number of modes.
Despite numerous theoretical and experimental studies, the current knowledge of the mechanics of such
debonding failures is still far from complete.
This paper provides a summary of the authors
understanding of the subject largely based on the
research of the authors and their co-workers. Following a brief outline of the common methods for the
flexural and shear strengthening of RC beams using
FRP composites, the paper examines the following
issues in some detail: (a) interfacial stresses and bond
behaviour between FRP and concrete; (b) classification of debonding failure modes; (c) mechanisms and
Adhesive layer
Section A
Figure 1.
FRP Soffit plate
RC beam with an FRP plate bonded to its soffit.
processes of debonding failures; and (d) theoretical

models for debonding failures. The paper concludes
with a brief discussion of future research needs. For
simplicity, all discussions in this paper are presented
with explicit reference to a simply supported beam
(Fig. 1), but the information is also generally applicable to indeterminate beams by treating each segment
between two points of inflection as a simply-supported
beam.
COMMON METHODS FOR FLEXURAL

AND SHEAR STRENGTHENING
2.1 Flexural strengthening

FRP flexural strengthening of RC beams is commonly
achieved by bonding an FRP plate to its soffit (Fig. 1).
The FRP plate may be a prefabricated (e.g. pultruded)
plate or a plate formed on site in a wet lay-up process (Teng et al. 2002a). The strengthening plate is
313
RC beam
most commonly unstressed. However, the plate may be

pre-tensioned to achieve a fuller use of the tensile
strength of the FRP plate, to obtain a significant
increase in the stiffness of the beam, or to reduce the
widths of cracks in the beam. Anchors such as U jackets (e.g. Smith and Teng 2003) and fiber anchors (e.g.
Teng et al. 2000) may be provided to reduce the risk
of debonding failures. For simplicity of discussion,
this paper is focused on RC beams strengthened with
unstressed plates without additional anchors.
Existing research has shown that RC beams bonded
with a tension face plate often fail by debonding of the
FRP plate from the beam in one of several possible
modes (e.g. Teng et al. 2000, 2002a; Smith & Teng,

2002a, b; Lu et al. 2007; Yao & Teng 2007). Despite
extensive existing research, there is still considerable uncertainty regarding many aspects of debonding
failures, including the classification of debonding
failure modes.
2.2 Shear strengthening
The shear capacity of an RC beam can also be effectively enhanced using externally bonded FRP reinforcement in various forms (Fig. 2). These include
bonding FRP to the sides of a beam only (side
Fibre orientations and distributions
Bonding scheme and notation
= 90
SS90
< 180
< 180 ,
SS
< 180
US90
WS90
US
WS
SS
US
WS /
SP90
UP90
WP90
SP
UP
WP
= 90
= 90
< 180
h
< 180 , 0
Figure 2.
< 180
SP
UP
Shear strengthening schemes for RC beams using externally bonded FRP reinforcement.
314
WP /
bonding), bonding FRP U jackets to both the sides

and the soffit (U jacketing), and wrapping FRP around
the whole cross-section of a beam (complete wrapping). Both FRP strips and continuous sheets have
been used. The fibres may be orientated in such directions as to best control shear cracks. Furthermore,
fibres may be arranged at two different directions to
satisfy the requirement of shear strengthening in both
directions if the shear forces in a beam may be reversed
under reversed cyclic loading and earthquake attacks.
The use of fibres in two directions can obviously
be beneficial to shear resistance even if strengthening for reversed cyclic loading is not required. In
this sense, FRPs with fibres in three directions (e.g.
0 /60 /120 ) may also be used. The combination of
different bonding configurations, fibre orientations
and fibre distributions can result in many different
strengthening schemes (Fig. 2). For both side bonding
and U jacketing, mechanical anchors may be required
at the free ends of FRP strips/sheets.
Debonding of FRP from concrete occurs in
almost all RC beams shear-strengthened with FRP
(Chen & Teng 2003a, b; Cao et al. 2005) although

in the case of complete wraps, debonding does
not directly control the ultimate load (Cao et al.
2005).
3
INTERFACIAL STRESSES
In an FRP-plated beam, high interfacial stresses exist

between the FRP plate and the RC beam near the
plate ends (e.g. Smith & Teng 2001). The two main
components of interfacial stresses are the interfacial
shear stress and the interfacial normal stress y
(Fig. 3). These high interfacial stresses play an important role in some of the debonding failure modes
including the modes of concrete cover separation and
plate end interfacial debonding which are discussed in
more detail later. Obviously, higher interfacial stresses
mean a greater risk of debonding failure at a plate end
although it is difficult to relate the magnitude of interfacial stresses to debonding failure in a simple direct
manner.
Concrete element
RC
beam
Adhesive layer
Soffit plate
Figure 3.
Stresses acting on a concrete element adjacent to the plate end.
Stress (MPa)
6
5
Shear stress
4
Normal stress
3
2
1
0
-1 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Distance from the plate end (mm)

Figure 4.
Typical interfacial shear and normal stress distributions.
315
700
800
900
Many analytical solutions have been presented for

interfacial stresses in FRP-plated beams, with most of
them being concerned with linear elastic FRP-plated
beams. A simple analytical solution for interfacial
stresses in such beams has been presented by Smith &
Teng (2001). Interfacial stresses predicted by finite
element analysis show a much more complex picture
(Teng et al. 2002b), but results from the simple analytical solution of Smith & Teng (2001), as shown in
Figure 4 for a typical case, are sufficient to illustrate
the stress concentration phenomenon in the vicinity of
the plate end. Figure 4 shows that near the plate end,
both the interfacial shear and normal stresses increase
rapidly. For a given simply-supported beam under
transverse loading, the magnitudes of these stresses
increase with the distance between the support and the
plate end, with both the elastic modulus and the thickness of the plate, and with the elastic modulus of the
adhesive layer, but decrease as the thickness of the
adhesive layer increases (Shen et al. 2001; Teng et al.
2002b; Yang et al. 2004).
4
BOND BEHAVIOUR
4.1
General
A good understanding of the bond behaviour between

the FRP plate and the substrate concrete is of great
importance for understanding and predicting debonding failures in FRP-plated RC beams. Bond behaviour
between FRP and concrete has been widely studied
experimentally using simple pull-off tests or using
theoretical/finite element models (e.g. Chen & Teng
2001; Yuan et al. 2004; Yao et al. 2005). Figure 5
shows the schematic of the widely used simple pull-off
test. A more detailed discussion on the bond strength
test methods can be found in Chen et al. (2001). The
discussions presented below use the simple pull-off
test (Fig. 5) as the reference case.
Bonded plate
Concrete
L
a) Elevation
bfrp
P
L
b) Plan
Figure 5.
Schematic of a simple pull-off test.
bc
4.2 Bond strength

The ultimate tensile force that can be resisted by the
FRP plate in a simple puff-off test before the FRP
plate debonds from the concrete prism is referred to
as the ultimate load or the bond strength. The bond
strength is defined herein using the tensile force (or the
tensile stress) in the plate instead of the average interfacial shear stress because the latter can be conceptually
misleading. Existing research has shown conclusively
(e.g. Chen & Teng 2001; Yuan et al. 2004; Yao et al.
2005) that the ultimate load of a pull-off test initially
increases as the bond length increases, but when the
bond length reaches a threshold value, any further
increase in the bond length does not lead to a further increase in the ultimate load. Therefore, when a
long bond length is used, only part of the bond length
is mobilized in resisting the ultimate load, so the use
of an average interfacial stress referring to the entire
bond length is inappropriate. This threshold value of
the bond length is referred to as the effective bond
length (Chen & Teng 2001).
The fact that the bond strength cannot increase
further once the bond length exceeds the effective
bond length means that the ultimate tensile strength
of an FRP plate may never be reached in a pull-off
test, however long the bond length is. A longer bond
length, however, can improve the ductility of the failure process (Yuan et al. 2004; Yao et al. 2005). In
most tests on FRP-to-concrete bonded joints, failure
occurred by crack propagation in the concrete adjacent
to the adhesive-to-concrete interface, starting from
the loaded end of the plate. This phenomenon is substantially different from the bond behavior of internal
reinforcement, for which a bond length can always
be designed for its full tensile strength if an adequate
concrete cover can be provided.
Many theoretical models have been developed to
predict the bond strength of FRP-to-concrete bonded
joints (Chen & Teng 2001; Lu et al. 2005a). Among the
existing bond strength models, the model developed
by Chen & Teng (2001) has recently been confirmed
by Lu et al. (2005a) to provide the most accurate predictions of test results. Chen & Tengs (2001) bond
strength model predicts that the stress in the bonded
plate in MPa, to cause debonding failure in a simple
pull-off test is given by

Efrp fc
p = w L
(1)
tfrp
where the FRP-to-concrete width ratio factor is
given by

2 bfrp /bc
w =
(2)
1 + bfrp /bc
316
and the bond length factor is given by
L =
sin
2Le
the following equations:
if L Le
(3)
if L < Le
=0
with the effective bond length being defined by

Le =
(4)
Bond-slip behaviour
For the accurate prediction of debonding failures in

FRP-plated RC beams, the bond-slip behaviour of
FRP-to-concrete interfaces needs to be understood
and accurately modelled. Both experimental and theoretical studies have been undertaken on the FRP-toconcrete bond slip behaviour (e.g. Yao et al. 2005; Lu
et al. 2005b). Lu et al. (2005a) conducted a thorough
review of bond-slip models and then proposed a set of
three bond-slip models of different levels of sophistication based on a combination of experimental data
and meso-scale finite element simulations: the precise
model, the simplified model and the bilinear model
(Fig. 6). The bilinear model is the easiest to implement, without a significant loss of accuracy compared
to the precise and simplified models and is defined by
Bilinear model
max
Simplified model
Precise model
s0
Figure 6.
if s > sf
(5a)
(5b)
(5c)
where
Efrp tfrp

fc
in which Efrp , tfrp and bfrp are the elastic modulus

(MPa), thickness (mm) and width (mm) of the FRP
plate respectively, fc and bc are the concrete cylinder
compressive strength (MPa) and width (mm) of the
concrete prism respectively, and L is the bond length
(mm). A value of 0.427 for was found by Chen &
Teng (2001) to provide the best fit of the test data
gathered by them, while a value of 0.315 was shown
by them to provide a 95 percentile lower bound which
is suitable for use in ultimate limit state design.
4.3
s
if s s0
s0
sf s
if s0 < s sf
= max
sf s0
= max
sf
Lu et al.s bond-slip models.
sf = 2Gf /max
In the above equations,

max = 1.5w ft , s0 =
0.0195w ft , Gf = 0.308w2 ft , s (mm) is the local
slip, s0 (mm) the local slip at the maximum local bond
stress max (MPa), and sf (mm) the local slip when
the local bond stress (MPa) reduces to zero. The
interfacial fracture energy is denoted by Gf (MPa.
mm), and ft is the concrete tensile strength (MPa).
It should be noted that in Lu et al.s (2005a) original
model, a slightly different expression was proposed
for the width ratio factor w , but the expression given
by Eq. 2 can be used in the above equations without
any significant loss of accuracy.
5
DEBONDING FAILURE MODES

OF FLEXURALLY-STRENGTHENED
RC BEAMS
5.1 Classification of failure modes

A number of distinct failure modes of FRP-plated
RC beams have been observed in numerous experimental studies (Teng et al. 2002a; Buyukozturk et al.
2004; Oehlers & Seracino 2004; Yao & Teng 2007).
A schematic representation of these failure modes is
shown in Figures 7 and 8. Failure of an FRP-plated
RC beam may be by the flexural failure of the critical section (Fig. 7) or by debonding of the FRP plate
from the RC beam (Fig. 8). In the former type of failure, the composite action between the bonded plate
and the RC beam is maintained up to failure, while the
latter type of failure involves a loss of this composite action. Debonding failures generally occur in the
concrete, which is also assumed in the strength models
presented in this paper. This is because, with the strong
adhesives currently available and with appropriate surface preparation for the concrete substrate, debonding
failures along the physical interfaces between the
adhesive and the concrete and between the adhesive
and the FRP plate are generally not critical.
Debonding may initiate at a flexural or flexuralshear crack in the high moment region and then
propagates towards one of the plate ends (Fig. 8a).
This debonding failure mode is commonly referred to
317
(6)
FRP Rupture
a) FRP rupture
Concrete Crushing
(5
(5b)
b) Crushing of compressive concrete

Figure 7. Conventional flexural failure modes of an FRPplated RC beam.
as intermediate crack (IC) induced interfacial debonding (or simply IC debonding) (Teng et al. 2002a, 2003;
Chen et al. 2006; Lu et al. 2007). Debonding may also
occur at or near a plate end (i.e. plate end debonding
failures) in four different modes: (a) critical diagonal
crack (CDC) debonding (Fig. 8b) (Oehlers & Seracino
2004), (b) CDC debonding with concrete cover separation (Fig. 8c) (Yao & Teng 2007), (c) concrete cover
separation (Figs 8e and 8d) (Teng et al. 2002a), and (d)
plate end interfacial debonding (Fig. 8f) (Teng et al.
2002a). Based on the understanding gained from the
existing studies, a simple description is given below
for each of the distinct debonding failure modes.
5.2 IC debonding
When a major flexural or flexural-shear crack is
formed in the concrete, the need to accommodate the
large local strain concentration at the crack leads to
immediate but very localized debonding of the FRP
plate from the concrete in the close vicinity of the
crack, but this localized debonding is not yet able to
propagate. The tensile stresses released by the cracked
concrete are transferred to the FRP plate and steel
rebars, so high local interfacial stresses between the
FRP plate and the concrete are induced near the crack.
As the applied loading further increases, the tensile
stresses in the plate and hence the interfacial stresses
between the FRP plate and the concrete near the crack
also increase. When these stresses reach critical values, debonding starts to propagate towards one of the
plate ends, generally the nearer end where the stress
gradient in the plate is higher.
A typical picture of flexural crack-induced debonding is shown in Figure 9, which shows that a thin layer
of concrete remained attached to the plate suggesting that failure occurred in the concrete adjacent to
the adhesive-to-concrete interface. IC debonding failures are more likely to occur in shallow beams and
are, in general, more ductile than plate end debonding
failures.
Flexural
crack
Debonding
a) IC debonding
Debonding
Critical diagonal crack
b) CDC debonding
Debonding
Debonding
c) CDC debonding with concrete cover separation
Debonding
d) Concrete cover separation
Debonding
Debonding
e) Concrete cover separation under pure bending
Debonding
f) Plate end interfacial debonding
Figure 8. Debonding failure modes of RC beams bonded

with a soffit FRP plate.
Figure 9.
318
FRP-plated RC beam: IC debonding.
Figure 10.
5.3
FRP-plated RC beam: concrete cover separation.

Figure 11. FRP-plated RC beam: plate end interfacial
debonding.
Concrete cover separation
Concrete cover separation involves crack propagation

along the level of the steel tension reinforcement. Failure of the concrete cover is initiated by the formation of
a crack near the plate end. The crack propagates to and
then along the level of the steel tension reinforcement,
resulting in the separation of the concrete cover. As
the failure occurs away from the bondline, this is not
a debonding failure mode in strict terms, although it
is closely associated with stress concentration near the
ends of the bonded plate. A typical picture of a cover
separation failure is shown in Figure 10. The cover
separation failure mode is a rather brittle failure mode.
5.4
Plate-end interfacial debonding
A debonding failure of this form is initiated by high

interfacial shear and normal stresses near the end of the
plate that exceed the strength of the weakest element,
generally the concrete. Debonding initiates at the plate
end and propagates towards the middle of the beam
(Figs. 8f, 11). This failure mode is only likely to occur
when the plate is significantly narrower than the beam
section, as otherwise, failure tends to be by concrete
cover separation (i.e. the steel bars-concrete interface
controls the failure instead).
5.5
CDC debonding
This mode of debonding failure occurs in flexurallystrengthened beams where the plate end is located in a
zone of high shear force but low moment (e.g. a plate
end near the support of a simply-supported beam) and
the amount of steel shear reinforcement is limited.
In such beams, a major diagonal shear crack (critical diagonal crack, or CDC) forms and intersects the
FRP plate, generally near the plate end. As the crack
widens, high interfacial stresses between the plate and
the concrete are induced, leading to the eventual failure
Figure 12.
of the beam by debonding of the plate from the concrete; the debonding crack propagates from the CDC
towards the plate end (Fig. 12).
In a beam with a larger amount of steel shear reinforcement, multiple shear cracks of smaller widths
instead of a single major shear crack dominate the
behaviour, so CDC debonding is much less likely.
Instead, cover separation takes over as the controlling
debonding failure mode. In other cases, particularly
when the plate end is very close to the zero-moment
location, CDC debonding leads only to the local
detachment of the plate end, but the beam is able
to resist higher loads until cover separation occurs
(Fig. 8c). The local detachment due to CDC debonding
effectively moves the plate end to a new location with
a larger moment, and cover separation then starts from
this new end. The CDC failure mode is thus related
to the cover separation failure mode. If a flexurallystrengthened beam is also shear-strengthened with
U-jackets to ensure that the shear strength remains
319
FRP-plated RC beam: CDC debonding.
greater than the flexural strength, the CDC debonding

failure mode may be effectively suppressed.
DEBONDING FAILURE MODES

OF SHEAR-STRENGTHENED RC BEAMS
The shear failure process of FRP-strengthened RC

beams involves the development of either a single
major diagonal shear crack or a number of diagonal
shear cracks, similar to normal RC beams without
FRP strengthening (Chen & Teng 2003a, b). For ease
of description, the existence of a single major diagonal
shear crack (the critical shear crack) is assumed whenever necessary. This treatment is conservative because
recent research has shown that the existence of multiple cracks is beneficial for the development of the
maximum debonding stress in the FRP (Teng et al.
2006; Chen et al. 2007). Eventual failure of almost
all test beams occurred in one of the two main failure
modes: tensile rupture of the FRP and debonding of
the FRP from the concrete. The FRP rupture failure
mode has been observed in almost all tests on beams
with complete FRP wraps and in some tests on beams
with FRP U-jackets, while the debonding failure mode
has been observed in almost all tests on beams with
FRP side strips and most tests on beams with FRP
U-jackets. Generally, both failure modes start with a
debonding propagation process from the critical shear
crack. Tensile rupture starts in the most highly-stressed
FRP strip, followed rapidly by the rupture of other
FRP strips intersected by the critical shear crack. In
beams with complete FRP wraps, it is also common
that many of the FRP strips intersected by the critical shear crack have debonded from the sides over the
full height of the beam before tensile rupture failure
occurs. In beams whose failure is by debonding of the
FRP from the RC beam, failure involves a process of
sequential debonding of FRP strips starting from the
most vulnerable strip (Fig. 13).
Figure 13.
U-jackets.
FRP-plated RC beams: debonding of FRP
The risk of debonding is increased by a number of

factors associated with the quality of on-site application. These include poor workmanship and the use of
inferior adhesives. The effects of these factors can be
minimized if due care is exercised in the application
process to ensure that debonding failure is controlled
by concrete. In addition, small unevenness of the concrete surface may cause localized debonding of the
FRP plate but it is unlikely that such small unevenness
can lead to the complete separation of the FRP plate
from the concrete member. Mechanical anchors and
FRP U-jackets can be used in soffit plated beams to
prevent plate end debonding. The latter may be used
for shear strengthening at the same time. For beams
shear strengthened with FRP U-jackets and side strips,
mechanical anchors can also be used to suppress FRP
debonding failure so that the failure mode is changed
from debonding to rupture. However, care needs to be
excised to avoid local failure adjacent to the anchors.
DEBONDING STRENGTH MODELS

FOR FLEXURALLY-STRENGTHENED
RC BEAMS
8.1 Plate end debonding

Many factors control the likeliness of a particular plate
end debonding failure mode for a given plated RC
beam. For example, for an RC beam with a relatively
low level of internal steel shear reinforcement, each of
the plate end debonding modes (Fig. 8) may become
critical when the plate length or width is varied. When
the distance between a plate end and the adjacent beam
support (plate end distance) is very small, a CDC may
form, causing a CDC debonding failure of the beam
(Fig. 8b). If the plate end distance is increased, the
CDC may fall outside the plated region, and only concrete cover separation is observed (Fig. 8d). Between
these two modes, CDC debonding followed by concrete cover separation (Fig. 8c) may occur; this mode
is critical if the CDC debonding failure load is lower
than the shear resistance of the original RC beam as
well as the cover separation failure load so that the load
can still be increased following CDC debonding. As
the plate end moves further away from the support, the
cover separation mode remains the controlling mode,
and the plate end crack that appears prior to crack propagation along the level of steel tension reinforcement
becomes increasingly vertical (Smith & Teng 2003).
For the extreme case of a plate end in the pure bending region, the plate end crack is basically vertical
(Fig. 8e). For any given plate end position, if the plate
width is sufficiently small compared with that of the
RC beam, the interface between the soffit plate and
320
OTHER ASPECTS OF DEBONDING
the RC beam becomes a more critical plane than the

interface between the steel tension bars and the concrete, and plate end interfacial debonding (Fig. 8f)
becomes the critical mode. However, this mode rarely
occurs when the RC beam and the bonded plate have
similar widths.
Given the large variety of parameters that govern plate end debonding failures, the development of
a reliable strength model is not a simple task. The
recent model by Teng & Yao (2007) is the only model
that appears to cover all the variations in plate end
debonding failure modes. The model caters for any
combination of plate end moment and shear force via
the following interaction curve:
Vdb,end
Vdb,s
2
+
Mdb,end
Mdb,f
2
= 1.0
(7)
where Vdb,end and Mdb,end are the plate end shear force
and the plate end moment at debonding respectively,
Mdb,f is the flexural debonding moment, and Vdb,s is
the shear debonding force.
The flexural debonding moment, which is the
bending moment that causes debonding of a plate
end located in the pure bending zone of a beam, is
found from
Mdb,f =
where Asv , Esv and sv are the total cross-sectional area

of the two legs of each stirrup, the elastic modulus and
the longitudinal spacing of the stirrups respectively. In
Eq. 10, v,e is the strain in the steel shear reinforcement, referred to here as the effective strain, and this
effective strain may be well below the yield strain of
the steel shear reinforcement y . It should be noted
that the bonded soffit plate also makes a small contribution to the shear debonding force Vdb,s but this
contribution is small and is ignored in this debonding
strength model.
Based on available test results, Teng & Yao (2007)
proposed that
v,e =
10
(flex E t w )1/2
(12)
where flex and w are given by Eqs. 9a and c respectively, while the other two dimensionless parameters
are defined by
(13a)
and
flex = [(EI )c,frp (EI )c,0 ]/(EI )c,0
(9a)
axial = Efrp tfrp /(Ec d)
(9b)
w = bc /bfrp ,
(9c)
bc /bfrp 3
where (EI )c,frp and (EI )c,0 are the flexural rigidities
of the cracked section with and without an FRP plate
respectively; Efrp tfrp is the axial rigidity per unit width
of the FRP plate; Ec is the elastic modulus of concrete,
bc and d are the width and effective depth of the RC
beam respectively; and Mu,0 is the theoretical ultimate
moment of the unplated section which is also the upper
bound of the flexural debonding moment Mdb,f .
The shear debonding force Vdb,s , which is the shear
force causing debonding of a plate end located in a
region of (nearly) zero moment, can be found from
fy
Es
(10)
where Vc and v,e V s are the contributions of the concrete and the internal steel shear reinforcement to the
shear capacity of the beam respectively, and V s is the

1.3
t = tfrp /d
(13b)
For the prediction of Vc in design, the design formula

in any national code may be used.
8.2 IC debonding
Two simple and reliable IC debonding strength models have been developed by Teng et al. (2003) and Lu
et al. (2007). The first model (Teng et al. 2003) is a
simple modification of the bond strength model developed by Chen & Teng (2001). Lu et al.s (2007) model
is based the results of an extensive finite element study
in which the simplified bond-slip model of Lu et al.
(2005a) was used. Chen et al. (2006) explored an alternative approach that is based on rigorous analytical
work on the behaviour of the FRP-to-concrete interfaces between two adjacent cracks (Teng et al. 2006;
Chen et al. 2007). Chen et al.s (2006) approach therefore has the most sound mechanics basis and is more
versatile (e.g. it is applicable to all loading conditions).
Preliminary research presented in Chen et al. (2006)
has shown this model to be promising, and further
work is in progress.
All the three models mentioned above predict a
stress or strain value in the FRP plate at which IC
321
(11)
(8)
where flex , axial and w are three dimensionless

parameters defined by
with v,e y =
V s = Asv Esv de /sv
E = Efrp /Ec
0.488Mu,0
Mu,0
(flex axial w )1/9
Vdb,s = Vc + v,e V s
shear force carried by the steel shear reinforcement per

unit strain, i.e.
debonding is expected to occur. According to Lu et al.s

(2007) model, this debonding stress is given by

dbic = 0.114(4.41 )max
Efrp
tfrp
the following form:

Vu = Vc + Vs + Vfrp
where Vc is the contribution of concrete, Vs is the contribution of steel stirrups and bent-up bars and Vfrp is
the contribution of FRP. Vc and Vs may be calculated
according to provisions in existing design codes. The
contribution of FRP is found by truss analogy, similar
to the determination of the contribution of steel shear
reinforcement. Two parameters are important in determining the FRP contribution: the shear crack angle
which is generally assumed to be 45 for design use
and the average stress (or effective stress) in the FRP
strips intersected by the critical shear crack. Different
models differ mainly in the definition of this effective
stress. It may be noted that the design code approach
neglects the interactions between the external FRP and
internal steel stirrups and concrete. The validity of this
assumption has been questioned by several researchers
(e.g. Teng et al. 2002; Denton et al. 2004; Qu et al.
2005; Mohamed Ali et al. 2006), but the approach is
the least involved for design, most mature and appears
to be conservative for design in general. The most
advanced model for FRP debonding failure following
the design code approach is probably that developed
by Chen & Teng (2003b) which employed an accurate
bond strength model (Chen & Teng 2001), leading to
accurate predictions.
According to Chen & Teng (2003b), the contribution of the FRP to the shear strength of the RC beam
for a general strengthening scheme with FRP strips
of the same width bonded on both sides of the beam
(Fig. 14) and with an assumed critical shear crack angle
of = 45 , is given by
(14)
max = 1.5w ft
(15a)
= 3.41Lee /Ld
(15b)
where Ld (mm) is the distance from the loaded section

to the end of the FRP plate while Lee (mm) is given by

Lee = 0.228 Efrp tfrp
(16)
Again, Lu et al. (2007) adopted a slightly different

expression from that defined by Eq. 2 for the width
ratio factor w , but the expression given by Eq. 2 can
be used in this model without any significant loss of
accuracy.
DEBONDING STRENGTH MODELS

FOR SHEAR-STRENGTHENED RC BEAMS
Several approaches have been used to predict the

shear strength of FRP-strengthened RC beams. These
include the modified shear friction method, the compression field theory, various truss models and the
design code approach (Teng et al. 2004). However,
the vast majority of existing research has adopted the
design code approach which is discussed below. The
total shear resistance of FRP-strengthened RC beams
in this approach is commonly assumed to be equal to
the sum of the three components from concrete, internal steel shear reinforcement and external FRP shear
reinforcement respectively. Consequently, the shear
strength of an FRP-strengthened beam Vu is given in
dfrp,t
0.9d
Vfrp = 2ffrp,e tfrp wfrp
dfrp
Tf
zb
d
z
bw
Figure 14.
A general shear strengthening scheme.
322
(18)
bf
zt
hfrp,e
hfrp,e (sin + cos )

sfrp
where ffrp,e is the average stress of the FRP intersected

by the shear crack at the ultimate limit state, wfrp is the
Shear crack tip
0.1d
(17)
width of each individual FRP strip (perpendicular to

the fibre orientation), sfrp is the horizontal spacing of
FRP strips (i.e. the centre-to-centre distance of FRP
strips along the longitudinal axis of the beam), is
the angle of the inclination of fibres in the FRP to the
longitudinal axis of the beam (measured clockwise for
the left side of the beam as shown in Fig. 2), and hfrp,e
is the effective height of the FRP bonded on the web:
hfrp,e = zb zt
(19)
at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the beam, the

expressions for L and w are re-written as
L =
if 1
sin if < 1
2
.
wfrp
/
/ 2 sfrp sin
2
w = 0
wfrp
2
1 + s sin
(24a)
(24b)
frp
where zt and zb are the coordinates of the top and the

bottom ends of the effective FRP (Fig. 14):
zt = dfrp,t
(20a)
zb = 0.9d (h dfrp )
(20b)
in which dfrp,t is the distance from the compression

face to the top end of the FRP (thus dfrp,t = 0 for
complete wrapping), h is the height of the beam, and
dfrp is the distance from the compression face to the
lower end of the FRP. When FRP is bonded to the full
height of the beam sides, Eq. 19 reduces to hfrp,e =
0.9 d as zt = 0 and zb = 0.9 d.
The FRP stress distribution at debonding failure is
non-uniform chiefly because the bond lengths of the
FRP strips vary with the vertical position of the critical
shear crack at a given section. Chen & Teng (2003b)
expressed the average (or effective) stress in the
FRP along the critical crack ffrp,e at the ultimate limit
state as
ffrp,e = Dfrp frp,max
(21)
in which frp,max is the maximum stress that can be

reached in the FRP intersected by the critical shear
crack and Dfrp is the stress distribution factor:
frp,max
Dfrp
ffrp

= min
Efrp
f
w L
tfrp c
2 1 cos 2
sin 2
=
1 2

Note that wfrp / sfrp sin is less than 1 for FRP strips
with gaps. It becomes 1 when no gap exists between
FRP strips and for continuous
sheets or plates, yielding
the lower limit value of 2/2 for w . The normalised
maximum bond length and the maximum bond
length Lmax of the FRP strips are given by
Lmax
Le
hfrp,e
sin
Lmax =
h
frp,e
2 sin
for U jackets
(25b)
for side plates
where the effective bond length Le of the FRP strips is

defined by Eq. 4. The number 2 appears in the denominator for side plates in Eq. 25b because the FRP strip
with the maximum bond length appears at the lower
end of the critical shear crack for U-jacketing but at
the middle for side bonding. Equation 23 is applicable
to both U-jackets and side strips. The actual calculated values are different for these two cases even if
the configuration of the bonded FRP is the same on
the beam sides because the maximum bond length Lmax
for U-jackets is twice that for side strips (see Eq. 25b).
10
CONCLUDING REMARKS
(22)
if 1
(23)
if > 1
where the coefficient has the best fit value of 0.427

and the 95 percentile characteristic value of 0.315 for
design based on Chen & Tengs (2001) bond strength
model, and L and w are as defined by Eqs. 2 and 3.
For a shear strengthened beam with the fibres being
This paper has been concerned with the mechanics

of debonding failures in RC beams strengthened in
either flexure or shear with externally bonded FRP
reinforcement. A systematic classification of possible debonding failure modes has been presented. The
mechanisms and processes of the different debonding failure modes have been examined. Furthermore,
advanced strength models for the key debonding failure modes have been summarised. The materials
presented in this paper may be directly applied in
the practical design of FRP strengthening systems for
RC beams and serve as a useful basis for the future
development of design provisions in design codes and
guidelines.
323
(25a)
Despite the extensive existing research, many issues

remain to be clarified. Within the context of monotonic loading and short-term behaviour, the existing theoretical debonding strength models require
further improvements and the effects of preloading,
load distributions, pre-tensioning of the FRP plate,
and anchorage measures require a great deal of further
research. Beyond the confinement of monotonic loading and short-term behaviour, major issues that call
for further research include debonding under cyclic
and dynamic loading as wellas long-term durability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Both authors undertook their PhD studies under the
supervision of Professor John Michael Rotter. They
would like to thank Professor Rotter for his enlightening guidance during their PhD studies and for his
friendship and unfailing support over all these years.
The authors are indebted to their students and
collaborators for their contributions to the research
summarised here. They would also like to gratefully
acknowledge the financial support provided by the
Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, the Natural Science Foundation of China,
and the Royal Society in the UK.
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325
Bulk solids flow and loading
Structures and Granular Solids Chen et al. (eds)

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47594-5
Modelling granular materials: discontinuum continuum

David Muir Wood
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
ABSTRACT: Examples are presented of aspects of the mechanical behaviour of granular materials which need
to be described at the continuum level but which are clearly strongly controlled by the particulate nature of the
material. These include: stiffness at zero and small strains, asymptotic states, effects of particle breakage, and
intermediate scales. Asymptotic critical states in which shearing continues without further change in stresses
or density play a central role in many constitutive models. However, such asymptotic states may not be easily
observed in practice. Laboratory tests combined with discrete element modelling show the effects of journeys
towards the critical state and show that parameters such as grading and density are still changing slowly at very
large strains. Rotation of principal axes is destabilising for the fabric of granular materials and also influences
the way in which patterns of localisation form. Acceptance of the particle:continuum duality is essential for the
development of models of these materials.
INTRODUCTION: PARTICLE-CONTINUUM
DUALITY
The fabric of a granular material includes various elements (Oda and Iwashita, 1999): the orientation fabric
(orientation of non-spherical particles); the void fabric
(size and orientation of voids); and the multigrain fabric (interaction between neighbouring particles). The
multigrain fabric combines the geometric fabric which
describes the orientation of contacts, and the kinetic
fabric (Chen et al., 1988) which describes how these
contacts are actually being used to carry forces through
the soil. Evidently the same orientation and geometric
fabrics can carry many different external loads and,
as a corollary, kinetic fabric can change very much
more rapidly than orientation fabric which requires
significant particle rotation and relative movement.
The structure or fabric of a granular material is a
product of its history. Knowledge of this fabric is a
fundamental element of the ability to model subsequent mechanical response. Processes of transport and
deposition will influence both the nature of the soil particlesone may contrast the range of particle sizes that
can be moved by air, water, ice and the effect that such
transport may have on the particle shapeand the way
in which they are initially arrangedthe depositional
order of a sedimentary material will be quite different
from the residual disorder of a glacial material. The
life cycle of granular materials (Muir Wood, 1998) in
Fig. 2 suggests that there is a broad link between porosity (or density) and velocity of flow and the stage in the
cycle, which may repeat as soils are eroded or liquefy
and are then redeposited.
The objective of constitutive modelling is to be able

to describe the response of materials to changes in
stresses and strains without constraint as to the history
or perturbations that may be imposed. The challenge in
developing continuum models for numerical analysis
of geotechnical systems is to find ways of incorporating the complex phenomena which emerge from the
interaction of individual particles: we have to confront
the particle-continuum duality of soils (Fig. 1).
Figure 1.
Particle-continuum duality of soils.
21
FABRIC
disperse/dilute
transport/flow
porosity/
velocity
dense flow
dense inertial flow
failure/localisation
sedimentation
deposition
large irrecoverable
deformations
structure
stiffness
STASIS
Figure 2.
FLOW
small recoverable
deformations
Life cycle of granular materials.
Figure 4. Network of chains of contact forces determined

from photoelastic experiments on assembly of circular discs
(from Drescher & De Josselin de Jong, 1972).
rotate will be very damaging and, by implication, we

can expect that testing with fixed principal axes in triaxial, biaxial, true triaxial apparatus will only explore
a rather stable region of constitutive response.
Figure 3. Photoelastic picture of random assembly of circular discs (from Drescher & De Josselin de Jong, 1972).
Sands both in nature and in the laboratory are prepared in a gravitational field: pluviation usually gives
the most satisfactorily uniform and reproducible samples. The direction of gravity imposes a preferred
direction on the sand and the fabric and any properties that are dependent on that fabric will possess an
anisotropy having a vertical axis of symmetry. The
current fabricwhich will usually mean the depositional fabric since it is quite difficult to disrupt
this unless serious deformation and flow are developingwill be anisotropic and will influence the
mechanical propertiesespecially stiffness. Laboratory geophysics provides an experimental technique
by which detailed information about the stiffness of
soils at zero strain or constant fabric can be determined using dynamic measurements and inferences
about changing fabric anisotropy can be extracted
from associated deductions of stiffness anisotropy.
Piezoceramic bender/extender elements (Fig. 5)
(Lings & Greening, 2001) have been used in element tests to supply a small strain pulse at one side
of the sample and to receive a corresponding signal
at the other side (for example, elements in opposite
boundaries of a cubical cell, multiaxial test apparatus are shown in Fig. 6). Provided the wavelength of
Although some information about particle arrangement can be obtained from freezing and sectioning
samples (or some equivalent technique), information
about the contact forces has to be inferred indirectly.
Figure 3 shows an assembly of photoelastic particles subjected to boundary stresses. The darkness of
the colour within any one particle is an indication
of the local stress. Figure 4 extracts the magnitude
of the contact force between each pair of particlesthe
thicker the line the greater the force. Some particles are
heavily loaded; others are not loaded at all. Granular
materials are born free but are everywhere in chains.
Such chains of force carrying contacts are also typical
of numerical modelling of particulate assemblies.
The chains or columns of particles which are taking
most of the load tend to be broadly aligned with the
direction of the major principal stress. Such a strongly
loaded column of particles is susceptible to buckling with the forces provided by the adjacent particles
unable to do much to prevent the collapse (Fig. 20).
Buckling leads to rearrangement and irrecoverable
deformation. Buckling of such a column will be exacerbated by the application of lateral forces at the
endsany attempt by the major principal stress to
22
DEPOSITIONAL ANISOTROPY
AND ZERO STRAIN STIFFNESS
bender element
shear waves
extender element
compression waves
Figure 5. Piezoelectric bender and extender elements for

generation of shear waves and compression waves.
Pluviation
direction
Shv
Figure 7. Experimental observation of motion at bender element receiver for wave propagation through sand in cubical
cell (Sadek, 2006).
Shh
z
y
direction than in the vertical direction for these zero

strain dynamic probes (see also Yimsiri and Soga,
2002).
Figure 6. Bender elements mounted through membrane on

two opposite faces of Cubical Cell (Sadek, 2006).
4
the dynamic perturbation is sufficiently large by comparison with the particle size then the propagation
parameters can be defined for the equivalent continuum (Santamarina & Cascante, 1996). Shear or
compression wave velocities for different directions
of propagation and polarisation can be converted into
corresponding stiffnesses for this continuum.
The challenge of bender testing is always to deduce
the arrival time from the received waveform which
is always considerably more complex than the input
signal (Fig. 7) because of a combination of effects of
dispersion (frequency dependent wave velocity) and
boundary reflection and conversion of shear wave into
faster compression wave energy (Arroyo et al., 2006).
For samples of Hostun sand prepared by pluviation
and subjected to isotropic pressure up to 300 kPa in the
cubical cell, the shear wave velocity for waves propagating horizontally is consistently about 10% higher
for waves polarised horizontally than that for waves
with vertical polarisation, implying a ratio of corresponding shear moduli of about 1.2 (Sadek, 2006). For
compression waves the ratio of velocities for waves
travelling in the horizontal and vertical directions is
on average about 1.17. These observations show consistently that the sand appears stiffer in the horizontal
From a given initial stress state, a series of strain

probes, having identical normalised magnitude, is
applied to the soil. The curve joining all the resulting stress increments from the common initial stress
forms a stress response envelope for that particular strain magnitude (Gudehus, 1979). The collected
stress response envelopes for different magnitudes of
strain probes provide a visual indication of the evolving stiffness characteristics of the material. Stress
response envelopes, deduced from appropriate probing experiments, provide a discipline for planning
programmes of laboratory tests and then for interpreting the data to assist the development and validation
of constitutive models (see also Muir Wood, 2004a,b).
Deviatoric response envelopes deduced from three
sets of stress probes applied to Hostun sand in a
Cubical Cell true triaxial apparatus (Sadek, 2006)
are shown in Figs. 8, 9. Rosettes of purely deviatoric probes from a common initial stress are
shown by the dotted arrows. The stresses are interpolated along these stress probes to create a set
of stress response envelopes (such as those in
Fig. 8) for various magnitudes of deviatoric strain
23
DEPOSITIONAL ANISOTROPY AND

SMALL/MEDIUM STRAIN STIFFNESS

d = 2[(y z )2 + (z x )2 + (x y )2 /3. For
a linear elastic material the stress response envelopes
would all have the same shape regardless of the magnitude of the applied strain increment and would all
be concentric. Departure from similarity of shape and
from concentricity provides an indication of inelastic
factors at work.
A group of twelve samples was compressed isotropically to a mean stress of 200 kPa and then subjected
to a set of deviatoric stress paths (rosette A): the 0.05%
envelope is shown in Fig. 9). The envelope is pushed
upwards along the z axis, the direction of deposition during sand pluviation, indicating an anisotropy
of response more or less symmetric about the axis of
deposition: cross-anisotropy. For this small/medium
strain the sample is stiffer in the vertical direction
than the horizontal directionin direct opposition to
the result of the zero strain bender tests (see also
Yimsiri & Soga, 2002).
A second group of samples was subjected to rosette
B with a common history: isotropic compression to
250
ed %
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.05
150
C
A (mean stress 200 kPa) followed by a radial stress

probe with constant mean stress to point B with stresses
(x , y , z = 115, 200, 285 kPa) (Fig. 9). A third set
of deviatoric stress probes followed the slightly more
elaborate deviatoric history ABC (Figs. 8, 9): isotropic
compression to A followed by radial shearing to B and
then shearing again to C, the mirror image of B in the
deviatoric plane: (x , y , z = 285, 200, 115 kPa).
The truly elastic region for sands extends probably
no further than a shear strain of the order of 0.001%
(see, for example, Fig. 10, LoPresti et al., 1997), which
is well below the strain that can presently be reliably
resolved in the Cubical Cell. The response envelope for
0.05% strain will certainly not correspond to the yield
locus but can be inspected to deduce a link between
stress history and evolving fabric. The centre of this
yield locus (the back stress), or the strain developed
in reaching this state, gives some indication of the
current fabric of the sand following the recent history.
A comparison of the envelopes for the three histories
A, B, C in Fig. 9 shows that from A to B and from B to C
the movement of the centres of these roughly circular
envelopespoints a, b, c in Fig. 9reflects the recent
history: the centre c for history ABC is further from
the deviatoric origin (A) than the centre b for history
AB. This is consistent with earlier studies of evolving
deviatoric anisotropy reported by Alawaji et al. (1990)
and the conclusion from analysis of behaviour of particulate assemblies by Chen et al. (1988) and Ishibashi
et al. (1988): the stress is ahead of the fabric and the
fabric is ahead of the strain. In other words, after a
corner in the stress history the stress marches ahead
on a new imposed path but the fabric lags behind
influenced by the strain. For constitutive modelling
one would interpret these results to indicate the need
for the inclusion of deviatoric kinematic hardening.
The response envelopes for the larger strains seem
to become more centredand thus somewhat independent of the initial stress historyand their shape
becomes progressively less circular as the strain
B
50
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
kPa
-50
x
-150
Figure 8. Stress response envelopes for samples with common deviatoric history ABC (Sadek, 2006).
envelope ABC
C
150
envelope AB
G/Gmax
b
50
0.5
envelope A
-150
-50
50
150
kPa
limit of elastic
response?
-50
Figure 9. Comparison of stress response envelopes for

0.05% deviatoric strain, for samples with common histories
A, AB, ABC (Sadek, 2006).
0.001
0.01
shear strain %
0.1
Figure 10. Variation of secant stiffness for Quiou sand

with shear strain (after LoPresti et al., 1997).
24
0.0001
1.64
v
1.62
increasing initial density
1.60
a.
0
Figure 11. Deviatoric sections through Lade surfaces,
drawn for x = 0.05 to 0.95.
20
200
(kPa)
increases. We expect that there will be some failure condition which will provide a limit to the stress
conditions that can be imposed. The increasing noncircularity matches the property of the Lade-Duncan
failure criterion (Lade & Duncan, 1975) which can be
expressed as x = /( + 27) where = I13 /I3 27
and I1 and I3 are first and third invariants of the
stress tensor: x = 0 describes a circle at the origin;
x = 1 describes an equilateral triangle (Fig. 11). But
why should this elegant but empirical Lade-Duncan
expression find application to stress-strain response
and failure of granular materials? The answer must lie
in the particulate nature of the material.
10
displacement (mm)
b.
0
0
200
400
(kPa)
600
1.68
c.
1.66
v
1.64
CRITICAL STATES
At the other end of the stress:strain response lies the

possibility of defining asymptotic states (Muir Wood,
2008). The idea that there might be particular characteristics of the fabric of soils when sheared to large
deformations goes back to Casagrande (1936) who
introduced the notion of a critical void ratio to which
dense samples would expand and loose samples contract as they were sheared (Fig. 12a). In general it is
found that the critical void ratio varies with stress level
so that the notion of a critical void ratio line or critical state line is more appropriate (Fig. 12b,c) (Wroth,
1958; Roscoe et al., 1958): the term critical states
being used to encapsulate all aspects of this limiting
condition.
The classical definition of a critical state is a condition of continuing shear deformation without changes
in effective stress or volume. This is a state of perfect
plasticity with no further change in elastic energy storage. The soil is being continuously reworked and any
initial structure or bonding between particles will have
400
600
(kPa)
Figure 12. Simple shear tests on 1 mm diameter steel balls

(a) critical void ratio in tests with normal stress 138 kPa;
(b) frictional failure; (c) critical state line (adapted from
Wroth, 1958).
been destroyed by this continuing shear deformation;

this ultimate pure state will have erased any memory
in the soil for what had gone before; all aspects of
the fabric should on average have reached a steady
stateincluding particle orientations, contact orientations, and particle grading, if crushing or particle
breakage has occurred on the way.
Defining critical states in this way does not mean
that we can easily observe such asymptotic states sensu
strictu. We might expect from the description that we
will need to be shearing the soil in quite a severe way
and not merely compressing itif we want to remould
25
200
a soil we are usually quite violent in our manual or

mechanical handling of the soil and we would like to
be able to impose just such extreme handling in our
test apparatus. We can expect that the shear deformation required to reach the limiting state will be large.
We can expect that some test apparatus will be quite
incapable of reaching the shear deformation levels that
are needed.
The DEM analyses described by Nougier-Lehon
et al. (2005) are important because they relate to
assemblies of non-circular two dimensional particles
of various aspect ratios from 1 to 3 (Fig. 13). The
contacts between adjacent particles are no longer contacts between (locally) spherical objects with contact
radii of curvature of the same order as the radii of the
particles, but form either from a vertex of one particle to the face of another particle or from the face
of one particle to the face of a neighbouring particle.
The latter form of contact is able to transfer moment
which Oda & Kazama (1998) believe to be particularly
important in the behaviour of granular assemblies.
There are several aspects of the fabric which can be
reported, two of these relate to the orientation of particles and to the directions of contacts between particles.
The results of shearing of this angular material with
three different orientations of initial particle fabric to
the direction of major imposed principal stress are
shown in Fig. 14. The stress ratiomobilised frictionmight be said to stabilise after about 40% strain
but the volume and measures of the fabric are certainly still fluctuating up to some 100% strain. The
strain required to reach a more or less stable limiting
condition is dependent on the aspect ratio of the particlesmore rounded particles have less dramatic fabric
anywayand on the initial orientation of the pluviated
particles. Passive compressionwith the horizontal
stress being increased, = /2 in Fig. 14requires
a switch of major principal stress direction and corresponding major change in fabric to accommodate this.
a.
The results shown illustrate the general conclusion

that a critical stateexpressed in terms of a steady
mobilised friction, density and fabric anisotropycan
always be reached, irrespective of particle shape and
b.
Figure 13. Discrete element analysis of two-dimensional

assemblies of irregular polygonal particles (a) with aspect
ratio 1; (b) with aspect ratio 3 (from Nougier-Lehon et al.,
2005).
Figure 14. Shearing of assembly of angular particles with

aspect ratio 3: (a) stress ratio; (b) void ratio; (c) anisotropy
of directions of contact normals (from Nougier-Lehon et al.,
2005).
26
inherent anisotropy. However, the strain required to

reach a constant fabric may be very large (for example,
at least 100%) and seems to increase with increasing
aspect ratio of the particles (increasing departure from
circularity). We may note that the mobilised

friction seems to stabilise more rapidly than the various
measures of fabric.
An observation providing inferential information
about the asymptotic fabric comes from tests performed by Gajo (quoted in Muir Wood et al., 2001)
looking at the slope in effective stress terms p /q
of small undrained unload-reload cycles performed at
various stages during drained tests on Hostun sand. For
an isotropic elastic soil this ratio should be zerothere
is no change in mean effective stress. Departure from
zero indicates some sort of elastic anisotropy. One
interpretation, following Graham & Houlsby (1983),
implies a relationship between the slope p /q and the
ratio of horizontal to vertical Youngs moduli Eh /Ev
(Fig. 15). The link between deduced modulus ratio
and stress ratio in a test where the drained stress path
had excursions into extension as well as compression
is moderately well defined. At large strains (but only
10% in this example), where one would expect critical
state conditions to have been neared, the modulus ratio
approaches zero, and the slope of the undrained effective stress path implies no change in radial effective
stress. It seems that this limiting elastic anisotropy is
also attained at a modest strain level corresponding to
the attainment of a steady mobilised friction. Whatever the detailed nature of this evolution of elastic
anisotropy, the implied elastic-plastic coupling has an
important influence on the occurrence of localisation
in sands (Gajo et al., 2007).
Eh>Ev
Eh=Ev
Eh<Ev
a.
p'
stress
ratio: q/p'
1
b.
0
0
axial strain: %
10
-1
3
Eh/Ev
2
0
0
c.
SEVERN-TRENT SAND
The critical state is a condition reached at large strain:

there may be a number of reasons why it cannot be
uniformly reached in conventional tests including the
development of inhomogeneities and limits on the
deformation capacity of the testing device. However,
the concept of critical states as asymptotic ultimate
10
axial strain: %
4
Eh/Ev
3
d.
1
-1
stress ratio: q/p'
stress path
kinematic
yield surface
Figure 15. Triaxial test on dense Hostun sand (eo =

0.63 0.67): (a) stiffness anisotropy deduced from slope
of undrained unload-reload cycle in effective stress plane;
(b) stress ratio and strain; (c) deduced modulus ratio and
strain; (d) modulus ratio and stress ratio (data from Gajo
et al. (2001) reported by Muir Wood et al., 2001).
p'
Figure 16. Severn-Trent sand: frictional yielding and kinematic hardening.
27
elastic region
specific
volume
friction (Fig. 16) and hardening is linked with plastic

distortional strain. The critical state line plays a central
role in the model through the assumed link between
aspects of soil response and distance from the critical state line measured using state parameter. State
parameter is defined as the volumetric distance of
the current state of the soil from the critical state line
in the compression planeplotting specific volume
v = 1/volume fraction and mean stress (Fig. 17a)
(Been & Jefferies, 1985). State parameter is a stress
level dependent relative density.
The peak strength of sands correlates quite well
with state parameter so we assume that there is a
relationship between current value of state parameter and currently available strength (Fig. 17b): this
seems quite reasonable because as the density of a soil
changes so we would expect the strength to change
too. It is assumed that there exist critical states as
asymptotic conditions towards which shear tests will
tend. We assume a monotonic distortional hardening
rule (Fig. 17c) linking the ratio of current mobilised
strength to currently available strength with plastic distortional strain. Finally we need a feedback route by
which to force the density and hence state parameter
and hence available strength to change as we shear
the soil: this is the flow rule or stress-dilatancy relationship (Fig. 17d). Kinematic hardening is needed
to describe cyclic hysteresis (Fig. 16). And some
underlying elastic model is required.
With a group of four simple relationships of the
general form indicated schematically in Fig. 17 (and
the mathematical detail of the relationships does not
really matter) we have a model which automatically
homes in on critical states at large strain even though
there may have been strain softening episodes on the
way (Fig. 18). The hardening law (Fig. 17c) tries all
the time to get closer to the available strength appropriate to the current state parameter but this strength
changes as the soil dilates and changes in density.
When the mobilised strength eventually catches up
with the available strength the soil has reached an
asymptotic critical state at infinite strain. The model
is rather successful in its ability to match, for example, the mechanical behaviour of sand in drained and
undrained tests with different densities and different
confining pressures. But all of the empirical features that make up the model have their origin in the
particulate nature of the soil.
state parameter
a.
critical
state
line
mean effective stress

available
strength
b.
critical state
0
state parameter
1
c.
mobilised strength
available strength
plastic distortional strain
d.
critical state
expansion
contraction
0
plastic dilatancy
Figure 17. Severn-Trent sand: (a) definition of state parameter; (b) variation of available strength with state parameter; (c) variation of ratio of mobilised to available strength
with plastic distortional strain; (d) variation of plastic dilatancy with mobilised strength.
There are practical difficulties is trying to reach

critical statesinfinite strain cannot be applied. It is
helpful to explore what happens inside a soil sample.
Vardoulakis (1978) performed biaxial tests on dense
Karlsruhe sand (Fig. 19). Strain softening materials
states forms a foundation of many constitutive models. Severn-Trent sand (Gajo & Muir Wood, 1999a,b)
is an extended Mohr-Coulomb elastic-hardening plastic model in which the yield function is the mobilised
28
LOCALISATION
variation of current
peak strength
mobilised
strength
q/p' 2
increasing
initial
density
shear
band
1
0
0
0.1
0.2
a.
1.2
a.
0.3
shear strain
0.8
critical state
constant mobilised friction
/ '
0.2
volumetric b.
strain 0.1
0.4
b.
0
-0.1
-0.2
0.0
increasing
initial
density
0.1
0.2
0.0
dy/dx
0.3
x : mm
critical state
constant density shearing
-0.4
shear strain
c.
Figure 18. Severn-Trent sand: simulations of drained triaxial compression tests with different initial densities: dotted
line in (a) indicates variation of currently available strength
(Muir Wood, 2004a).
-0.8
Figure 19. Biaxial plane strain test on Karlsruhe sand:
(a) schematic illustration of mechanism to allow free formation of shear band; (b) mobilised friction and displacement
on shear band; (c) dilatancy of shear band (after Vardoulakis,
1978).
such as dense sands (Figs. 18) tend to develop localisation of shear deformation in narrow shear bands. When
an inclined shear band or failure zone forms through
the plane strain sample of Fig. 19, the sample separates into two parts which are permitted to move apart
freely with sliding on the band so that the detail of the
response of the sand contained in the shear band can
be determined. The mobilised friction reaches a steady
value as shearing continues (Fig. 19b). The density of
the soil in the shear band also tends to a constant value:
dilatancy ceases (Fig. 19c). It appears that the sand
has locally reached a limiting (critical) state. Without such mechanical freedom for relative movement,
however, the recorded external response relates to an
averaging of the intense shearing in the shear band and
somewhat rigid response of the adjacent blocks: this
averaging obscures the appreciation of the behaviour
of the sand within the shear band as it heads towards
some asymptotic condition. Localisation is perhaps an
essential element of the observation of critical states.
Localisation of deformation can develop within
a nominally homogeneous single element of soil as
a consequence of bifurcation of response (Fig. 19)

although it may be exacerbated by the gradients of
stress in a boundary value problem. The detail of
the plastic constitutive model influences the onset
of localisation: nonassociated plasticity (as in most
sand models including Severn-Trent sand) encourages
localisation to occur before the peak of the homogeneous stress:strain response (Vardoulakis & Sulem,
1995). However, it is also found (Bigoni & Loret,
1999; Gajo et al., 2004) that elastic anisotropy has
a strong influence on strain localisation.
Real critical states in which fabric is being constantly reworked require a shearinga buckling of
the columns of load bearing particlesthat will not
easily occur in a standard test with fixed principal
axes. Concentrating on the area around the observed
shear band, Oda & Kazama (1998) record a tendency
of sand particles to orient themselves with a longer
29
axis (if they have one) parallel to the shear band and
with clear changes in orientation across the shear band:
Figure 20 shows a small section of the shear band in
a test on elliptical photoelastic particles. The columns
of particles which were happily stable in a sub-vertical

orientation under the fixed axes of the applied loading
have no choice but to buckle as the localised shearing
increases. Locally the void ratio is extremely variable
and even in the shear band, an asymptotic density is
only an average concept.
Roscoe spent two and a half decades working on
the development of a series of simple shear apparatusstriving to capture in a single device the
behaviour of the soil from the central shearing region
of the shear box. With the parallel use of radiography at
Cambridge it was possible to detect variations in density inside the samples and discover the extent to which
the goal of internal homogeneity had indeed been
attained. The soil being tested was 14/25 Leighton
Buzzard sand with a rather narrow grading and a particle size d50 0.85 mm. With a sample 20 mm
high (Fig. 21a) one can more or less say that there
is just one dilation band, which occupies much (but
not all) of the height of the sample. That this conclusion is particle size dependent is clear in Fig. 21b
which shows a sketch from a radiograph after repeated
reversal of shearing of a fine sand with particle size
d50 0.2 mm. Stroud shows that the void ratio in the
dilating region appears to be tending towards a constant value as shearing proceedsbut the apparatus is
only capable of imposing a shear strain of some 50%.
We can understand that the occurrence of localisation as in Fig. 19 will be helpful because it permits
intense local shearingwith rotation of principal axes,
in a mode rather like a shear box or simple shear
apparatusto occur within a sample which is being
tested, as we thought, under homogeneous conditions
of fixed principal axes. But, while we may be able
to observe a state of unchanging stresses and volume
and, by subsequent inspection, also unchanging particle size distribution, we will only be able to infer
from the constancy of everything else that the average particle orientation and distribution of contacts
have also reached an asymptotic condition. External
a.
b.
a.
b.
Figure 21. (a) regions of density decrease in simple shear

test on sand with d50 = 0.85 mm (original radiograph from
Stroud (1971)); (c) regions of density decrease in simple shear
test on sand with d50 = 0.2 mm (original radiograph from
Budhu (1978)) (Muir Wood, 2002a).
Figure 20. Shear band in assembly of elliptical photoelastic

discs: (a) force chains and voids; (b) buckling and rotation of
columns in shear band (from Oda and Kazama, 1998).
30
particles are hard then they will not break as they are
loaded and the grading will be constant. However, if
the particles break then the grading will change and
with it the detailed nature of the material under test. We
can look at the effect of grading both purely from the
point of view of its influence on mechanical response
(irrespective of the source of the change in grading)
and more completely as an element in the modelling
of a soil composed of breakable or crushable particles.
Some DEM simulations have been reported by
Muir Wood & Maeda (2007) for the monotonic biaxial shearing of assemblies of discs of different sizes.
The particle size distributions are shown in Fig. 23 and
are characterised by RD = dmax /dmin where Dmax and
dmin are the maximum and minimum particle sizes.
A partial view of the evolution of fabric during the
tests is shown in a plot of average coordination number with mean stress (Fig. 24). A reasonably unique
relationship emerges.
One might expect that as the grading of a granular material broadensthe range of particle sizes
a.
b.
100
Figure 22. (a) Radiograph of model wall rotating around
point at roughly mid-height (Archive of radiographs,
Cambridge University Engineering Department); (b) sketch
of dilation bands (Muir Wood, 2002a).
% finer
20
B
0
10
20
50
particle diameter (mm)
100
Figure 23. Gradings of circular discs used in DEM analyses

(Muir Wood & Maeda, 2007).
4.5
average
co-ordination
number
4.0
3.5
3.00
GRADING AND PARTICLE CRUSHING
initial state
critical state
1
2
mean stress (MPa)
Figure 24. Shearing of two-dimensional assembly of discs

with different gradings: variation of average coordination
number with mean stress for sample with RD = dmax /dmin =
2 (Muir Wood & Maeda, 2007).
The distribution of particle sizes or grading can be

seen as an element of the state of the material. If the
31
10
50
observations of response of such a sample once the

shear band has formed are no longer helpful.
Just as shearing seems to be extremely helpful for
the development of true asymptotic critical states so
prototype (or model) configurations which encourage rotation of principal axes turn out to be conducive
to the development of interesting patterns of localisations (Stone & Muir Wood, 1992; Muir Wood &
Stone, 1994). A print of a radiograph for a wall which
is rotated about a point at roughly mid-height is shown
in Fig. 22. The top of the wall is pushing into the sand
on its left and generating a passive set of dilation bands.
One or two of these develop into shear bands extending
to the surface. The wall is also moving away from the
sand to its right and here a very clear pattern of two
intersecting sets of bands (spontaneous regular volumetric heterogenisation?) is apparent in the region
that is deforming in Rankine active mode. We will
return to these observations in discussing intermediate
scales.
RD
increasesthe efficiency of packing should improve

and the volume fraction and density increase. The
standard tests to discover maximum and minimum
densitiesor densest (emin ) and loosest (emax ) packingsare performed at low stress level by controlled
vibration and by repeated inversion respectively and
hence do not actually signify the maximum and minimum void ratios that can be generated for the soil. A
serious maximum void ratio would indicate the loosest packing for which there was a possibility of stable
force chains being maintained from particle to particle (Fig. 4). Zhang & Thornton (2005) describe the
loosest sample that they prepare for discrete element
modelling as never being able to generate a network
of percolating force pathways, so that constant volume
shearing involves a high proportion of collisional contacts and the corresponding void ratio is presumably
greater than the notional emax . And a minimum void
ratio would presumably be zero.
For artificial mixtures the maximum void ratio is
correlated with the minimum void ratio and the minimum void ratio is in turn correlated with the grading
and angularity of particles (Daouadji et al., 2001) and
it also affects typical peak strength and stiffness as
one would expect. For a two size assembly of spherical particles Cubrinovski & Ishihara (2002) show how
the minimum void ratio emin depends on the proportion of the finer particles and on the ratio of sizes of
coarse and fine particles.
Noting the influence of soil grading or particle size
distribution on the available void ratio range we see
a further feature of the evolving fabric of soils that
needs to be included in our consideration of critical
states (Muir Wood, 2007). For our asymptotic state
to be complete there needs to be an end to particle
breakage and a stable particle size distribution. A
typical observation of the effects of crushing in
isotropic compression and shearing of sand (Fig. 25)
shows both that the changes in grading can be substantial and that we need to consider the evolution of the
entire particle size distribution. These data also indicate that particle size distribution is indeed a dynamic
quantity and, just as we made current strength vary
with current value of state parameter in Severn-Trent
sand, so we might reasonably see grading as an additional dynamic influence on mechanical properties and
response.
Large strains (say, 100%) are required to reach a
constant fabric critical state in numerical simulations
and special testing procedures are required to come
anywhere near such limiting conditions in the laboratory. To reach a constant grading appears to require
even larger deformations. Testing a crushable sand,
Dogs Bay sand, in a ring shear apparatus (which has
the advantage of permitting unending shear deformation but the disadvantages of shearing a slightly
uncertain thickness of material and of tending to lose
material through the side gaps), Coop et al. (2004)
suggest that at least 2000% strain is required to reach
a tolerably constant volume and even larger deformations required to reach a constant grading (Luzzani &
Coop, 2002) even though the mobilised friction seems
to stabilise after a mere 30% strain.
The comparison of gradings of Chattahoochee
River sand at various stages through a shear test at high
pressure (Fig. 25) shows that the predominant effect of
particle crushing is to increase the proportion of fine
material without particularly changing the size of the
largest particles. Studies of data for crushable granular
materials, and supporting numerical analyses of analogue granular materials using considerations of the
probability of particle failure, reported by McDowell
et al. (1996), and results of discrete element analyses
using breakable agglomerated particles (e.g. Cheng
et al., 2005) confirm this tendency of the coarsest
particles to survive.
The explanation for this observation can be found
in the way in which the stresses are carried through a
granular assembly through contacts between adjacent
particles. Inspection of the results of discrete element
analyses of particulate assemblies containing a range
of particle sizes suggests that the coordination number is higher for larger particles. We are familiar with
the Brazilian test which is used to estimate the tensile
strength of concrete: applying diametrally opposite
line loads a rather uniform tensile stress is generated
and when this stress reaches the tensile strength of the
concrete the cylinder fails by splitting. The smaller
particles are subjected to similarly damaging loading
whereas the greater number of contacts for the larger
particles makes them less susceptible to such tensile
fracture. Thus, although one would expect the crushing strength (under diametral loading) to fall as the
particle size increases, because of the increased probability of defects within a particle, once contained in the
100
80
% finer
60
3
40
2
20
0
0.02
0.05 0.1 0.2

0.5
particle diameter: mm
Figure 25. Chattahoochee River sand: evolving particle

size distribution: 1: initial grading; 2: after compression
to 62.1 MPa; 3: after triaxial compression with confining
pressure 62.1 MPa (after Vesic & Clough, 1968).
32
granular assembly the stress state in individual particles in fact becomes increasingly benign as the particle
size increases: the coordination number effect can outweigh the effect of reducing strength with increasing
particle size.
If we want to characterise the current grading in a
simple way then some index is needed which reasonably reflects the range of gradings available to the soil.
One limit is that of a single sized material. At the other
extreme, an intuitive finding from DEM and from tests
on natural soils is also that, with continued shearing in
a regime of stresses which encourages crushing, there
is a tendency for the grading to become increasingly
self-similar (fractal) as crushing continues (McDowell
et al., 1996). In other words the proportion of particles
between sizes which have a particular ratio is independent of the value of the particle sizes for which that
ratio is calculated. On a log-log plot of the particle size
distribution the grading curve then becomes a straight
linewith the implication that the grading continues
indefinitely to finer and finer particles (Fig. 26b). (In
fact there may well be some comminution limit below
a.
(fractal) limiting
grading
which particles do not break.) The linear log-log grading can be redrawn in terms of the usual log-linear
particle size distribution chart (AD in Fig. 26a).
We can then define our grading state index IG in
terms of areas in the particle size distribution plot
(Fig. 26a): the ratio of the area under the current grading ABC to the area under the limiting grading ABD.
This index varies between 0 and 1 as the particles break
and the grading evolves. This index is independent of
the actual absolute particle size but dependent on the
shape of the particle size distribution: such a definition seems likely to provide a first order indicator of
mechanical response.
There are many other ways that have been used to
characterise particle breakage (for example, Hardin,
1985; Hyodo et al., 1999) but whatever quantity is used
it becomes essentially an intermediary in the process
of constitutive modelling as will be seen in the next
section.
The simulation of particle breakage using DEM has
been restricted principally to the modelling of assemblies of agglomerated spherical particles (Fig. 27a).
The breakage mechanism that is permitted is solely
that of breakage of the contact bonds between individual particles that make up the agglomerate (Cheng
et al., 2005) which does not really correspond to any
A 100
% finer
80
60
40
current grading
6.66 mm
d = dmax
20
D
C
0.0001 0.001 0.01
0.1
d/dmax: particle size
logarithmic scale
B0
1
a.
389 agglomerates
n 100
100
fractal limiting
grading
80
% finer
% finer
logarithmic
scale
b.
40
b.
20
0
100
d/dmax: particle size

logarithmic scale
axial strain
0.5
0.7 0.6
0.3
particle size: m (logarithmic scale)
initial
grading
compression
20 MPa
1000
Figure 27. (a) Assembly of agglomerated particles for

numerical analysis; (b) evolving particle size distribution
resulting from crushing during compression to 20 MPa (negligible change) and shearing (axial strains indicated) (Cheng
et al., 2005).
Figure 26. Fractal limiting particle size distribution and

definition of grading state index: IG is ratio of areas ABC
and ABD.
33
crushing
60
real breakage mechanism for real non-spherical parent or child particles. The use of agglomerates of this
type locks up a large number of small particles into
a rather small number of agglomeratesthe ratio of
sample size to agglomerate size is rather low. But
the analysis of the developing agglomerate breakage
(Fig. 27b) shows that, as hypothesised, some of the
largest particles remain intact and the grading hinges
round the maximum particle size towards a possible
fractal limit.
Experimentally, Coop et al. (2004) testing Dogs
Bay sand confirm the general move towards a fractal
grading (Fig. 28). But we can note that the strains
applied in a ring shear apparatus are very highthe
final data set in Fig. 28 relate to an estimated 11100%
shear strain! However, one might suggest that after
about a mere 730% strain the grading is only changing
marginally.
In order to add the effects of crushing into our sand
model: Severn-Trent sand (Muir Wood, 2006b) we
need a mechanism to describe the evolution of grading and then statements about the effect of changing
grading on the various elements of the model. Keeping the model simple allows us to concentrate on first
order effects. An evolution law allows us to predict
the effects of any particular history of loading on the
grading and provide a quantity that we could compare
with experimental observations. In the end, however,
it is the mechanical response that interests us and the
values of grading state index IG are not essential.
To first order it seems that strength properties are
probably not much influenced by changes in grading
(Coop, 1999; Daouadji et al., 2001): in the context of
the Severn-Trent sand model that means that the critical state strength remains constant and the dependence
of strength on state parameter is unchanged.
Data on stress-dilatancy for crushing soils are rather
sparse. A first order assumption would be to assume
that the relationship does not change except insofar
as changes in state parameter resulting from crushing

have an influence as before.
The most important effect of the broadening of the
grading is the reduction of the maximum and minimum void ratios emax and emin and by implication the
modification of aspects of the soil response which
imply change in void ratio: the location of the critical
state line will be one of these.
Particle breakage and increase in IG lead to the presence of small particles which are able to fit into the
voids at the scale above and hence lead to a denser
packing. Thus Lade et al. (1998) showed how the
addition of non-plastic fines affects the maximum and
minimum densities of a granular material (Fig. 29).
Initially the finer particles are able to distribute themselves freely within the voids of the coarser particles
and the stable void ratios fall. If more and more fine
material is added then eventually the finer particles
start to push apart the larger particles which are now
floating in a sea of finer material on whose packings they can have little influenceand the stable void
ratios rise again. However, this is a mode of behaviour
only possible with such an artificial mixture: the process of particle breakage will move steadily towards
denser states.
If we suppose that a soil in which some particles
have broken will behave like a soil with unbreakable
particles but a grading broader than the original (higher
IG ) then it is helpful to observe that the DEM simulations for the different gradings shown in Fig. 23
show critical state lines in the compression plane
which become progressively lower as the grading,
characterised by the ratio RD = dmax /dmin (where
IG ln RD ), becomes broader (Fig. 30). These simulations confirm our impression that the primary effect
of change of grading is to move the critical state line
vertically (change in reference void ratio or specific
volume) while the slope does not change very much
(Daouadji et al., 2001).
1.2
void ratio
1.0
100
% finer
11100%
emax
730%
104%
10
0.8
52%
0.001
0.01
0.1
particle size: mm
0.4
0
Figure 28. Evolution of particle size distribution in ring

shear tests on Dogs Bay sand: double logarithmic axes (after
Coop et al., 2004).
20
40
60
80
fines content: %
100
Figure 29. Effect of fines content on maximum and minimum void ratios (inspired by data for Nevada 50/80 sand
reported by Lade et al., 1998).
34
emin
0.6
compression
initial
1.25
specific
volume
critical state line

before crushing
IG = 0
RD
2
specific
volume
1.2
limit of critical state

lines during crushing
0 < IG < 1
10
20
1.15
0
2
mean stress (MPa)
IG increasing:
evolving critical
state line
Figure 30. Location of critical state line from DEM analyses of compression tests on two dimensional assamblies with
different gradings (after Muir Wood & Maeda, 2007).
critical state line

crushing exhausted
IG = 1
IG
mean stress
logarithmic scale
If the particles of the soil that we are testing are

breaking as we test the soil then the critical state line
is changing as we proceedthis is quite understandable, after all the material under test is not the same
as the material with which we started. Our critical
state line becomes a critical state surface in the three
dimensional space of grading state index with specific volume and mean stress (shown schematically
in Fig. 31). With a model such as Severn-Trent sand
which tends to home in on the critical state condition,
the constantly changing detail of that critical state, in
terms of specific volume and mean stress, will have a
significant influence on the mechanical response.
Simulations by Cheng et al. (2005) on the breakable agglomerated particles (Fig. 27) support this idea.
Shearing of fresh samples reaches points on a well
defined critical state line in the compression plane
whether the initial samples are dense or loose. Precompression of the sand causes particle breakage which
leads to a lower critical state destination for subsequent shearing by comparison with the fresh samples
(increased IG ).
As so far described, Severn-Trent sand generates plastic strains only with change in stress
ratio or mobilised friction. Stress paths at constant
stress ratioincluding isotropic compressionare
thus essentially elastic. The model works well for
drained and undrained stress histories which do not
involve substantial increase in mean effective stress.
Crushing is, however, all about increase in stress
and mean stress is known to be damaging. A simple
extension of the model is then to add a volumetric hardening cap acting as a yield surfaceor loading surface
within a bounding surface plasticity formulationand
an extra plastic mechanism. (There is a question
about the volumetric stiffness consequences of particle breakage: does particle breakage cause volumetric
compression? Or does it merely encourage it to occur
in subsequent stress changes through increase in state
Figure 31. Critical state surface in specific volume: mean

stress: grading state index space.
0.8
relative
breakage
Br
0.4
650-930kPa
248-386kPa
60-97kPa
10
1000
100000
shear strain: %
Figure 32. Relative breakage of Bay sand in ring shear tests

under different normal stresses (after Coop et al, 2004).
parameter coupled perhaps with reduction in volumetric stiffness?) All the dependencies of mechanical
response on state parameter remain and the principal
consequence of crushing is the lowering of the critical state line and hence the increase of state parameter. Thus even without doing anything else the soil
will feel looser and consequently less stiff and more
contractant.
An example of the qualitative predictive capability
is provided in Fig. 33: as the extent of precompression
increases so the peak strength falls and strain softening disappears and volumetric expansion decreases.
The lowering of the critical state line is shown in
Fig. 33c consequent on the precompression history
ADA before shearing from A to F. Hyodo et al. (1998)
note that dense crushable soils, when sheared in a
35
compression
800kPa
2.0
stress ratio
q/p'
1.5
ADAF
ACAF
1.0
increasing
amounts of
precompression
0.5
0
always a danger of losing sight of the eventual application in the process of gathering data. The scale
of typical geotechnical prototypes will be typically
metres if not tens or hundreds of metres. Typical laboratory model soils are unlikely to have particle sizes
greater than a few millimetressoils used as construction materials may contain particles up to a few
centimetres. The scale of the application is certainly
large by comparison with the size of the particles. Typical laboratory models may have a scale of tens of
centimetres: model dimensions are likely to be large
by comparison with particle sizes but not necessarily
large by comparison with some of the other intrinsic,
intermediate lengths that have been observed.
AF ABAF
0.1
-0.1
volumetric
strain
a.
0.2
0.3
axial strain
0.4
0.5
AF
ABAF
ACAF
increasing
amounts of
precompression
ADAF
1. It is generally accepted that dilation bands have a

thickness which is of the order of 1020 times the
typical particle size, for which d50 is used as a formal indication (Roscoe, 1970; Muir Wood, 2002a).
Most of the tests from which this generalised thickness has been deduced have been on rather narrowly
graded sandsthe controlling particle size will be
less obvious in a more widely graded material, such
as a natural glacial deposit. Unless particle sizes are
large then this thickness will usually be small by
comparison with typical dimensions of laboratory
element tests or of laboratory models.
2. There is a mobilisation or development length associated with the end of a shear band over which rates
of dilation fall from their peak to the zero critical
state value (Fig. 34). This is harder to pin down
because available data are sparse. The location of
the tip of the band is only visible when enough
density change has occurred to provide clear contrast on a radiograph or photograph. Deduction of
the subsequent kinematic response requires measurement of the field of displacements across the
band whose position is not known in advance. The
difference between mechanisms seen for fine and
coarse sand can be ascribed to the shorter end length
for the dilation or shear band in the finer sand.
Scarpelli & Wood (1982) suggest a development
length of 100d50 in long shear box tests. Stone
& Muir Wood (1992) suggest a length of 176d50
from rotating blade experiments. Vardoulakis et al.
(1981) produce numbers from a trapdoor experiment from which a length of 120d50 might be
deduced. These are now dimensions which are
likely to be the same order as typical dimensions
of laboratory models. If the phenomenon being
observed is primarily dependent on failure along
a localised shear band then scaling from a small
model to a prototype may lead to errors.
3. Patterns of regular volumetric heterogenisation
have been observed with a cell size typically at
least about three times the thickness of individual
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
axial strain
0.4
0.5
b.
0.05
c.
1.8
specific
volume
A
initial critical state
line: IG=0
F
1.6
B
A
D
evolution of critical
state line
D
1.4
2
10
10
10
10
mean effective stress: kPa (log scale)
10
Figure 33. Severn-Trent sand with crushing: constant mean

stress compression following various precompression histories (simulations provided by Mamoru Kikumoto).
dense state, have stress paths which are similar to those

for loose sands of less crushable nature. These observations are all in harmony with the expectations of this
model. If pore pressure build up is possible then one
could anticipate the phenomenon of crushing induced
liquefaction (e.g. Sassa et al., 2004).
SCALES IN PARTICULATE MATERIALS
The goal of laboratory element testing is to gather

response data from which constitutive models can be
developed and with which constitutive hypotheses can
be tested. These constitutive models are required for
calculation of performance of geotechnical systems.
The goal of laboratory model tests is to discover mechanisms of response which are relevant to the behaviour
of corresponding geotechnical prototypes. There is
36
4. These statements have related to deformations

occurring within soil bodies. The photoelastic studies of assemblies of discs being subjected to overall
shear deformation, reported by Drescher & de Josselin de Jong (1972) (Figs. 3, 4), show that the
boundary stress is carried through force chains
which form themselves into cells with typical sizes
of, say, five-ten particles. (These physical observations have been confirmed in many numerical
analyses of particle assemblies.)
dilation
volume
change
displacement
contraction
shear
stress
a.
If stress becomes a difficult concept at the scale of

individual particles, aspects of fabric of the soil are
also very variable. The repeated buckling and reforming of columns of particles in the shear band which
is trying to reach an asymptotic critical state leaves
very large variations in void ratio (Fig. 20). There are
certainly local fluctuations even if globally the density
can be regarded as stationary (Kuhn, 2005). One has
b.
displacement
1
mobilisation
length
c.
Figure 34. Mobilisation length required for shear resistance

on shear band to fall from peak to critical state: (a) volume
change and displacement; (b) mobilised shear strength and
displacement; (c) moblisation length.
dilation bands (Fig. 22). Standing back, a representative volume element containing a reasonable
number of patterned cells could be regarded as
an alternative pseudo-homogeneous continuum. To
include at least ten cells, a typical length of the
order of 300d50 emerges. This sort of dimension
has implications for selection of dimensions of laboratory tests (or numerical simulations) especially
where rotation of principal axes is to be controlled
and studied. A simple shear apparatus with height
20 mm and length 100 mm would be restricted
to soil with d50 < 0.033 mm which represents a
coarse silt. Any measurement of boundary stresses
in an element test or laboratory model would also
need either to average stresses over a distance significantly larger than the pattern cell or to measure
at many points over a contact length which is small
by comparison with this cell.
Figure 35. Variations of (a) shear strain and (b) volumetric

strain in shearing of two dimensional rod model in 1 2
apparatus (Hall et al., 2008).
37
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CONCLUSION
A number of aspects of macroscopic sand response

have been described which are obviously influenced by
the particle-continuum duality. There are others which
will certainly be important in some circumstances
such as particle breakage or contact abrasion, which
implies that our granular material is actually changing irreversibly as we test it; and time effectswhich
are now recognised to be potentially significant in
sands, and which presumably arise from microscale
phenomena at the particle contacts.
Observations of evolving stiffness and anisotropy
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chains in Figs. 3, 4 to sustain increasingly severe
deviatoric stress systems. Critical states may exist as
asymptotic states but the more closely one tries to
observe them the less they seem to resemble canonical critical statesand yet constitutive models which
have such asymptotic states as a central feature seem to
have some predictive merit (Muir Wood, 1990, 2002b).
Several of the observations show routes by which
scale effects might arise in soils as a consequence of
the particulate nature. The force chains (Figs. 3, 4)
seem to imply some sort of possible patterned structure. Localisation phenomena seen in the presence of
rotation of principal axes also start to present patterns
which have a repeat dimension linked to particle size.
Evidence of strength and deformation characteristics comes from laboratory tests on soil samples. While
some of these tests may nominally attempt to apply
controlled stresses and strains to single homogeneous
elements of material, observations made external to
the sample reveal system response rather than material
response. Laboratory testing and subsequent constitutive modelling have to come to terms with the
particle-continuum duality of soils: they are particulate materials but the nature of applications is such that
continuum treatment through representative volume
elements is essential.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to Alessandro Gajo, Kenichi
Maeda, Mamoru Kikumoto and Adrian Russell for
ongoing collaboration from which ideas and simulations in this paper have been drawn.
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40
Silos and shell structures

Design of silos for flow and strength the various contributors must
communicate
Peter Arnold
Centre for Bulk Solids and Particulate Technologies, University of Wollongong, Australia
ABSTRACT: Too often in the design of silo systems for the storage and handling of bulk solids those involved
in the various components of the design process do not communicate. The chemical engineers often have a
range of desired outcomes that differ from those of the mechanical engineers and the mechanical and structural
engineers are often not aiming for the same range of outcomes. Even if all the designers communicate well the
overall result may disappoint if the project manager allows significant (but sometimes subtle) design variations
during construction. The result can be a system that does not perform well. Had there been some consistent
communication between the competing interests throughout the design and construction phases many of the
limitations on performance would have been avoided. This paper will highlight some areas where lack of
communication can have an adverse effect on good performance.
those concerned with the flow of bulk solids and

those concerned with design of structures) will be
expanded upon.
INTRODUCTION
The design and operation of silos for bulk solids can

be an important activity of several engineering disciplines. It is unfortunate that the desired outcomes
of the various disciplines do not always coincide.
Often the chemical engineers are primarily interested
in the associated processes and the silo and its feeding and conveying equipment are simply the devices
that deliver bulk solids to a process or receive bulk
solids from a process. The mechanical engineers may
be interested in the silo geometry that will deliver a certain flow pattern together with designing/specifying
the associated feeding and conveying equipment. The
structural engineer is concerned with designing a
silo structure that can contain the desired quantity of
bulk solids.
Why then do silo systems too often:
To design silos for reliable flow with any degree of

confidence to contain a bulk solid for which there
is little or no prior experience, requires a reasonably
well defined range of flow properties. Generally the
average tabulated property values listed in codes and
design guides (e.g. for belt conveyors) are usually of
little value.
Since the determination of flow properties is
an experimental process it must be remembered that
often such determinations are only as good as the sample on which they were made. What is desired is a
test sample that reasonably represents conditions of
worst handleability. It has to be conceded that in some
instances obtaining reliable test samples is not possible and/or laboratories are not prepared to handle bulk
solids that may, from an OH & S point of view, be hazardous. Yet bulk solids handling plants are still being
designed on the basis of very little reliable data on the
flow properties of the bulk solid(s).
Deliver poor quality bulk solids to a process?

Contain significant dead regions and are not
capable of delivering all their contents?
Include equipment that is performing poorly and/or
is underpowered?
Suffer total structural failure?
While the principal reasons for these poor performance events can be many and varied it is also the
case that, in far too many instances they are due to a
lack of communication between the design contributors and a lack of appreciation how the actions of one
group may adversely affect the design requirements of
another group.
In this paper some of the issues raised in this introduction (especially the conflicts that can arise between
SELECTING THE TYPE OF BIN FLOW

PATTERN
When determining an appropriate geometry for a

silo and also when troubleshooting silo performance
95
BULK SOLIDS CHARACTERISATION
chosen. It may also be necessary to increase the outlet dimension if a fine powder is being discharged by
gravity and flowrate limitations are likely. Of course
the outlet dimension for gravity discharge may be so
great that some form of discharger may be needed to
assist gravity.
The selection of dischargers has not received a lot
of scientific assistance. However, taking into account
the flow properties of the bulk solid can often give a
good indication of the type of discharger that should
be selected (Arnold 2000).
If funnel-flow is the desired flow pattern then consideration of potential stable ratholing becomes an
important design consideration. The prediction of the
critical rathole diameters for a bulk solid is still rather
primitive but it has received some useful updating
in recent times (Roberts et al. 2007). A bulk solid
does not need to be particularly cohesive before its
critical rathole dimensions become prohibitively large.
Remembering that the diameter of a stable rathole is
generated by the size of the outlet over which it forming
then funnel-flow silos can easily become impractical if
self-cleaning is a requirement or if dead regions are to
be controlled. In such situations expanded-flow silos
or funnel-flow silos with multiple outlets and good
control over rathole stability become important design
considerations.
It has been appreciated by researchers that the prediction of silo flow patterns is not as straightforward
as it may appear. For example, Sugden (1980) from
his own work and from reviewing the work of others
observed that for flat bottom bins there is no unique
flow pattern for a particular material in a particular
silo bin. The flow pattern is extremely sensitive to
the initial density of the ensiled material. It is known
that packing densities can be influenced by charging
regimes. These regimes can influence the degree of
over-consolidation of the bulk solid and hence the
extent to which a bulk solid has to dilate before it will
flow. This in turn can have a significant influence on
the flow channels that influence the bin flow pattern;
this is especially the case with flow patterns that are
of the funnel-flow type.
In work on full scale silos Rotter et al. (1993)
have shown that flow patterns that were expected
to be symmetrical were shown to have significant
non-symmetry. While Rotter et al. did not identify
the causes of the non-symmetry, this author believes
it is likely that the charging protocol was a prime
influencing factor.
In funnel-flow bins where the outlet dimension
is significantly smaller than the critical rathole
diameter of the bulk solid then the flow pattern
that would be exhibited would be quite different
to the flow pattern that a free flowing bulk solid
such as grain would develop in a bin of the same
geometry.
difficulties it is essential that due consideration be

given to the type of flow pattern that will be or is
being developed in the silo.
In selecting an appropriate flow pattern there are a
number of issues that need consideration including:
Should the flow pattern be mass-flow or funnel-flow
or expanded-flow?
Is the chosen flow pattern likely to be axisymmetric
or display significant non-symmetry?
Will the silo be used as a batch container or a container to feed a downstream process continuously?
Is the contained bulk solid free-flowing or cohesive?
Is the contained bulk solid coarse or fine (and
floodable)?
Does the contained bulk solid have a definite
shelf-life?
Is it required that the silo be self cleaning or can
some dead storage be tolerated?
Is the contained bulk solid abrasive?
How many outlets are contemplated?
Are there likely to be any off-take chutes installed?
What is the segregation potential of the bulk solid
and is segregation likely to be an issue for the
downstream equipment/processes?
What is the charging method, is it single point or
multiple point, is it central or offset, is it high
velocity or low velocity?
What type of feeder is contemplated? Is it an open
or closed feeder? Will it be easy to interface with
the hopper outlet(s) to avoid adversely influencing
the flow pattern in the silo?
While the above list is not exhaustive it is hoped
that it gives some indication that the selection of the
appropriate flow pattern to be induced within a silo is
not a straightforward matter.
If mass-flow is the flow pattern of choice then it
is vital that the geometry is chosen to be as practical as possible. Sometimes this requires recognizing
that wall friction varies with the consolidation stresses
at the hopper walls and that this variation needs to be
exploited (Arnold, 2002a). It is also vital that the internal surface of mass-flow hoppers maintain constant
wall friction values over time and dont vary due to
such effects as corrosion or wear. In addition for conical mass-flow hoppers it is vital that the internal hopper
surface will display the assumed wall friction values
from start-up and not rely on a wearing-in period. Normally if the bulk solid does not slide on the hopper
walls at start-up then the wearing-in process is likely
to be minimal.
While it is usually rather obvious that the outlet size
for a mass-flow hopper has to be sufficiently large to
prevent cohesive arching under all operating conditions, it may also be necessary to increase the outlet
dimensions to enable wall friction to be lowered sufficiently to enable a practical hopper half-angle to be
96
the other for the poor performance of the total system.

Unfortunately, the user often is so ill-informed about
the operation of bins and feeders and their mutual
interaction that they are in no strong position to
arbitrate and end up having to pay extra costs for
redesigning and/or retrofitting to correct the situation.
In many instances the poor performance of a
bin/feeder system stems from the lack of attention paid
to detailing the geometry of the connection between
the hopper outlet and the feeder. Especially in situations where the bin and feeders are supplied under
different contracts, the geometry of the interface
connecting the hopper outlet to the feeder is the responsibility of no-one in particular, yet it is vital that the
interface receives careful consideration at the design
stage and also during construction.
More detail and relevant case studies illustrating
the importance of well designed interfaces between
hopper outlets and feeders can be found in Arnold
(1995) and Arnold (1998).
DESIGNING THE SILO STRUCTURE
Structural Engineers are normally responsible for

the design of the silo structure for strength and
stability. The loads exerted by the bulk solid on
the silo walls are usually estimated via a loading code (e.g. the Australian Standard 1996 or the
more recent Eurocode 2007). It helps the overall design outcome significantly if the structural
designer is aware of the flow patterns that can
develop within the silo and in particular the flow
pattern assumed by the designer who specified the
silo geometry.
It can materially assist the overall design outcome if
the structural designer of silo has an appreciation of the
importance of the flow patterns within silos and how
the flow patterns may be affected (often adversely) by
the structural designers actions.
While there are widely varying approaches to the
problem of predicting wall loads on bulk solids containers, one thing is clearthe loads exerted on the
walls of a bin or silo under operating conditions are
directly related to the flow pattern which the contained bulk solid exhibits when flowing into and, more
importantly, when flowing out of the bin.
The importance of appreciating the flow pattern
has been understood by many practitioners for many
years. Yet we find non-symmetrically located hopper
outlets and/or eccentrically placed out-loading chutes
still being responsible for many silo structural failures.
Sadler (1980) in his litany of silo problems that lead to
structural failures identified non-symmetric draw-off
patterns as the prime cause of many of the problems
and indicated that the solution centred on converting
the draw-off pattern from an eccentric to a concentric
pattern. Ooms & Roberts (1985) have shown how the
use of the Tremie Tube concept can allow out-loading
chutes to be employed while still retaining symmetric
flow patterns.
5
While the discharge of bulk solids from bins under

the influence of gravity may be a desirable objective,
situations frequently arise where gravity forces alone
are insufficient to allow reliable and/or desirable discharge and additional assistance is required. In many
instances the additional assistance is in the form of
some external energy input (e.g. vibratory, mechanical, pneumatic) to overcome problems of cohesive
arching or stable ratholing. The aim of the extra energy
input is to augment the gravity forces and overcome
these common obstructions to flow.
In assessing strategies for improving the reliability
of discharge from bins consideration should also be
given to solving the problems by, for example:
Modifying the bin flow pattern to eliminate stable
ratholing.
Enhancing gravity forces by modifying adverse
interstitial void pressures.
Removing the high consolidation stresses at the exit
end of the slotted outlet of a wedge shaped hopper.
Reducing the consolidation stresses exerted on a
bulk solid (and hence reducing its cohesive strength)
as it flows through a hopper.
FEEDERS AND FEEDER INTERFACING
Associated with the discharge of bulk solids from most

bins are one or more feeders to provide control over
the discharge rate. In far too many instances there
is a failure to realise that the design and selection
of feeders for removing bulk solids from storage are
critical and the feeder and hopper from which it is
reclaiming must be designed as a complete unit. A
well designed hopper may be prevented from working properly if the feeder is poorly designed and/or
selected and vice versa. Often this situation is exacerbated by the practice to separate contracts at the outlet
of the bin and have the bin and feeder designed and
supplied by different interests. This practice often promotes poor design and allows each contractor to blame
In many instances these changes can be effected

through static devices which require no continuous
form of additional energy input. Not only do these
solutions lead to reduced energy consumption but they
often lead to reduced noise emissions, avoid structural failures, eliminate problems due to flow property
changes resulting from the heat generated as the
additional energy is absorbed. In many instances they
may be simpler and/or cheaper to implement. Arnold
97
SELECTING DISCHARGERS
ledges should be eliminated by butting linings together

or overlapping them shingle-style and care should
be taken to prevent an ingress of bulk solid or moisture behind the linings. Should a slotted outlet be
used with any hopper configuration, then tie beams
must be kept to a minimum, be spaced at not less
than 3 times the slot width and be steeply capped
and lined to ensure that their obstruction to flow is
minimised.
(2002b) considers some of these static devices and

examines their range of application together with their
advantages and limitations.
The selection of bin dischargers requiring some
form of additional energy input (e.g. by vibration or
aeration) remains a rather empirical exercise. Generally, the choice relies heavily on previous experiences.
Extrapolation from the behaviour of a bulk solid that
has been handled before to predict the behaviour
another bulk solid for which there is no prior experience, is still commonplace; such extrapolations can
be very dangerous. Erroneous conclusions and poorly
performing equipment often result. In addition, care
must be exercised to ensure that the employment of
these devices does not lead to the development of
non symmetric flow patterns in bins and silos that are
geometrically symmetric.
Traditional flow properties determined to aid in
the design of bins, feeders and chutes can also be used
with some confidence, to aid in the selection of bin
dischargers. Arnold (2000) explores the application of
flow properties as an aid in selecting dischargers that
rely on vibration or aeration to ensure reliable flow of
bulk solids from storage bins and hoppers.
7
7.2
It is important to always maintain a buffer storage in a

mass-flow hopper to:
prevent damage to the special hopper lining surfaces
during filling;
reduce the load exerted on the feeder and to prevent
impact forces damaging the feeder.
The minimum level must, therefore, be maintained
above the top of any special hopper wall lining material. This requires that an effective non-intrusive type
bin level indicator be used to control the minimum bin
level.
DETAILED DESIGN
7.3
Elimination of valley angles and other

obstructions
7.4
Pyramidal and rectangular mass-flow hoppers of

necessity have valley angles. When handling cohesive bulk solids these valley angles promote material
hang-up and create a rough wall with high friction.
In-flowing valleys should be generously radiused or
plated-in with substantial fillet plates.
Flow blockages can easily occur if protruding
ledges, bolt heads, structural members, wall stiffeners, incompletely opening outlet gates, access ladders,
etc. are allowed inside the bin. Bin walls should be
kept clean and free from such obstructions, as they
allow pockets of bulk solid to form which create
rough wall conditions and promote the formation
of arches. Special care should be taken with the top
edges and horizontal joins in wall lining materials;
Minimisation of wear
The principal causes of wear in a bin are due to impact

and abrasion; in designing and detailing the bin and
feeder it is important that wear is minimised and not, as
so often happens, aggravated. It is important that the
internal surfaces of the bin, particularly the hopper,
be protected from damage due to impact of materials during filling. The discharge end of belt conveyors
feeding material to the top of the bin should be positioned so that the trajectories followed by lumps of
material falling into the bins do not allow contact with
the walls. If necessary, an impact baffle plate should be
fitted at the conveyor outlet to eliminate the horizontal
component of the discharge velocity, thus allowing the
material to fall vertically into the bin.
98
Problems of prolonged storage times
It is usual to design a storage bin to hold the bulk

material for a nominated storage time which, in some
cases, may be for a maximum period of two or three
days. The cohesive strength of many bulk solids will
increase a very considerable amount under prolonged
storage times at rest. It is essential that the plant operator be aware of the storage time limitations of the bin so
that in the event of any abnormal period of shut-down
the necessary steps can be taken to either empty the
contents of the bin into a ground stock-pile or be prepared to employ some form of flow promotion when
the material in the bin is ultimately to be used.
In order that the bin and feeder design procedures

achieve their full potential in practice it is important
that proper attention be paid to the detailing of the
design and to certain aspects of bin operation. The
reader may feel that the application of a bit of common
sense would avoid most of the problem areas outlined
below, however, it is amazing how often one finds
that these problem area receive little or no attention
throughout the design, construction and/or operation
of silo systems.
7.1
Maintenance of a minimum level

in a mass-flow bin
is essential that the bins be lined with wear plates in

the region of the chute intakes as well as above the
chutes.
A disadvantage of mass-flow hoppers is that the

bulk solids sliding along the walls may cause wear with
abrasive materials. It is essential, therefore, that adequate wall liners be included in the design. Wall liners
are also often used to provide a hopper wall with a sufficiently low friction coefficient to ensure mass-flow
without having to resort to wall slopes which are so
steep as to be impractical. The selection of wall lining
materials is usually a compromise between the requirements for low friction and adequate wear resistance.
Many lining materials will exhibit good abrasive wear
resistance but poor impact wear resistance. It is vital
that the design take account of the fact that lining may
have a definite life. When it is known (or suspected)
that wear will be an issue the design must allow for
inspection of linings and ensure that it is possible to
replace them periodically.
It should be noted that under normal circumstances
the flow pressures at the wall of a mass-flow hopper
are low; this, coupled with the low velocity of the fully
developed flow across the total opening, will ensure
that wear is minimised. In this regard, good feeder
design is essential.
More serious wear problems will occur during
funnel-flow where the flow channel or pipe is not fully
contained in the bulk solid itself but may incorporate
part of the hopper or bin wall. Problems of this nature
may occur when bins with eccentric discharge are used,
particularly when the bin opening is located near a side
wall. On other occasions a badly designed feeder may
cause material to rathole adjacent to the hopper wall.
Ratholes of this nature give rise to high velocity flow
against the wall, resulting in accelerated wear.
Often side delivery chutes are incorporated in bins
for the purpose of off-loading bulk materials into
trucks. Side delivery chutes create undesirable flow
patterns in bins, leading to accelerated wear of the bin
wall in the region of the chute intake as well as in the
plates above the chute. This wear is caused by both
abrasion and impact. Abrasive wear results from the
high velocity of the material during chute discharge,
the flow following a funnel-flow pattern. After using
the chutes the surface of the material in the bin is left
with the surface sloping steeply downward towards the
chute intake. Subsequent filling of the bin will result
in large lumps of material bounding off the surface
and striking the bin wall above the chute. This action
aggravates the wear in the plates and in view of the
likelihood of buckling, the bin, as a structure, will
ultimately be weakened.
It should be noted that despite the fact that side
delivery chutes are used intermittently, the wear rate
during operation can be considerable. It is, therefore,
most desirable that side delivery chutes be avoided,
and off-loading be incorporated via a transfer conveyor
operating from the main bin discharge. If side delivery chutes are used, such as in existing installation, it
7.5
7.6
Care of wall lining materials
Special care should be paid to preserving the surface

finish of special hopper linings. Any surface imperfections such as weld spatter, grinding marks, protruding
bolt heads, geometric distortions, paint runs etc. will
alter the friction characteristics and the laboratory data
will not be representative of the finished product.
7.7
General maintenance and safety
It is vital that any storage bin be monitored continuously for wear and deterioration such as that caused
by corrosion. Problems of corrosion are likely to be
more serious in funnel-flow bins where there are dead
regions of material, the problem being aggravated at
higher moisture levels. Operator awareness of likely
problems is essential in order that problem areas can
be detected early. It is important that regular inspections and maintenance of storage and handling plant
be undertaken.
The importance of good bin operating practice and
regular maintenance, when viewed from the aspect
of safety, cannot be over-emphasised. In the past,
there have been a considerable number of bin failures;
through better design and more informed operating
procedures it is expected that such failures could have
been avoided.
8
SEGREGATION EFFECTS
The phenomenon and degree of segregation present in

the operation of a bin can influence significantly and
often adversely the flow pattern exhibited in a bin or
silo. Potentially mass flow bins can exhibit funnel flow
and vice versa. Symmetric bins can display severely
non-symmetric flow patterns. Bins which are charged
pneumatically can cause particular problems.
99
Prevention of shock loads
Where a storage bin operates under funnel-flow and

discharge is sporadic due to the formation of pipes,
when pipes collapse either spontaneously or as a result
of the application of flow promotion, severe impact
loads are experienced. Often the amount of material falling may be a major proportion of the total
bin contents and there is a distinct danger of significant structural damage. The seriousness of this type
of problem reinforces the need for correct bin design
which takes into account the relevant bulk solid flow
properties.
Often when troubleshooting bin and silo performance issues it is segregation which has a significant influence on the problems being experienced.
One must continually be aware of the propensity of
bulk solids to segregate and realise that there are
several mechanisms of segregation. Identifying the
dominant segregation mechanism(s) contributing to
the performance difficulties is not always straightforward.
A considerable literature exists on the topic of
segregation, the various mechanisms of particle segregation and how they may be minimised is handling
plant (e.g. Enstad 2001, Carson et al. 1986, Johanson
1988). The recent publication by Bates (1998) is of
particular note.
DESIGN AUDITING
An element of the overall design process that is often

non existent is the auditing of the final design of materials handling elements by a team competent in bulk
solids handling. It is desirable that this auditing process take place before irreversible decisions are taken.
There are many examples where the performance of
a silo would have been greatly enhanced had a column been moved so that the feeder could fully activate
the hopper outlet or had tie beams across a slotted
outlet been spaced correctly and steeply capped so
that potential ratholes merged and were unstable rather
than form stable individual structures. It is important
to ensure that hopper linings conform to the recommendations of the hopper geometry designer; bright
cold rolled stainless steel is likely to have much better
wall friction characteristics compared with hot rolled
stainless steel of the same chemistry! Often the location of the inflowing charging stream(s) for silos is
given little attention which can lead to uneven wall
loadings and/or non symmetrical flow patterns.
If possible the design auditing function should be
extended into the construction phase to try to avoid
seemingly trivial issues detailed in Section 7. As a
reminder some of the issues to focus upon are:
ledges and other protrusions especially within hoppers and chutes;
fixing procedures and details for liners;
interfaces between hoppers and feeders;
protrusions due to types of aeration systems and/or
level indicators, employed;
protrusions due to access ladders and access holes.
10
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The necessity of taking a cooperative approach to

the design of bulk solids handling plant cannot be
overemphasised. Developments in technology have
lead to significant advances being made in the processes involving the production and utilisation of bulk
solids. In the design process considerable attention
and a large component of the budget is expended on
ensuring that the processing units perform their proper
function. Budget overruns on the processing units
often means that materials handling systems which
link the total system together are the targets for cutting expenditure. This cost cutting usually results in
inferior materials handling plant being designed and
installed. As the total system is normally a series linked
system with the processing units linked by materials
handling components then the end result is that the
total system has severe weak links. As these weak
links begin to fail they cause serious and costly loss
of productivity. Under such circumstances it becomes
obvious, even to the bean counters that the money
saved on the inferior materials handling plant was a
false economy.
It is also vital that the structural engineers are
aware that the silo structures they design are to contain bulk solids. The interaction of the bulk solid
with the silo structure needs to be constantly born in
mind so as to aid in avoiding silos structures that fail
and/or perform their storage and handling functions
poorly.
REFERENCES
Arnold, P.C. 1991. The influence of segregation on the flow
pattern in silos. Bulk Solids Handling 11 (2): 447449.
Arnold, P.C. 1995. Interfacing feeders to bin outletsA
neglected area of design. Mech. Trans., IEAust, ME20
(3): 171177.
Arnold, P.C. 1998. Feeding Bulk Solids from Bins: The
Interface Factor. Australian Bulk Handling Review. 3 (2):
3241.
Arnold, P.C. 2000. Some observations on the relevance
of flow properties in the selection of bin dischargers.
Powder Handling and Processing 12 (4): 371374.
Arnold, P.C. 2002a. Some considerations to assist in improving the practicality of mass-flow bins. Paper (Paper No.
432 on CD-ROM) presented at World Congress on Particle
Technology 4, IEAust, Sydney, Australia 2125 July.
Arnold, P.C. 2002b. How Do Static Flow Promotion Devices
Stack UpThe Pros and Cons. Australian Bulk Handling
Review (7) 4: 6166.
AS3774 1996. Loads on Bulk Solids Containers. Australian
Standard, Standards Australia, Sydney.
Bates, L. 1997. User Guide to Segregation. Marlow UK:
British Materials Handling Board.
Carson, J.W., Royal, T.A. & Goodwill, D.J. 1986. Understanding and Eliminating Particle Segregation Problems.
Bulk Solids Handling 6 (1): 139144.
EN 19914 2007. Eurocode 1; Basis of Design and Actions
on Structures, Part 4Silos and Tanks, Eurocode 1 Part 4,
CEN Brussels.
Enstad, G.G. 2001. Segregation of PowdersMechanisms,
Processes and Counteraction. In A Levy & H Kalman (eds)
100
Handbook of Conveying and Handling of Particulate

Solids: 589602 Elsevier Science.
Johanson, J.R. 1988. Solids Segregation: Causes and Solutions. Powder and Bulk Engineering, August: 1319.
Ooms, M. & Roberts, A.W. 1985. The reduction and control of flow pressures in cracked grain silos. Bulk Solids
Handling 5 (5): 10091016.
Roberts, A.W, Wiche, S.J. & Krull, T. 2007. Review of rathole
determination in relation to draw-down and live capacity of gravity reclaim stockpiles. Proc. 9th Intn. Conf.
Bulk Materials Storage, Handling & Transportation,
Newcastle, Australia, 911 October: on CD.
Rotter, J.M., Ooi, J.Y., Lauder, C., Coker, I., Chen, J.F. &
Dale, B.G. 1993. A study of the flow patterns in an industrial silo. Proc. intn. symp. on Reliable Flow of Particulate
Solids II, Oslo, Norway, 2325 August: 517524.
Satler, J.E. 1980. Silo problems. Paper presented at intn. conf.
on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, Lancaster, UK,
24 September.
Sugden, M.B. 1980. Effect of initial density on flow patterns
in circular flat-bottomed silos. Paper presented at Intn.
conf. on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, Lancaster,
UK, 24 September.
101
Mechanics of materials and structures

A new approach to teaching and learning structural analysis

S. Kitipornchai & H.F. Lam
Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
T. Reichl
Mursoft OEG, Graz, Austria
ABSTRACT: After the 9/11 incident, many structural educators became aware of the importance of inculcating
in their students a clear understanding of local and global structural behaviour to develop basic knowledge
about the progressive collapse of structures. The authors of this paper have addressed the issue by training
students through virtual experiments in a self-learning environment with the help of a newly developed software
application, iSA (Instant Structural Analysis). One of the outstanding features of this application is that it allows
students to instantly observe the changes in structural behaviour that are induced by changes in loading conditions,
structural geometry, support conditions and member properties. This paper not only discusses the need to modify
traditional teaching methods in the education of the new generation of structural engineers, but also presents
some of the features of iSA that serve as handy tools in the teaching and learning of structural analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Since the catastrophic collapse of the World Trade

Centre (WTC) towers on September 11, 2001, it has
become more apparent that understanding the progressive failure or collapse of structural systems is
of paramount importance. To prevent total structural
collapse when part or parts of a structure are damaged or destroyed, the structure must be capable
of re-distributing internal forces to provide alternative load-paths. For this to occur, the structure must
have an adequate degree of redundancy, and engineers will need to understand how the structure may
progressively respond under different possible load
conditions, including the extreme case of a terrorist
attack. Many educators and researchers have realised
the importance of this, developing different types of
educational packages. Al-Ansari & Senouci (1999),
Harada (2004) and Codeno-Rosete (2007) decided to
employ commercial software such as Microsoft Excel,
Mathcad and Scilab (http://www.scilab.org) in developing education packages to facilitate the teaching of
structural analysis and design. With the help of rapidly
developing information technology, many researchers
have developed applications related to structural education that can be accessed through the Internet. Gao
et al. (2005), Yuan and Teng (2002), Jiang et al. (2002),
Brretto et al. (2003) and Bhargava et al. (2006) have
applied client-side technologies such as HTML, Java
and Flash in developing web-applications for students
to carry out simple structural analysis or structural
laboratories by using web-browsers without having to

install the application in their local computers. One
of the most outstanding advantages of this type of
client-side technology is that students can always gain
access to the latest version of the software from the
website. Elgamal et al. (2005) made use of both clientside and server-side technologies in developing the
Webshaker system, which allows students to remotely
control a shaking table in the laboratory through a webbrowser. Common to the abovementioned packages
is their ability to enable students to easily test structures under various support conditions, material and
cross-sectional properties, and loading conditions.
A new approach to teaching structural analysis and
design is the use of instant structural analysis software
(Beer & Pilz 1999; Pilz & Beer 1999) that is capable of stimulating rapid experimental learning as well
as capable of being used as a creative design tool. As
educators, we need to re-think, and if necessary revise,
our curricula to phase out or reduce the use of oldfashioned manual calculation techniques, and instead
emphasise an understanding of physical/holistic structural behaviour. Manual techniques, such as column
analogy, conjugate beam theory, moment distribution
for frames with side sway, etc., are no longer essential,
and we should consider phasing out some or even all
of them to reserve more space for enhancing student
understanding of the progressive failure of structures.
The basic moment distribution technique is still essential because it provides a good understanding of the
stiffness method, particularly in demonstrating the
247
load path perception, whereby increasing the stiffness

of part of a structure will attract increased internal
forces to that part.
An easy-to-use instant structural analysis software
application with full graphical user interface (GUI) has
been developed for 2D structuresiSA (Instant Structural Analysis). iSA serves as a handy tool for teachers
and engineers alike to learn about structural analysis
and design. It gives instant graphical results that accurately simulate structural responses, thus promoting
self-learning and creativity. This paper introduces several features of iSA and their importance in enhancing
student learning and the understanding of structural
analysis.
2
ISA (INSTANT STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS)

AND ITS BASIC FEATURES
iSA (http://www.bc.cityu.edu.hk/isa) is a user-friendly,

yet powerful, 2D structural analysis package that supports modelling with a drawing GUI or the use of
template wizards (so-called structure generators) to
generate structurally complicated models in minutes.
Because its purpose is to provide an environment for
students to simulate different structures under various
loading conditions, iSA is easy-to-learn and easy-tooperate. For simple structures with only several members, students can simply draw the structure in the
drawing area of the GUI. For structures with many
members (e.g., a building frame with 10 stories), students can use the template system. In general, it takes
only a few minutes for students to finish the computer
model of a structure in iSA. According to the experience of the authors, it takes only two hours for Year 2
undergraduate structural engineering students (with
knowledge of the matrix stiffness method) to evolve
from beginners to experts in the use of this software.
iSA can be used for the analysis of trusses, continuous beams and frames with different types of
pinned joints. Comprehensive databases of materials
and standard sections are available. This feature is very
important for students using iSA in learning structural
design, as they can easily try different sections on
the structure and instantly obtain a new set of analysis results to determine whether the design is feasible.
Apart from standard sections, users can define their
own material and cross-sections.
Analysis is automatically completed once the structural system and the loading conditions are defined,
and the analysis results can be instantly presented to
the user. After changes to the structural geometry,
support condition, member properties, etc., the new
analysis results can again be instantly presented. This
ability to provide instant results makes it very suitable
for carrying out virtual testing (Kayvani 2007). For
example, students can remove some members, apply
several hinges or change the boundary condition of the

structural system to simulate the situation of a terrorist attack, and then observe the effects on the structure
(e.g., what is the change in load distribution? What is
the change in deformation? Is the structure still stable
under the second-order analysis?). This kind of virtual
testing is very efficient in helping students to develop
their structural engineering sense and to understand
the concept of progressive collapse.
In addition to point loads and distributed loads, iSA
offers many different types of loading conditions (e.g.,
temperature load, lack of fit and support settlement).
Figure 1 shows the deformed shape of a steel frame
structure when one of the supports has a downward
movement of 0.05 m. Note that iSA can also simulate
the horizontal movement and the rotation at supports.
Figure 2 shows the situation when the temperature of
the four structural members is increased by 20 C.
Furthermore, iSA supports not only first-order but
also second-order static analysis, dynamic modal analysis, stability analysis and moving load analysis. It is
not only a versatile tool for the teaching and learning
of the subject, but is also a handy tool for practising
engineers in structural analysis and design.
Similar to all existing commercial software applications, analysis is based on a list of assumptions. For
example, all member axes are straight; the material is
homogeneous, isotropic and linear elastic; the length
of a member is much longer than the section dimensions; the plane sections remain plane after deformation; Hooks law is valid without any restrictions; and
all loads are assumed to act statically. In the first-order
analysis, the software also assumes that deformations
Figure 1. The deformed shape of a steel frame under

support movement.
248
Figure 3. GUI for modifying the material and crosssectional properties of members.
Figure 2. The deformed shape of a steel frame under
temperature load.
are small, so that equilibrium on the un-deformed

structure can also be assumed. Shear deformation is
neglected in this version of the software, but will be
considered in the next.
2.1
Material and cross-sectional properties
iSA provides a GUI that allows users to modify

the material and cross-sectional properties easily (see
Figure 3). A series of commonly used materials, such
as steel, concrete and aluminium are available in the
systems material database (see Figure 4). A comprehensive database of cross-sections is also available
for different standards (see Figure 5), such as universal beams and columns (refer to items UB and UC,
respectively, in the Group of cross-sections column
in Figure 5). iSA supports both prismatic and nonprismatic members. By clicking the <> button (see
Figure 3), users can define a different section as the
end cross section. iSA assumes that the inverse of
the second moment of area varies linearly along the
member.
2.2
Figure 4.
GUI for selecting a material from the database.
Support conditions
iSAs GUI allows users to modify the support conditions easily. In the Constrained DOFs area shown in
Figure 6, users can define the support as a pin, a roller
or a built-in support at any angle from the horizontal.
They are also allowed to use springs to model the semirigid behaviour of the support (this may be induced by
the flexibility of the soil condition at the support).
Figure 5.
database.
249
GUI for selecting a cross-section from the
Figure 6.
2.3
GUI for defining the support condition.
Hinges
Three types of hinges are available in iSA: the full

hinge, the half hinge and the pin-jointed hinge. The full
hinge allows users to change a joint into a pinned connection (with all of the members connected to that joint
as a pin). The half hinge allows users to add a pinned
connection at the end of a single member, whereas the
ends of all of the other members connected to that joint
are not affected.
This feature provides a convenient way for users to
model a pinned beam-column connection, as shown
in Figure 7, in which the column ABC is a continuous
member and the beam BD is attached to the column at
B by a pinned connection. Thus, the bending moment
can transfer from the element AB to BC, and the bending moment on the beam BD will be transferred to
neither AB nor BC.
The pin-jointed hinge is developed to model a situation in which two continuous members are connected
at the middle as a pinned connection, as in Figure 8,
which shows a frame, ABCD, with two braces, AEC
and BED. The two braces are connected at E as a
pinned connection (the so-called pin-jointed hinge).
Thus, the bending moment on member AEC cannot
transfer to member BED.
2.4
Figure 7. A pinned beam-column connection modelled by

the half-hinge function in iSA.
Results presentation
By default, analysis is carried out automatically after

any changes in structural geometry, member properties and/or support conditions, etc. As the name
of the software implies, analysis can be completed
instantaneously, and the results are immediately presented to users through the GUI. Figure 9 shows a
typical environment for displaying the structure, the
loading case and the corresponding calculated bending moment diagram. Users can also plot the deflection
shape (the green D button), the shear force diagram
(the blue Q button) and the axial force diagram (the
grey N button) separately or together by pressing the
Figure 8.
corresponding buttons on the toolbar. Detailed analysis reports for each member are available, as shown
in Figure 10, from which users can obtain the values of the shear force, the bending moment, the axial
force and the displacements (including rotations) at a
group of user-defined uniformly distributed load on
the member.
250
The pin-jointed hinge function in iSA.
Figure 9.
GUI displaying the analysis results.

Figure 12. The contribution of different elements in the
system stiffness matrix.
stiffness matrix. Figure 12 shows the contribution of

the second element in the system stiffness matrix of the
frame. This feature helps to introduce the concept of
the local and global element stiffness matrices and also
the assembly of the global element stiffness matrices
to form the system stiffness matrix.
Figure 10.
members.
ADVANCED FEATURES
In addition to basic first-order static analysis, other

types of analyses are available in iSA, such as secondorder analysis, dynamic modal analysis, stability
analysis and moving load analysis. Some of these are
introduced in the following sections.
GUI displaying the detailed analysis results of
3.1 Dynamic modal analysis
Figure 11.
The local and global element stiffness matrices.
iSA is a very convenient tool for teaching and

learning the matrix stiffness method, as GUIs are available for users to gain access to the local and global
element stiffness matrix (see Figure 11), and also
the contribution of different elements in the system
Once the structure is defined in iSA, the system stiffness and mass matrices are automatically generated,
and stored in the system memory. When users press
the dynamic modal analysis button (at the toolbar), iSA
solves the eigenvalue problem of the system stiffness
and mass matrices and calculates the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the structure. The first mode
natural frequency and mode shape is then instantly
displayed in the drawing area on top of the original
structure. Users can easily display the shapes of other
modes through the GUI. Figure 13 shows a GUI that
displays the third vibration mode of a steel frame.
An animation of the mode shape is also available
for students to gain a physical sense of the modes of a
structural system. This feature is a very effective tool
for student learning in structural dynamics.
It must be pointed out that the calculated natural frequencies and mode shapes are automatically updated
251
Calculate the first order

displacement vector {u}I
Calculate member forces

NO
n=1
YES
Determine the axial forces

N(n) using {u}I
Assemble the second order
stiffness matrix [K]II
Calculate the second order

displacement vector {u}II
N(n)-N(n-1) >
N(n)
Determine the axial forces

N(n) using {u}II
n=n+1
Figure 14. The computer algorithm for second-order analysis in iSA.
1st order
Figure 13. GUI showing the third mode of vibration of a

simple frame structure.
2nd order
once the structural geometry, support conditions or the

material properties are altered.
3.2
Second-order analysis
Design codes are increasingly using second-order

analysis to replace the effective length approach in
checking the stability of columns. iSA allows users to
carry out second-order analysis as easily as first-order
analysis, with the algorithm shown in Figure 14.
The algorithm starts by carrying out the first-order
analysis and obtaining the displacement vector of
the system. The iteration counter n is initialised to
unity. The algorithm then calculates the axial forces
of all members, utilising the calculated first-order displacement vector, and stores them in vector N(n).
The element stiffness matrix of each member is then
updated according to the corresponding axial force.
The new system stiffness matrix can be obtained by
assembling the second order element stiffness matrices. A new set of displacement vectors is calculated.
The iteration counter n is then increased by 1(n =
n + 1). The change in axial force between iteration n
and n 1 is then calculated. If the change is smaller
than the pre-defined tolerance limit, then the iteration stops. Otherwise, the iteration continues until the
change in axial force between the two iteration steps
is small enough.
The results of this analysis can be displayed in the
GUI, together with the first-order result. Figure 15
compares the displacements of a frame calculated by
first- and second-order analyses.
Figure 15. GUI comparing the deformed shapes under firstand second-order analyses when the vertical load is 2000 kN.
Figure 16 shows the analysis results of the same

frame under a larger vertical load of 5000 kN. It is
clear from the figure that the second-order effect is
much larger than that in Figure 15, in which the vertical
load is 2000 kN.
By repeating this type of virtual experiment
through changing the magnitudes of the vertical or horizontal loads, or even the geometrical configuration
of the frame, students can develop a sense of secondorder analysis.
252
1st order
2nd order
Figure 16. GUI comparing the deformed shapes under firstand second-order analyses when the vertical load is 5000 kN.
3.3
Moving load analysis
Moving load analysis provides a fast and convenient

feature for users to easily study the effect of a moving
load on the structural system. After defining the movable load and the member on which the load is moving,
a series of load cases are automatically generated
under a pre-defined load case group. Figure 17 shows
a list of automatically generated load cases under the
load case group Moving load. Users can then select
any one of the load cases to look at the corresponding bending moment diagram. Figure 18 shows the
bending moment diagram of the structure under the
loading case 1.00 * 9 (4.000 m), which is selected in
Figure 17. In addition to the bending moment diagram,
the shear force and axial force diagrams, together with
their envelopes, are also available.
Figure 19 shows the bending moment envelope of
the frame structure under the Moving load case.
When the structural geometry, the member properties
or the support conditions are changed, all of the analysis results are updated automatically, and the results
are instantly presented through the GUI.
3.4 Teaching progressive collapse
The concept of progressive collapse can be introduced to students by using iSA with suitable guidance.
A simple steel portal frame, as shown in Figure 20, is
employed to illustrate this idea.
Figure 17.
cases.
Figure 18. The bending moment diagram for one of the

automatically generated moving load case.
Under the action of both the vertical and the horizontal distributed loads (as shown in Figure 20), it
is clear from the results that the maximum bending
moment is 81.88 kNm at the top right corner of the
frame (see Figure 21). For demonstration purposes,
253
A series of automatically generated moving load
Figure 19. The bending moment envelope of the structure

under moving load.
Figure 22. A plastic hinge is modelled at the top right corner

of the portal frame.
Figure 20. A portal frame to demonstrate the idea of

progressive collapse.
Figure 23. The applied load is further increased after the
formation of the plastic hinge.
Figure 21. The maximum bending moment at the top right

corner of the frame.
81.88 kNm is assumed to be the maximum plastic

moment. Thus, a plastic hinge is formed at the top right
corner of the frame. This plastic hinge can be easily
modelled in iSA by first adding a full hinge at the joint
and then applying appropriate moments at the ends of
the members that connect the hinge. In this example,
a full hinge is added to the joint at the top right corner
of the frame. Then, member end moments of magnitude of 81.88 kNm and 81.88 kNm are applied at the
ends of the two members that connect the full hinge,
as shown in Figure 22. Note that the bending moment
diagrams in Figure 20 and Figure 22 are the same, but
there is a plastic hinge on the structure in Figure 22.
Figure 24. Additional nodes are added to locate the maximum bending moment on the top left member of the
frame.
Users can now continue to increase the applied load

on the frame. To demonstrate, only the vertical distributed load is increased. Figure 23 shows a situation
in which the vertical load is increased to 6 kN/m. It
is clear from the iSA result that the maximum bending moment of the structural system is on the top left
member of the portal frame. To determine that location approximately, additional nodes are added on the
member, as shown in Figure 24. It must be pointed
out that there are many ways to identify the location and magnitude of the maximum bending moment
(or axial force or shear force) on a member, and the
254
Figure 25. The additional plastic hinge makes the structure

unstable, and it collapses.
Figure 27.
Figure 26.
The interface for truss shape selection.
The structure generator in iSA.
introduction of additional nodes is only one of them.

It is assumed that a plastic hinge is formed at the location of the maximum moment. When the user applies
a full hinge at that location, iSA immediately shows
that the structure is kinematically unstable, as shown
in Figure 25.
3.5
Structure generator
Even with the drawing GUI, the modelling of a complicated structure (e.g., a steel frame with 5 bays and 20
stories) can be time consuming.
As the main purpose of iSA is to allow more time
for students to carry out the virtual experiment but
not spend a lot of time modelling a structure, the
structure generator (a template system) was developed to generate complicated structural systems in a
short time.
Figure 28. The interface for defining the internal configuration of a truss.
Four types of structures are available in the iSA

structure generator: continuous beams, frames, Aframes and trusses (see Figure 26). A series of
GUIs are available for the generation of each type of
structure.
A truss is generated in the following example. Three
truss shapes are available, with Figure 27 showing
255
understanding physical, holistic structural behaviour

such as the equilibria of whole structures, the effects
of compatibility, the effects of a lack of fit, etc. We
need to equip our students with the fundamental and
essential skills they need to be able to check and
verify computer-generated results manually. We need
to adopt easy-to-use structural analysis software that
can provide and stimulate rapid experimental learning through the investigation of what if ? scenarios,
that can be used to check computer-generated results to
reflect on whether it really makes physical sense, and
that can also be used as a creative design tool. We need
to revise our curricula to phase out or reduce the use
of old-fashioned manual calculation techniques and,
instead, increase our emphasis on practical aspects
and on a physical/holistic understanding of structural
behaviour.
To prevent a catastrophic collapse, such as that
which occurred on 9/11, we need to understand how
a structure will behave and respond under all possible loadings, including that from a terrorist attack.
Therefore, we should design every structure so that:
Figure 29.
structure.
Figure 30.
The interface for defining the orientation of the
The truss modelled by the structure generator.
the selection interface. After defining the truss shape,

users can define the internal configuration of the truss
through the GUI as shown in Figure 28. Users can
generate any type of truss, and can define the orientation of the structure through the interface, as shown in
Figure 29. In this example, an inclined truss is defined
and the angle between the truss and the horizontal
is 20 . The generated truss is shown in Figure 30.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The 9/11 incident has taught us the very important lesson that we must fully understand progressive failure
mechanisms in our structures. The notion of having an
adequate safety factor in itself is not enough. Indeed,
it could even give us a false sense of security. We
need to emphasise to our students the importance of
1. It will not fail catastrophically if a part or parts of

the structure are damaged or destroyed;
2. It will be able to re-distribute the load when parts
of the structure have failed; and
3. It will have a high degree of redundancy and be able
to provide alternative load paths to avoid sudden
collapse.
iSA, a user-friendly 2D structural analysis program
with an easy-to-use GUI, has been described here. This
software is a handy tool for instructor teaching and
student learning in structural analysis (e.g., the matrix
stiffness method, second-order analysis, dynamic
modal analysis, plastic analysis, stability analysis,
moving load analysis, etc.). As the analysis results are
presented instantly, this is an efficient and rapid selflearning tool with which students can build up their
confidence, engineering sense and understanding of
structural behaviour.
The software can be used by teachers and lecturers to set and check student assignments and design
projects. It is also a useful tool for practising engineers
in their everyday design work
A series of new modules is under development.
These include a design module to code specifications,
force vibration dynamic analysis and a consideration
of shear deformation in the analysis.
REFERENCES
Al-Ansari M.S. and Senouci A.B. (1999). Use of Mathcad
as a Teaching and Learning Tool for Reinforced concrete Design of Footings. Computer Applications in
Engineering Education 7, 146154.
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Beer G. and Pilz G. (1999). Civil Engineering Technology

Experiences with using the Techware Ruckzuck in a
Structural Analysis Course, Thomas Telford, UK.
Bhargava P., Antonakakis J., Cunningham C. and Zehnder
A.T. (2006). Web-Based Virtual Torsion Laboratory.
Computer Applications in Engineering Education 14, 18.
Brretto S.F.A., Piazzalunga R. and Ribeiro V.G. (2003).
A Web-Based 2D Structural Analysis Education Software.
Computer Applications in Engineering Education 11,
8392.
Cedeno-Rosete R. (2007). Stiffness Matrix Structural Analysis Educational Package by Mathcad. Computer Applications in Engineering Education 15, 107113.
Elgamal A., Fraser M. and Zonta D. (2005). Webshaker:
Live Internet Shake-Table Experiment for Education and
Research. Computer Applications in Engineering Education 13, 99110.
Gao Y., Yang G., Spencer B.F. and Lee G.C. (2005). JavaPowered Virtual Laboratories for Earthquake Engineering Education. Computer Applications in Engineering
Education 13, 200212.
Harada Y. (2004). Development of Courseware for Introduction of Nonlinear Frame Analysis Using Free Scientific
Software Package. Computer Applications in Engineering
Education 12, 224231.
Jiang H., Kurama Y.C. and Fanella D.A. (2002). WWWBased Virtual Laboratories for Reinforced Concrete Education. Computer Applications in Engineering Education
10, 167181.
Kayvani K. (2007). Are We Winning the Battle of Computerised Structural Modelling? Structural Engineering
International 1/2007, Editorial, 3.
Pilz G. and Beer G. (1999). Multi-Media Computer Techniques in Engineering EducationState of the Art in
Europe and Latin AmericaRuckzuckA Structural
Analysis Software for Teaching and Practice, Graz,
Austria.
Yuan X.F. and Teng J.G. (2002). Interactive Web-Based
Package for Computer-Aided Learning of Structural
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257

Granular Solid Mechanics

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STRUCTURES AND GRANULAR SOLIDS FROM SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURES AND GRANULAR

Structures and Granular Solids

An international conference in celebration of the 60th birthday

J.F. Chen & J.Y. Ooi

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Biographical note on Prof. J.M. Rotter

Structures, stability, silos and granular solids: a personal adventure

Bulk solids flow and loading

From silo phenomena to load models

Experience with funnel flow

Shock loads in an iron ore train loading bin

Studies of buried pipe behaviour

Silos and shell structures

Developments in the design of rectangular planform silos

Recent silo codes and still structural failure?

Some unresolved problems in the design of steel cylindrical silos

A case history of the failure of some silos during discharge

Investigation of laser-beam welding induced distortions in thin sheets of Al 6056T4

Local dimpling of the shell surface of a tank due to shrinkage effects

Seismic response of tanks in view of shell theory

Buckling of thin-walled pressurized cylinders under bending load

Effect of geometric nonlinearity of locally supported cylinders

Local buckling and deformation capacity of tubes in steel structures

Indirect straining of shallow axisymmetric domes: analysis and behaviour

Vibrational frequencies of a Guastavino spiral staircase shell

Mechanics of materials and structures

Total bond-slip and friction-dilatancy membrane model for R/C structures

Experimental investigation of concrete under multiaxial extension: loading path dependent

Numerical modelling of heated structures: nature, requirements and benchmarks

Deflection of semi-rigidly connected beams

Sensitivity study of a historic bridge Goole swing bridge

Mechanics of debonding in FRP-plated RC beams

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Biographical note on Prof. J.M. Rotter

Structures, stability, silos and granular solids: a personal adventure

department and mentor Prof. Sir John F. Baker (later

I have never liked to read technical papers that were

My fascination with structural mechanics began when

At Cambridge, under the leadership of John Baker,

a) Collapses in alternate beam spans bend

Figure 2. Experiments on biaxially loaded and restrained

are not susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling, this

b) All beams collapsed reduces bending

Figure 1. Patterns of collapsing beams in a frame applying

The starting point for my research project was

a) partial flexural stiffness reduction in the column at the

a) cross-section bending strength with axial load

b) inelastic flexural stiffness reduction with axial load

b) plastic hinge at the centre of the column before collapse

Figure 3. Strength and flexural stiffness changes of a

descriptions of how the bending stiffness progressively

features which made the whole endeavor even more

Collapse modes for restrained columns.

influence on my professional development, and my

5.1 The purpose of engineering research

Figure 5. Column collapse mode with unsymmetrical

often considerably under-estimates the true strength.

John Roderick retired at this point, and Prof. Nick

heat of the debate between the simplifiers and the

5.3 On research methodology in engineering

On standards for structural design