Modern Control Theory

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Modern Control Theory
70
lOEE55
MODERN CONTROL THEORY

UNIT - 6
Subject Code
: 10EE55
IA Marks
No. of Lecture Hrs.!

Week
: 04
Exam
Hours
Total No. of Lecture

Hrs.
: 52
Exam
Marks
25
Non-linear systems: Introduction, behavior of non-linear system, common physical non

linearity-saturation, friction, backlash, dead zone, relay, multi variable non-linearity.
03
3 Hours
ioo
UNIT-7
Phase plane method, singular points, stability of nonlinear system. limit cycles. construction
of phase trajectories.
PART-A
7 Hours
UNIT - 1 & UNIT - 2

STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN: Introduction, concept of state, state
variables and state model, state modeling of linear systems, linearization of state equations.
State space representation using physical variables, phase variables & canonical variables
10 Hours
UNIT -3
Derivation of transfer function from state model, digitalization, Eig'en values, Eigen vectors,
generalized Eigen vectors.
.
6 Hours
UNIT -4
Solution of state equation, state transition matrix and its properties, computation using
Laplace transformation, power series method, Cayley-Hamilton
method, concept of
controllability & observability, methods of determining the same
10 Hours
UNIT - 8
Liapunov stability criteria, Liapunov functions, direct method of Liapunov & the linear
system, Hurwitz criterion & Liapunov's direct method, construction of Liapunov functions
for nonlinear system by Krasvskii's method.
.'
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....6l1ours
TEXT BOQKS:
I.
Digital control & state variable
2003
2.
Control system EngineeringAge International (P) Ltd.
REFERENCE
I.
Inc
UNIT -5
POLE PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES: stability improvements by state feedback, necessary
& sufficient conditions for arbitrary pole placement, state regulator design, and design of
state observer, Controllers- P, PI, PID.
.
I. .1. Nagarath & M. Gopal,.- 3'" edition, New
BOOKS:
State Space Analysis of Control Systems- Katsuhiko Ogata -Prcntice lIall
2.
Automatic Control Systemsedition, John Wiley & Sons 2003.
PART-B
methods- M. Gopal- 2m' edition, TIIM Hill
Benjamin C. Kuo & Farid Golnaraghi, 8'10
3.
Modern Control Engineering-
Katsuhiko Ogata- PHI 2003
4.
Control
and practice-
Engineering
theory
M. N. Bandyapadhyay PHI.
2007
5.
Modern control systems- Dorf & Bishop- Pearson education. 1998
10 Hours
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CONTENTS
Modern 'Control Theory
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"
PART-A
UNIT -1 & UNIT - 2
SI. No.
Titles
Page No.
UNIT -1 STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
I.
STATE VARlABLE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN: Introduction, concept of state, state

variables and Statemodel, state modeling of linear systems, linearization of state equations.
State space representation using physical variables, phase variables & canonical variables
10 Hours
State Variable Analysis & Design
04
State Variable Analvsis or State Space Analvsis :The state variable approach is a powerful tool/technique for the analysis and design
2.
UNIT - 2 STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION
24
of control system.
'The state space analysis is a modem approach and also easier for analysis using
3.
digital computers. It's gives the total internal state of the system considering all initial
UNIT - 3 DERIVATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM
conditions.
STATE MODEL
42
Why do we need state space analysis?
4.
UNIT- 4 SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS
. '.
57
The conventional approach used to study the behaviour of linear time invariant
control' systems, uses time domain or frequency domain methods. When performance
specifications
given for single input, single output linear time invariant systems, then
, are
.
5.
UNIT -.5 POLE PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES'
78
system can be 'designed by using Root locus. When time domain specifications are given,
Root locus technique is employed in designing the system. If frequency domain
6.
UNIT -6 NON LINEAR SYSTEMS
specifipationsare given, frequency response plots like Bode plots are used in designing the
.:
99
In' conventional methods, the systems are modelled using Transfer Function
,;i!J
7.
system.
UNIT - 7. PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS
105
conditions.
8.
UNIT - 8 STABILITY ANALYSIS
approach, which is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to input, neglecting all the initial
121
The dratvbacksin the transfer function model and analysis are,
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1.
Transfer function is defined under zero initial conditions.
2.
transfer function is applicable to linear time invariant systems.
3.
It is restricted to single input and single output systems.
Comparison: Classical vs, Modern Control

Classical Control (Linear)
4.
Does not provides information regarding the internal state of the system.
5.
The classical methods like Root locus, Bode plot etc. are basically trial and
~
Developed in 19201950
~
Frequency domain
analysis & Design(Transfer
function based)
~
Based-on SISO
models
~
Deals with input and
output variables
~
Well-developed
robustness concepts
(gain/phase margins)
~
No
Controllabi lity/Observabilit
Y inference
~ . No optimality
concerns
~
Well-developed
concepts and very much in
use in industry
State variables analysis can be applied for any type of systems like,
Non- linear system
Time invariant system
Multiple-input and multiple output system.
Linear system
Time varying system
the analysis can be carried with initial conditions.
Atlvantages of state variable analysis

I.
2.
Convenient tool for MIMO systems

Uniform
platform
for representing
time-invariant
systems,
time-varying
systems, linear systems as well as nonlinear systems

3.
Can describe the dynamics
L__
in almost all systems (mechanical
__]_
6.
Using this analysis the internal states of the system at any time instant can be
State var;able:-
predicted.
A set of variable which described the state of the system atany time instant
are called state variables.
adopted for
digital computers.
OR
The state of a dynamic system is the smallest number of variables (called
state variables)
such that the knowledge of these variables at t=to, together with the
knowledge of the input for t=to, completely determine the behaviour ol:.E,hesystem
for any time t 2: to.
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The state is the condition of a system at any time instant 't'.
Variables used to represent system can be any variables in the system.
As the method involves matrix algebra, can be conveniently
~
Controllability/Observabi Iit
y can be inferred
';Optimality issues can
be incorporated
~
Fairly well-developed.
and slowly gaining
popularity in industry
. State:-
It can be performed with initial conditions.
5.
7.
~
Developed in 19501980
~
Time domain analysis
and dcsign(Differential
equation based)
~
Based on MIMO
models
~
Deals with input,
output and state variables
~
Not well-developed
robustness co~ccpts
systems,
electrical systems, biological systems, economic systems, social systems etc.
4.
Modern Control (Linear)
~---------------.,-----.---------------.
error procedures which fail to dive the optimal solution required

r
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State space:The set of all possible values which the state vector X(t) can have( or
assume) at time t forms the statc space of the system.
Uj_
State l'ector:-
(t)
U2(t)
It is a (nx I) column matrix whose clements
---+
---+
Yl (t)
---+
Y2(t)
---+
Y3(t)
Control
are state variables of the
system,(where n is order of system) it is denoted by X(t).
U3(t)
---+
.1Lm(t)
---+
State Variable Selection

).-
---+
System
! !
Typically, the number of state variables (i.e. the order of the system)
..
~ Yp(t)
Xt(t) X2(t) X3(t) ..... Xn(t)
is equal to the number of independent energy storage elements. However,

there are exceptions!
Control
Is there a restriction on the selection of the state variables?
YES! All state variables should be linearly independent
U~
and they must
System
~y
collectively describe the system completely.
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.'
State Space Formulation
The different variables may be represented by the vectors(column matrix) as

shown below
In the state variable formulation of a system, in general, a system consists of

rn-inputs, p-outputs and n-statc variables, The state space representation
Input vector
U1(t)
Yl(t)
Xn{t),
U2(t)
Y2(t)
U2(t), U3(t),
Um(t),
U3(t)
Y3(t)
Yl (t), Y2(t), Y3(t),
Yp(t),
system may be visualized as shown in figure I, I.

Let,
State variables"
Xl(t), Xz(t), X3(t)'
Input variables ~ Uj_ (t),

..,.
Output variables=
Output vector
of the
~(t)
U(k)=
Ylk)=
Yp(t)
Statevariable vector
Xl(t)
X2(t)
X3(t)
X(k):
Xn(t)
State variable representation can be arranged in the form of n number of

first order differential equations.
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dxl
dt
10EE55
=X
x, = ani XI + an2X2 +
dx2
dt
+ annx, + bnl u, +
: bnmUm
In matrix form the above equation can be expressed as
Xl
aU
~2
a1n
Xl
X2
a2l
a22
a2n
X2
X3
a31
a32
a3n
X3
.....~
bll
bl2
blm
Uj_
b21
b31
b22
b2m
liz
b32
b3n
li3
b"l
bn2
bmll
Urn
+
arltl
"
Any 'n' dimensional time invariant system has state equations in the function form
11
It can also be written as
X(t) = A X(t) + B U(t)
as,
X(t) = f( X, U)
State equation
:..(1)
While out puts of such system are dependent on the state of the system and
instantaneous inputs.
State space analysis

Classical control theory
The develbpment of control system analysis and design can be divided into three
"
eras. In the first era, we have classical control theory , which deals with techniques
...Functional output equation can be written as,
Y(t) = g(X, U)
ys modern control theory
developed befor~ 1950. classical control embodies such methods as root locus. Bode.
Output equation ....(2)' ,
Nyquist and Routh- Hurwitz. These methods have in common the use of transfer
functions- in the complex frequency(s) domain, emphasis on the use of graphical
State Model Of Linear System
techniques, the use of feedback and the use of simplifying assumptions to approximate
);>
State model of a system consist of the state equation & output equation.
);>
The state equation of the system is a function of state variables and inputs as defined
by
equation I.
the time response . since computers were not available at that time , a great deal of
of state ~ari~bles can be
expressed as linear combination of state variables and inputs.
+ al2
+ aln Xn + bll
Ul
+..,
+ bIro
X2 = a21X] + a22X2 +
+ a2nXn + b2l
Ul
+ b2rnUrn
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
placed
on developing
methods
that
were
amenable
t01l'manual
single -input,
single output (SISO) methods .. Multivariablc
(i.e
multiple - input
multiple - output or MIMO) systems were analyzed and designed one loop at a time
X2 +
= all X]
was
compbtation and graphics. A major limitation of classical control methods was the use of
For linear tine invariant systems the first derivatives
XI
emphasis.
Urn
Page 9
Also the usc of 1iransfer functions and the frequency domain limited one to linear time invariant syst;ms.
" In't!'le seoond era, we have modern control ( which is not so modern any longer
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
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10EESS
which referees to state - space methods developed in the late 1950,s and early 1960s. In
modern control, system models are directly written in the time domain. Analysis and
design are done ill time domain. It should denoted that before Laplace transforms and
transfer functions became popular in the 1920s Engineering
Modern' Control Theory

In
other
words,
the
state
10EESS
of
a system
represents
the
minimum
amount
of
information that we need to know about a system at t. such that its future behaviour can
be determined without reference to the input before 10.
were studying systems in
the time domain. Therefore the resurgence of time domain analysis was not unusual, but
it was triggered by the development of computers and advances in numerical analysis.
Because computers were available, it was no longer necessary to development analysis and
design methods
that were strictly manual.
An Engineer
could use computers
to
numerically solve or simulate large system that were nonlinear and time varying. State
space methods removed the previously mentioned
limitations of classical control, The
The idea of state is familiar from a knowledge
of solving the differential equations used to model the physical world.

flying through
the air.
Intuitively
Consider a ball
we feel that if we know the ball's position and
velocity, we also know its future behaviour. It is on this basis that an outfielder positions
himself to catch a ball. Exactly the same information
equation model of the problem. Consider
period or the 19~Oswas the heyday of modem control.
of the physical world and the means
is needed to solve a differential
for example the second order differential
equation
System representation
in state variable form

X +aX + bX = f(t)
This chapter introduce the concept of state variable and the various means of
representing control systems
representation results in a system description

equations,
as opposed
The solution to this equation be found as the sum of the forced response, due to
in state variable form, Each method of state variable

interms of 'n'
to the usual nth -order
first -order
differential
equation. s A convenient
f(t) and the natural or unforced response ie the solution of homogeneous equation
tool for
X+aX+bX=O
this new system representations is matrix notation.
If XI
System state and state yariable
(t), X2(t) -------- Xn(t) are state variables of the system chosen then the
initial conditions of the state variables plus the u(t)'s for t > 0 should be sufficient to
It is important to stress at out set that the concept of system state is first of all, a
physical concept. However it is often convenient to interrns of mathematical
model.
Here this mathematical model is assumed to consist of ordinary differential equations
decide the future behaviour i.e y(t)'s for t > O. Note that the state variables need not be
physically measurable or observable quantities.
-----Chose
easily measurable
which have a unique solution tor all inputs and initial conditions. It is in terms of this
order of the differential
mathematical model that the 'system state' or simply 'state' is defined.
storage elements in the system.
Definition
Practically however it is convenient to
quantities. The number of state variable is then equal to the

equation which is normally equal to the number of energy
The state of system at any tim';-'i;j'Ts-the rmnnnumset ot numbers
X I (to) ,X,(t,,) -------- X,,(to) which along with the input to the system for t
sufficient to determine the behaviour of the system tor all t
to
is
to.
State eguatjon~ for linear systems
in
matrix form
The state of a linear time -invariant nth order system is represented by the following set
of 'n' number of first order differential equations with constant coefficients in terms of n
state variable XI,X2-------- X,
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Output eQuatjon
j--+'''X'+
X2 =a21 r+a22X2
..
b"T
The state variables XI(t) -------X net) represents the dynamic state of a system. The.
system output! outputs may be used as some of the state variables themselves ordinarily,
--+b,.u.
the output variables
11a12 -----------
a1n
x,
Y, = e" X, + e,l Xl + ---------- C" X"
X, = anI XI+an2 X2 + ---- +ann X, + bnlVI + - +bnm V

In matrix form the above equations may be written as
'
Y2 =Cli X, + en X2 + ---------- Cl" X
.1
b11 b12 ----------- b1 m
In matrix form,
b21 b22 ----------
I
I
I
I
I
I
Xn
1 '
.
}'1
b2m
Cll C 12 -----------
Cln
C21 C22 -----------
C2n
Cp1 Cp2 -----------
Cpn
=
anI an2 -----------
ann
bn1 bn2 ----------- bnm
X is called derivative of state vector whose size is (nxI)

X is called state vector whose size is (n x I)
..
Yp = Cpl X, + Cpl Xl + ----------Cp" X"
or
Y = output vector of size ( P x I)

e = Transmission matrix of size ( P x n)
X = State vector of size ( n x I)
A is called system matrix whose size is (n x n)

B is called input matrix whose size is ( n x m)
Sometimes the output is a function of both state variables and inputs. for this general
case
'
U is called input vector whose size is (m xl)
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Y=CX+DU
or
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State Model usi\w pbase -variables

Cll C]2 -----------
Cln
x,
011 012 -------- 01m
C2l C22 -----------
C2n
X2
021 022 -------- 02m
Let us now consider how the state model defined by equation (Z) may be obtained for an
nth order SISO system whose describing differential equation relating output y with input
u is given by
.
Uz
dn,ly
"
dtn
+. an,1~
where an-I: An._2 ,
dy,
yeO), -t6t
OP1 OP2 --------- QPm
Cpn
( BUSH FORM)
.dt'
dn,2y
+ an,2 dtn,2
dy
+ ------------al
bou
(3)
ai, no are constant coefficients
------------
dn-Iy
(0),
dt
are initial conditions
To arrive at the state model of equation (3) it is rewritten in shorthand form as

D matrix is of size (p x m)
.
Yn +an-I],)l-r + an',)l-2
:2]
+--------------a Iy + noy = bnu
State Mode!
XI, X2: ---------- Xn which can be done in many possible ways, A convenient way
is define'
(I)
..
State Model of SISO linear and time invariant
svstem,
x, =y",1
If we let m = I and p= I in the state model of a multiple input multiple output linear time
invariant system we obtain the following state model for SISO linear system.
AX +bu
Y=CX+du
0
With the above definition of state variables equation (4) is reduced to a set of'n'
order differential equations given below;
XI=Y
----+(2)
X2 ='1
Where band C arc ( nx 1) vectors
.
Dept. of EEE. SJBIT
(4)
We first define the state variables
The state equation of a system determines its dynamic state and the output equation gives
its output at any time t > 0 provided the state at t = 0 and the control forces for
t 0 are known. These two equations together form the state model of the-system,
The state model of a linear system is therefore given by
X=AX+BU
Y = CX+ DU
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I 'I
first
=X2
=
Xn_1 = l-I
X3
= X,
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the above equations result in the following state equations
0 1
0 0
0 0
0---------- .- 0
0
0
1 -----------1 -----------
0 ------------- 1
-an
of transfer
functjon from a given state model
Having obtained the state model we next consider the problem of determining transfer
function from a given state model ofS[SO I MIMO systems.
.'
+
-~ -al -a2 ------------
Deriyation
0
0
Xl
)\2
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I) 'SISP SYSTEM
0
bo
x,
u(s)
;_;__----.l.
It is to be noted that the matrix A has a special form. It has all 1's
the upper off
yes)
G( s)
G(s) is called transfer function defined as
- diagonal, its last row is comprised of the negative of the coefficients of the original
differential equation and all other elements are zero. This form of matrix A is known as
I'
yes)
yes) = u(s) G(s) or y (s)
G(s) =
= G(s)
u(s) -------- (I)
u(s)
the 'BUSH FORM' .The set of state variables which yield 'BUSH FORM' for the
State Model is given by
matrix A are called 'Phase variables'
When 'A' is in 'BUSH FORM', the vector b has the specialty that all its elements
except the last are zero. In fact A and B and therefore the state equation: can be written
directly by inspection of the linear differential equation.
x (t) = AX (t) +Bu

yet) = ex (t) + Du
Taking laplace transformation on both sides of equations ( 2) and (3) and neglecting
initial conditions
The output being y = X I ,the output equation is given by
y=[lO--O]
----------- (2)
----------- (3)
We get sX(s) = AX (s) +

Bu(s) -----(4) Yes) = CX (s) tDu(s) ---- (5)
x,
From (4)
(sI -A) Xes) = Bu(s)

Or Xes) = --------- (sl-A rlBu(s) --------(6)
Substituting ( 6) in (5)
Yes)
Where C = [ I 0 ------0)
(sl-A
rIBu(s) + Du(s)
yes) = ( C (sl -A r1B+D) u(s) --------------- (7)
Note: There is one more state model called canonical state model. we shall consider this
model after going through transfer function.
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Comparing ( 7 ) with (I)
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Moderr:!._Control Theory
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G(s) = C( sl -A )"' B + D
---------( 8)
(ii) MJI\JO SYSTEM
More often the system model is known in the transfer function form. It therefore becomes
necessary to have methods available for converting the transfer function model to a state
model. The process of going from the transfer function to the state equations is called
decomposition
the transfer function. In general there are three basic ways of
decomposing a transfer function in direct decomposition, parallel decomposition, and
cascaded decomposition has its own advantage and is best suited for a particular
situation.
of
y,( s)
u,(s)
Decomposition
G(s)
112(S)
of TF
y, (5)
,j.
lIm(S)
1. Converting a TF with a constant term in numerator. Phase variablesvariables that are successive derivatives of each other.
Pout puts
C(S)
Yo (s)
24
R(~)
G(s)
= C( sl -A
"
o ll(S)
G 1~(S) -------------------
Y2(S)
G 21(S)
G 22(S) ------- ----- _______G 2m(S)
I
I
I
o Im(S)
G p1(S)
Ul(S)
Take in LT.
U2(S)
I
I
I
I
I
I
yp(S)
G .2(5) ---------------- ___ G !'n,(S)
C=Xl
Urn(S)
C=Xl=X2
.. X'~ -.I,
C=. 1 =.(2= X3
G(s) matrix is called transfer matrix of size (p x m)

y( s) matrix is of size (px I)
lI(S) matrix is of size (mx I)
= G , Irs)
lI,(s)
+ G ds)
s3 + 9s2 + 268 +24
"
) -I B + D Where yes) =Gis) U(s)
YI(S)
)',(s)
10EESS
Deriyatiye of st~te models (mm transfer fUDcUoo
An important observation that needs to be made here is that while the state model is not
unique, the transfer function is unique. i.e, the transfer function of equation (8) must work
out to be the same irrespective of which particular state model is used to describe the
system.
III input
'C=X3=Xl
U2(S)'1
-------------------+_ G
X3+ 9X3+26 X2+ 24 X1=24R
Im(S)Um(s)
)'I(S) Transfer function
X3~ - 24XC26 X2-9X3 + 24R
lIes) =
Similarly
""
G \2(5), --------
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1 ~OJ
0
.~ =.[ 0 01 0J[x~
X2
X3
arc defined
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-24 -26-9
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X2 +
R
X3 24
Page 20
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C=
[1
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C(S)
X1(S)
C(t) = X, + 7 Xl + 2 XI
2. Converting a TF with polynomial in numerator
C(S)
R(S)
3. Cascading form
---- _ ~--~~-----X1(S)_
The denominator ofTF is to be in factor fOIl11
83 + 982 + 26s +24
24
C(S)
R(S)
Taking in LT
24
(s +2) (S+3) (S+4)
Xl
Xl=X2
Xl =X2= X3
X'l =
X3
X
2
X~
[ X3
[0 1 0J [X~rOl
0
-24 -26-9
+ 0 R(t)
X3
1
X
'.
Xl
X2
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s-1
= _ _;;_--s+4
1 + 4 s-1
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UNIT-2
STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
1
Xl=X2-4Xl
X2=X3-
3 x
The classical control theory and methods (such as root locus) that we have been using in
class to date are based on a simple input-outputdescriptionof the plant, usuallyexpressedas a
transfer function. These methods do not use any knowledgeof the interior structure of the plant,
and limit us to single-input single-output(SISO) systems,and as we have seenallowsonly limited
control of the closed-loopbehavior when feedbackcontrol is used. Modem control theory solves
manyof the limitationsby using a much"richer"descriptionof the plant dynamics. The so-caned
state-space descriptionprovide the dynamicsas a set of coupled first-order differential equations
in a set of internal variables known as state variables, together with a set of algebraicequations
that combinethe state variablesintophysicaloutput variables.
X3= - 2X3+24V
C = [1
Introduction
1.1
Definition of System State
----rhe concept of the, state
of a dynamic system refers to a minimum set of variables, knownas

state variables, that fully describe the systemand its responseto any given set of inputs[1-3]. In
particulara state-determined system modelhas the characteristic that:
A mathematicaldescriptionof the systemin terms of a minimumset of variablesxi(f), i
1... n, !ogetherwith knowledgeof those variablesat an initial time 10 and the
system inputs' for time t 2::

outputs for alltime t > to.
to,
are sufficientto predict the future system state and
This definition asserts that the dynamic behavior of a state-determinedsystem is completely

characterizedby the.response of the set of n variablesXj(f), wherethe number n is definedto be
the order of the system.
The system shown in Fig. 1 has two inputs III (t) and u2 (I), and four output vari- abies YI
(f) .... Y4 (I).
:
If the system is state-determined, knowledgeof its state variables(XI
(to). x2 (to) . '" xn (to)) at someinitial time to, and the inputs UI (t) and U2 (I) for 12:: 10 is
sufficient to determine all future behavior of the system. The state variables are an internal
descriptionof the system which completely characterizethe system state at any time I, and from
whichany output variables Yi( I) may be computed. Largeclasses of engineering,biological,social
and economicsystems may be representedby state-determinedsystem models. System models
constructed withthe pure and ideal (linear) one-port elements (suchas mass, spring and damper
clements)are state-determined
[Type text]
Dept. of EEE.SJBIT
Page23
"
Page 24
Modern -Control Theory
Input vector
Uf:,"(I)
where Xi = dx./dt and eachof the functions ,Ii (x, u, I), (i = 1. ... , n) may b",.a general
nonlinear, time varying function of the state variables, the system inputs, and time. I
It is common to express the state equations in a vector form, in which the set of 11 state
variables is written as a state vector x(t) = [XI (I), X2 (t). ' .. ,x,,(t)(, and the set of I' inputs
is written as an in~)Utvector U(I) = [1/, (I), U2 (f), ... , u,. (t)f. Each state variable is il time
varying component of the column vector X(/).
Output vector y
System
...~ descibed by state variables
-L..rl
.>
l)
~_}--'t
u~(I) ~,--_{X_1
,X_2_'
,_
..
Ym(t)
"
Figure 1: System inputs and outputs.

system models. For suchsystems the number of state variables, n, is eflual to the number of
independent energy storage elements in the system. The values of the state variables at any
time t specify the energy of each energy storage element within the system, and therefore
the total system energy, and the time derivatives of the state variables determine the rate
of change of the system energy. Furthermore, the values of the system state variables at
any time t provide sufficient information to determine the values of all other variables in the
system at that time.
.
,
There is no unique set of state variables that describe any given system; many
different sets of variables may be selected to yield a complete system description.
However, for a given system the order n is unique, and is independent of the particular set
of state variables chosen. State variable descriptions of systems may: be formulated in
terms of physical and measurable variables, or in terms of variables that are {lot directly
measurable. It is possible to mathematically transform one set of state variables to
another; the important point is that any set of state variables must provide a complete
description of the system. In this note we concentrate on a particular set of state
variables that are based on energy storage variables in physical systems:
1.2 The State Equations

A standard form for the state equations is used throughout system dynamics. In the standard
form the mathematical description of the system is expressed as a set of n' couple'd first-order
ordinary differential equations, known as the stale equations, in which the time derivative
of each state variable is expressed in terms of the state variables XI (r),... , x; (I) and the
system inputs UI (I), ... , Ur (t). In the general case the form of the 11 state equations is:
u, t)
fi(x, u, t)
X2
x;
=./;' (x, u, t
This form of the state equations explicitly represents the basic elements contained
in the definition of ,a state determined system. Given a set of initial conditions (the values
of the Xi at some time (0) and the inputs for I ?: 10, the state equations explicitly specify
the derivatives of all state variables. The value of each state variable at some time f;.1 later
may then be found by direct integration. The system state at any instant may be
interpreted as a point in an l1-dimensionalstate space, and the' dynamic state response x(t)
can be interpreted as a path or trajectory traced out in the state space.
In vector notation the set of 11 equations in Eqs. (1) may be written:
x = f (x. u, I).
"
(2)
where f (lI.. u. I) is a vector function with 11 componentsr, (x. u, I).

,
In this note we restrict attention primarily to a description of systems that arc linear and
lime-invariant (LTI), that is systems described by linear differential equations with constant
coefficients. For an,LTI system of order II, and with I' inputs, Eqs. (1) become a set of 11
coupled first-order linear differential equations with constant coefficients:
, XI
,;- t(l11X,
, X2
Xn
a21XI
O"IXI
+
+
+ ([,,,X,,
G12X2
G22X2
+ ." +
+ an2X2 +
"
G2nX"
QnnXIl
+ blltl,
+ b21UI
+
+
+ ". + hl,:r
bnlUI
."
+ o.,;
+ h21'U,.
(3)
where the coefficients aij a~d bij are constants that describe the system. This set of 11
equations defines the derivative~ of the state variables to be a weighted sum of the state
variables and the system inputs.
Equations (8) may be written compactly in a matrix form:
As given above in page 10
x = Ax +Bu (5)
In this note we use bold-faced type to denote vector quantities. Upper case letters arc
used to denote general matrices while lower case letters denote column vectors. See
Appendix A for an introduction to matrix notation and operations.
fi (x,
XI
10EE55
(1)
[Type text]
Page 25
[Type text]
Page 26
"
"
lOEE55
where the state vector x is a column vector of length II, the input vector u is a .column vector
of length
r, A
is an
11
11
. '. .
square matrix of the constant coefficients ai;, a'nd B is an
matrix of the coefficients b" that weight the inputs.
..
.
Output Equarioris
1.3
A system
1.4
State Equation Based Modeling Procedure
The ~omplet~system model for a linear time-invariant system consists of (i) a set of II
state equations, defined in terms of the matrices A and B, and (ii) a set of output
equations th'at relate any output variables of interest to the state variables and inputs,
and expressed in terms of the C and D matrices. The task of modeling the system is to
derive the elements of the matrices, and to write the system model in the form:
is defined to be any system variable of interest. A d~crtpti(;m of a
output
physical system in terms of a set of state variables does not necessarily include all of the
variables of direct engineering interest. An important property of the linear s\ate 'equation
description is that all system variables may be represented by a linear combination of the
state variables Xi and the system inputs u.. An arbitrary output variable in a system of
order
11
(6)
)'2
['21Xl
+
+
('12.\2
('22.\"2
(11)
(12)
1. Determination of the system order n and selection of a set of state variables from
the linear graphsystem representation.
2. GeAeratioh of a set of state equations and the system A and B matrices using a
well ~fined! methodology. This step is also based on the linear graph system
description.
where the c, and d, are constants. If a total of III system variables are'defined as outputs,
the 111 suchequations may be written as:
ClIX]
Ax +Bu
Cx + Du.
The matrices A and B are properties of the system and are determined by the system
structure and elements. The output equation matrices C and D are determined by the
particular choice of output variables.
The overall modeling procedure developed in this chapter is based on the following steps:
with r inputs may be written:
y]
lOEE55
+
+
+
+
ell/X"
e21/XII
+
+
d]]u]
d2]1I]
3. Determination of a suitable set of output equations and derivation of the appropriate
+ d1ru,.
+ (hrllr
C and D matrices.
(7)
Block Diagram Representation

Described by State Equations
of Linear Systems
or in matrix form:
As given above in page 10
.-
The output equations, Eqs. (8), are commonly written in the compact form:
y
Cx +Du
(9)
where y is a column vector of the output variables y;(t), C is an III x II matrix of the.constant
coefficients C;j that weight the state variables, and D is an III x r matrix of the constant
coefficients ,i;, that weight the system inputs. For many physical systems the matrix D
is the null matrix; and the output equation reduces to a simple weighted combination of
the state variables:
y =Cx.
(10)
[Type text]
Page 27
The matrix-based state equations express the derivatives of the state-variables explicitly in
terms of the states themselves and the inputs. In this form, the state vector is expressed as
the direct result of a vector integration. The block diagram representation is shown in
Fig. 2.. This general block diagram shows the matrix operations from input to output in
terms of the A, B, C, D matrices, but does not show the path of individual variables .
In state-determined systems, the state variables may always be taken as the outputs of
integrator blocks.
A system of order II has II integrators in its block diagram. The
derivatives of the state variables are the inputs to the integrator blocks, and each state
equation expresses a derivative as a sum of weighted state variables and inputs. A detailed
block diagram representing a system of order n may be constructed directly from the state
and output equations as follows:
Step I: Draw n integrator (S-] ) blocks, and assign a state variable to the output
of each block.
[Type text]
Page 28
Model II COIILI 01 Theory
ro
'-JL
-v
"j
lOEES5
--,I,.~
W':+-+":"'
I~r"'
....,)XI SA,_I
'~_"_j:--
"
lOEE55
r,
,. __1
~.;..(+,
'>_"
.)=;> YI'J
II.,:.,X,:_"
u(l)
'.
+v-->y(t)
Figure 2: Vector block diagram for a linear system described by state-space 'system dynamics ..
Step 2: At the input to each block (which represents the derivative of its state variable)
draw a summing element.
Step 3: Use the state equations to connect the state variables and inputs'to the
summing elements through scaling operator blocks.
.'
Step 4: Expand the output equations and sum the state variables and inputs through
a set of scaling operators to form the components of the output. '
Figure 3: Block diagram for a state-equation based second-order system .
Example 1
Example 2
Draw a block diagram for the general second-order, single-input single-output

system:
Find the transfer function and a single first-order differential equation relating
the outputy(t) to the input l/(t) for a system described by the first-order linear
state and output equations:
XI
XI
all
al2
X2
a21
a22
y(t)
CI
C2
X2
XI
X2
+ du(t).
hi
b:
u(t)
dx
dt
y(t)
(i)
Solution: The block diagram shown in Fig. 3 was drawn using the four steps
described above.
'
Solution:
ax(t) + bu(t)
(i)
cx(t) + du(t)
(ii)
The Laplacetransform of the state equation is

~X(s)
aX (s) + bU(s).
3.Transformation From State-Space Equations to Classical Form
which may be rewritten with the state variable X(s) on the left-hand side:
The transfer function and the classical input-output differential equation for any system
variable may be found directly from a state space representation through the Laplace
transform. The following example illustrates the general method for a first order system.
Then dividing by (s - a), solve for the state variable:
[Type text]
Page 29
(s -
ol X))
bl1l-----c-
X(s)
[Type text]
=s _ a U(s).
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Page 30
10EESS
and substitute into the Laplace transform of the output equation Y (s)
dUes):
.
be
--+d
Yes)
cX(s) +
The state equations, written in the form of Eq. (16), are a set of n simultaneous
operational expressions. The common methods of solving linear algebraic equations, for
example Gaussian: elimination, Cramer's rule, the matrix inverse, elimination and
substitution, may be directly applied to linear operational equations such as Eq. (16). For
low-order single-in~ut single-output systems the transformation to a classical formulation
may be performed 'in the following steps:
U(s)
.'i-a
-=-._
ds +U(s)
(be - ad)
(vi)
..
"
Yes)
fl(,) =-- =
U(s)
d\+ (bead) (8 -
or
2. Reorganize each state equation so that all terms in the state variables are on
the left-hand .side,
(vii)
3. Treat the state equations as a set of simultaneous algebraic equations and solve
The differential equation is found directly:

(.\'- a) Y (s)
(ds + (be - ad)) U(s).
for those state variables required to generate the output variable.
(viii)
4. Substitute for the state variables in the output equation.
and ret\'rif;ng as a differential equation:
5. Write the output equation in operational form and identify the transfer function.
dv
du
dt - ay = d dt + (be - ad) u(l).
(ix)
6. Use the transfer function to write a single differential equation between the
Classical represenfations of higher-order systems may be derived in an analogous set of

steps by using the Laplace transform and matrix algebra. A set of linear state and output
equations written in standard form
y
1. Take t~e Laplace transform of the state equations.
(s - a)
The transfer function is:
Ax +Bu
(13)
ex +Du
(14)
output variable and the system input.

This method is illustrated in the following two examples.
Example 3
Use t~e Laplace transform method to derive a single differential equation for the
capacitor voltage Vc in the series R-L-C electric circuit shown in Fig. 4
may be rewritten in the Laplace domain. The system equations are then
Solution:
sX(s)
AX(s) + BU(s)
Yes) = CX(s) + DU(s)
[sl -
Al xes)
Bu(s).
~ (16)
"
where the term "I creates an II x II matrix with s on the leading diagonal and'zeros elsewhere.
(This step is necessary because matrix addition and subtraction is only defined for matrices
of the same dimcnsion.) 111C matrix [sl - A] appears frequently throughout linear system
theory; it is a square II x II matrix withclemcnts directly related to the A matrix:
.~/~ 1(1
[.1'1- A] ~
-all
(/22)
~_7
(8) Physical system
-a2n
(b) Linear graph
(c)
Normaltree
Figure 4: A series RLC circuit.
(17)
-(1;,1
[Type text]
(05-
"s(t)
-a12
(.\' - (/11')
The linear graph method of state equation generation selects the
(15)
and the state equations may be rewritten:

sx(,,) - Ax(s)
10EE55
(s - a",,)
Page 31
[Type text]
Page 32
Model II Corm 01 Theory
10EE55
capacitor voltage vc(t) and the inductor current iL(t) as state variables, and
generates the following pair of state equations:
.
o l/C
-1/L -R/L
10EE55
Cramer's Rule, for the solution of a set of linear algebraic equations, is J useful method to
apply to the solution of these equations. In solving for the variable Xi in a set of 11 linear
algebraic equations, such as Ax = b the rule states:
(i)
Xi
The required output equation is:

y(t)
1 0
=
=
OVc(s) + IIC h(s) + OVs(s)

-lILVc(s) - RlLh(s) + 1ILI/,(s)
then the relationship between the ith state variable and the input is
(iii)
where (sl - A) (i) is defined to be the matrix formed by replacing the ill,' column of (sJ - A)
with the column vector B. The differential equation is
(iv)
(v)
det [vl - A],,
Step 3: In this case we have two simultaneous operational equations in the

state variables vc and it.. The output equation requires only Vc. If Eq.
(iv) is multiplied by [.I' + RILl, and Eq. (v) is multiplied by IIC, and the
equations added, h(s) is eliminated:
[.I' (s + RlL) + IILC] Vc(s) = IILCVs(s)
S2
IILC
v:
+(RIL)s + 11LC s(s)
Step 5: The transfer function H(s) = Vc(s)IV,(s) is:

H(s) -liTe
S2 +(RlL)s+I1LC
det (.I'I - At)
(21)
Ilk (/).
Example 4
Use Cramer's Rule to solve for Vl.(t) in the electrical system of Example 3.
Solution:
(vi)
From Example 3 the state equations are:
vc
Step 4: The output equation is y = Vc. Operate on both sides of Eq. (vi) by
[S2 + (RlL)s + IILCrl
and write in quotient form:
_
Vc(s) -
(20)
det lvl - A]
Step 2: Reorganize the state equations:

OVs(s)
lILV,(s)
det lsI - A](i)

=--------U(s)
Xi(S)
sVc(s) - IIC h(s)

1ILVc(s) + ls+ RILlh(s)
(IS)
where A (,) is another n x n matrix formed by replacing the ith column of A with the vector
b.
If
[.1'1- A] X(s) = BU(s)
(19)
(ii)
Step I: In Laplace transform form the state equations are:

sVc(s)
sh(s)
det A(i)
det[A]
I1C
-RIL
-lIL
IlL
(i)
and the output equation is:

(vii)
VL
= -Vc
- RiL
+ V,(t).
(ii)
In the Laplace domain the state equations are:

(viii)
-IIC
IlL
s +RIL
V,.(s)
h(s)
o
IlL
Vi"(S),
_(iii)
Step 6: The differential equation relating vc to V, is:

dlvc + R dvc +...!_v
dl2
L dt
LC C
[Type text)
-+-V (t)
LC
(ix)
Page33
[Type text)
Page 34
..
lOEESS
..
The voltage Vc(s) is given by:
Xes)
det
det (sl - A)(i)
Vc(s)
det[(s! - A)]
Vin(.~)=
det
0
lIL
s
lIL
-lIC
(s +RIL)
-lIC
(.I' +RIL)
adj lsI - A] B U(s).

det[s! - AI
and substituting into the output equations gives:
VineS)
=
1ILC
,
VineS).
S + (RIL)s + (lILC)
(iv)
Yes)
C lsI - Ar' B +D U(s).
-,
.1'
(25)
C adj(sl - A) B + det[sl - AID U(s)
det[sI - AI
H(s)U(s)
def[sI - A] Y (s) = [C adj (sI - A) B + det [.1'1- A] DJ U(s).
.I'lL
Vi"(S).
+ (RIL)s + (1ILC)
(v)
Example 5
Use the matrix inverse method to find a differential equation relating VL(t) to
Vs(t) in the system described in Example 3.
-1ILC
-(RIL)s
=-cc~---c-~-=+ ,
+ 1 v,(s)
.1'2 + (RIL)s + (lILC)
s- + (RIL)s_JlILC)
-1IL(, - (RIL)s + (.I' 2 + (RIL)s + (lILC V,(s)
.12 +(RIL)s + (lILC)
Solution:
The state vector, written in the Laplace domain,

Xes) = lsI - Ar' BU(s)
(vi)
+ (RIL)s + (lILC) Vs(s).
Vc(s) _
giving the differential equation
h(s)
s
lIL
det lsI - A]
(SI50) system the transfer function may be found directly
by evaluating the inverse matrix

BU(.I).
Using the definition of the matrix inverse:
[Type text)
and the adjoint of lsI -
(22)
lsI -
Ar'
adj [sl det[sl -
AJ
Ar
.'
-lIC
-,
s + RlL
(ii)
lIL
The determinant of lsI - AI is
(vii)
Af'
(i)
from the previous example is:
s:
Xes) = (sl
(27)
and taking the inverse Laplace transform of both sides .
-Vc(s). - Rids) + V,(s)
For a single-input single-output
(26)
so that the required differential equation may be found by expanding:
VineS)
The output equation may be writtemiirectly-frern4he--baplace traflsierm-of Eq.

(ii):
s2
C [sT - Ar' BU(s) + DU(s)
YeS)
s
0
det (vl - A)12)
det lIL lIL
deiT0I - A)]-V;n(S) = s
-lIC
det
ilL (.I' + RIL)
(24)
Expanding the inverse in terms of the determinant and the adjoint matrix yields:
The current h(t) is:
h(s)
lOEESS
(23)
Page 35
adj
.1'2
+ (RIL)s + (IILC)
(iii)
AJ is
s
-I/C
IlL s + RIL
s+RlL
-IlL
I/C
s
(iv)
From Example.5 and the previous example, the output equation VL(t) = -Vc = [-1 - RJ and D = [IJ. The transfer function, Eq.
RiL + V,(t) specifies that C

(26) is:
.
[Type text)
Page 36
Moaen~Control Theery
leEESS
Since
C adj (sI - A)B
s+R/L
-1IL
-1 -R
R
Modern Control I heory
10EE55
l/C
s
..
IlL
-r -Le'
(vi) .
the transfer function is

-(RIL)s - l/(LC) + (s 2 +(RlL)s + (lILC
/its)
=
(S2
+ (RlL)s + (lILC
(vii)
(S2 + (RIL)S + (lILC'
Figure 5: Block diagram of a system represented by a classical differential equation.
which is the same result found by using Cramer's rule in Example 4.
Eq. (30) may be solved for U(s,
Transformation from Classical Form to State-Space

Representation
The block diagram provides a convenient method for deriving a set of state e({llationsfor
a system that is specified in terms of a single input/output differential equatio,n. A set of
n state variables can be identified as the outputs of integrators in the diagram, and state
equations can be written from the conditions at the inputs to the integrator blocks (the
derivative of the state variables). There are many methods for doing thi,s; we present
here one convenient state equation formulation that is widely used 'in control system
theory.
:
Let the differential equation representing the system be of order n, and withou,t loss of
generality assume that the order of the polynomial operators on both sides Ps the same:
a"s" + a"~ls"-l+ "'+ao
Y(s)=
b"s"+b"~IS"~l+
"'+bn
U(s).
(28)
U(s)=
X(s)
a,,+I"~IS~I+"'+als~(H-I)+a(ls'H
(32)
and rearranged to generate a feedback structure that can be used as the basis for a block
diagram:
'1
1,,-1 1
aI I
au 1
2(s) =-U(s) - -+ ... + -;=T + --_-"
2(s).
(33)
an
an s
an s
an s
The dummy'variable 2(s) is specified in terms of the system input lI(t) and a weighted slim
of successive integrations of itself. Figure 5 shows the overallstructure of this direct-form
block diagram. A string of 11 cascaded integrator (lis) blocks, with 2(s) defined at the input
to the first block, is used to generate the feedback terms, 2(s)ls-l, i = 1,... 11, in Eq, (33).
Equation (3l) serves to combine the outputs from the integrators into the outputy (I).
A set'of.-state equations may be found from the block diagram by assigni})gthe state
variables ,x,(t) to the outputs of the Il integrators. Because of the direct cascade connection
of the integrators, the state equations take a very simple form. By inspection:
We may multiply bothsides of the equation by s?" to ensure that all differenjial operators
have been eliminated:
a" + a"~ls~1 + ...+ als~("~I) +lOS~" Y(s) =

b"+b"~IS~1 +"'+bls-("~I)+"'+bos~"
"
U(.t).
(29)
[Type text]
Page 37
--X1
(II
- -X2
nit
all
U()
from which the output may be specified in terms of a transfer function. If we define a dummy
variable 2(s), and split Eq. (29) into two parts
.
[Type text]
llfl~ I
1
.. - ---x" + -~-II(I).
(in
(34)
(In
Page 38
lOEE55
lOEE55
In matrix form these equations are

.\'j
~'-2
()
o
o
()
-~II-::!:
0
-au/a"
0
0
':'-\-11-1
:\:11
...
-a,/a"
...
x,
- 0
g U (I)
-an-2/all
-a,,_I/all
l/an
Xn
(35)
The A matrix has a very distinctive form. Each row, except the bottom one, is filled of
zeroes except for a one in the position just above the leading diagonal. Equation (35) is
a common form of the state equations, used in control system theory and known as the
phase variable or companion form. This form leads to a set of state variables which may not
correspond to any physical variables within the system.
The corresponding output relationship is specified by Eq. (31) by noting that X;(s) =
Z(s)/S("~'-iJ.
:
Figure 6: Block diagram of the transfer operator of a third-order system found by a direct
realization.
.
"
y(t)
(36)
But z (t) = dx.i/dt , 'whichis foundfrom the nthstate equation in Eq. (34). When substituted
into Eq. (36) the output equation is:
x,
Y(s)
bII-I
_ b"an-I
X2
an
'I
a"
- + ...!'...u(t).
(37)
Example 6
Draw a direct form realization of a block diagram, and write the state equations
in phase variable form, for a system with the differential equation
(flv
..IF)'
dv
The Matrix Transfer Function
For a multiple-input multiple-output system Eq. 22 is written in terms of the r component

input ~ector U(s)
X(s) = lsI - Ar' BU(s)
(38)
generating a set of n simultaneous linear equations, where the matrix is B is n x r. The m
component system output vector Y(s) may be found by substituting this solution for X(s)
into the output equation as in Eq. 25:
(i)
Solution: The system order is 3, and using the structure shown in Fig. 5 the
blockJiagram is as shown in Fig. 6.
C lsI - Ar' B + D (u(s)}
o
o
CJ ::
Y(s)
x,
+
Ollu(t),
(ii)
-13 -19
[Type text]
(39)
and expanding the inverse in terms of the determinant and the adjoint
matrix
The slate andoutput equations are found directly from Eqs. (35) and (37):
(iii)
Y(s) = C [sl- Ar' B (u(s)} + 0 (u(s)}
du
--. +/--;+19-'-+13v=13-+2611
ell'
dtcit
.
cit
x,
R ~~ R + [OJu (I).
X3
5
,{
26 13 0
C adj (sf - A) B + det lsI - A] D

det[sI - A]
U(s)
H(s)U(s),
(40)
where H(s) is defined to be the matrix transferfunction relating the output vector Y(s) to
the input vector U(s):
-7
Page 39
[Type text]
Page 40
lOEE55
10E~55
"
H(s)
= (C
adj (sl - A) B + det lsI - A] D)

det[sI-A]
(41)
UNIT-3 DERIVATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM STATE MODEL

UNIT-3
Derivation of transfer function
generalized Eigen vectors.
from state model,
digitalization,
Eigeri values,
Eigen vectors,
6 Hours
Converting transfer-functions
to state models using canonical forms
The state variables that produce a state model are not, in general. unique. HO\~eVeLthere ex ist several
common methods of producing state models from transfer functions, Most control theory texts contain
developments of a standard form called the control canonical form, sec, e.g., [I]. A:;ther
variable canonical form.
Control Canonical
is the phuse
Form
When the order of a transfer function's denominator is higher than the order of its numerator, the
transfer function is called strictly proper. Consider the general, strictly proper third-order transfer
function
.r.<!l =
"
"
U(s)
/),.\"'+ h,s
.1']
+ h"
(1)
+ a,.\"' +<I,s+a"
Dividing each term ~y the highest order of s yields
Y(s)
(2)
U(s)
which is a function containing numerous lis terms, or integrators. There arc various signal-now graph
configurations that will produce this function. One possibility is the control canonical form shown in
Figure I,The state model for the signal flow configuration in Figure I is
Dept. of EEE,SIBIT
[Type text)
Page 41
Page 42
"
" '10EESS
10EESS
(boX,(s) + b,X,(s) + b,X, (s)

U(s)
Yes)
U(s)
(3)
b,l~:l+[Olll
.1'~["" ",
which is identical to equation (2) proving that the control canonical form is valid.
Lx,
As an example consider the transfer function
Y(s)
C(s)
R(s)
2s'+8s+6
s'+8s'+26s+6
The coefficients corresponding with the control canonical forrn are:
60 = 6,
b,
= 8,
b,
= 2,
ao
= 6,
a,
= 26,
and
a,
=8.
The state model based on control canonical form is
Figure 1. Control cnnonical form block diagram.
"
The validity of(3) is tested by rearranging (2) to yield
I.
I
I
Yes) +(1, -'} (s)+<I, ,Y(s)+ao,Y(s)
s
s,
S
= b, -U(s)
I
I
+b, ,U(s)+ho,U(s)
s
s
(4)
..
and then substituting the expression for Yes) from the state model output equation in (3) yields
, "
h"X,(s) + ",X,(s)
+ h,X,(s)
=1>, ~U(s) + b, -',U(S)

s
-lI, -(boX,(s)
s
- (/, -',(""X,(s)
s
1
- (/" ,(b"X,(s)
s
Examination! of Figure 1 shows one potential
+h" ~U(S)
s
+ b,X,(s)
(veloclrv), and X,es) might be inches/second/second
..
+ b,X,(s)
+ h,X,(s)
+ h,X,(s))
+ h,X,(s)
+ h,X3(S).
benefit of manipulating
systems to conform to control
canonical form. If xtCs) happened to carry units of inches (position), then X,es) might be inches/second
(acceleration),
Phase Variable Canonical Form

Devl!lopme~t of the phase variable canonicalform as presented in [2J begins with the general fourthorder, strictly proper transfer function
(5)
Yes)
U(s)
b,S3 + b,s' +b.s + bo

s' + a,s' + a,s' + a,s + ao
b,s -I + b,s -2 + bls -3 + bos"

I+a,s-I +a,s-' +als
+ao5"
(6)
which can be rearranged to read
Eql!!\ion (5) can be rewri Iten as
Y[s ) = b,S-IU(S)+ b,s-'U( s ) + b,s-JU(s) + bos-4U(s)

-a,s-Iy(
Dept. of EEE. SIBIT
Page 43
Dept. of EEE. SIBIT
s) - a,s-'Y( s ) - a,s-'Y( s)-aos-4y(
s)
Page 44
(7)
"
"
10EE55
Moderri Control Theory
The denominator in (6) is fourth order and leadsone to concludethat a block diagramconsistingof
four l/s terms may be useful.Constructionof the phasevariablecanonicaiform is Initiated by setting
the output to
10EE55
SAMPLEDDATAAND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
(8)
Figure 2.1 (a) shows the blockdiagram of a sampled-data control system. The continuous error'signal ell) is sampled at an
interval of time T by means of a sampler. The plant output is also a continuoussignal and it is due to the het that a hold
circuit preceeds the plant.
-
which maybe representedusingfour integrators asshownIn Figure2.
U(s)
---G-~0---E}---
.Y(S)
Figure 2. Block diagram of the output equation;

After substituting Y(s)from (8) into (7),the expressionbecomes
Y( s)
= b s-'U( s) + b,s-'U(s) + b,s- U( s) + bos-4U(s)

3
,.)
(9)
-a3bos-IU( s) - a2bos-6U(s) -a,bos-'U( s)- aA,s"'U( s)

It is left for the reader to show that the additional terms when applied to the block diagram results in
Figure 3.8 (b) in 12j:The reader may also wish to examine the similarities between control canonical
form and phase variable form.
~I
1(1)
It is important to note that a particular transfer function may be represented by block diagrams of
many different canonical forms, yielding many different valid state models. .
(tl)
The advances made in microprocessors, microcomputers, and digital signal processors have
accelerated the growth of digital control systems theory. TIle discrete-time systems are dynamic
systems in which the system-variablesare defined only at discrete instants of time.
The terms sampled-data control systems, discrete-time control systems and digital control
systems have all been used interchangeably in control system literature. Strictly speaking, sampleddata are pulse-amplitude modulated signals and are obtained by some means of sampling an analog
signal. Digital signals are generated by means of digital transducers or digital computers, often in
digitally coded form. The discrete-time systems, in a broad sense, describe all systems having some
form of digital or sampled signals.
Discrete-time systems differ from continuous-time systems in that the signals for a discrete-time
systems are in sampled-data fonn. In contrast to the continuous-time system, the operation of
discrete-time systems are described by a set of difference-equations. The analysis and design of
discrete-time systems may be effectively carried out by use of the a-transform, which was evolved
from the Laplace transform as a special form.
Figure 2.1:. (a) Blockdiagram of a sampleddata control system. (b) Blockdiagram of a digital control
system
Figure 2.1 ~) shows the blockdiagram of a digital control system. A digital control system uses digital Signals and a digital
compuler to control a process. The continuoustime errorsignals are converted from analog form to digital form by means of an
AID converter. In practice, the AID converter itself contains the sampler. After processing the inputs, Ihe digital computer
pro~des an output in digital form. This output is then converted to analog form by means of a LlIA convertel In practice, the
DlA converter rtself contains the holddevice.
...
The use of sampled data in control systems enables time.sharing among different input signals using the same control
equipment. Different input signals can be sampled periodically by staggering sampling time and thus a nurnber of inputs can
be handled overthe same control equipment.
Sampled data technique is most appropriate for control systems reqUiringlongdistance data transmission. It is well known
that pulses may be transmitted with little loss of accuracy. Data in analog form mal' suffer considerable distortion in the
~-d Iii
Dept. of EEE, SIBIT
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Dept of EEE, SIBIT
Page 46
Modern Control Theo~y
lOEE55
Ihal pulses may be Iransmilled wilh lillie loss of accuracy, Dala In analog form may suffer considerable distortion in the
Iransmission channel, Using the sampleddata technique, a number of communication signals can be sequentially sampled
and transmilled through a s'ingle transmission channel, thus decreasing the cost of transmission installation, This technique is
referred 10 as 'illle.muitiplexing,
'
In some control applications, it is required that the load be driven by a weak power input signal, The signalsampling reduces
the power demand made on the signal and is, therefore, helpful for signals of weak power origin,
lOEE55
The process is repeated ,with a time period T, called sam~ling1ime, and the signal at the output end of the sampler is
available in the form of plilses of very short duration 61, each followed by a skip period when no output appears at the output
---enaDf the sampler, The continuoustime signal f(l) is thus sampled at a regular interval of time T, as shoVYllin Figure 2,2 (cl,
The sampled signal is denoted as 1 (I), which is obtained after sampling the continuous time input signal 1(1),
Figure 2,2 (c) shows the Signal.modulated pulse train having pulse-width M and is a case of practical.sampling,
Sampler
A. sampler is the basic element of. discretetime conlrol system, which converts a continuoustime signal into a train of
pulses occuring at the sampling instants 0, T,2T, '''' where T is the sampling~d,
Note that, in between the sampling
instanls, the sampler does not transmil any information,
However,
in the case of ideal.sampling, the pulse width t::.tapproaches to zero and therefore the output ((I) of an ideal sampler is the
signal.modulated impulse train as shOWl in Figure 2.2 (~,
,
Figure 2.3 shows two samplers operating in synchronism is., their sampling time and instants of operation are the same.
The continuoustime signal f(l) is thus being sampled twice, As the two samplers operate in synchronism, the output of the
second sampler will ob~ously be r(Q.
Figure 2.2 (a) shows a switch being used as a S31l111lerA. continuouslime signal f(I), as shown!n Figure 2.2 (b), is the input
to the sampler, The switch is closed for a very short duralion of time t::.1, and then remains open for some dural ion of time,
f(t)~[r(~J'.r(~
SampieH
Sampler2
Figure 2.3: Signal f(l) sampled twice

Therefore
~!
[I (t)] =1..'(t)-.
"
Thus, starring a starred function results in the starred function ITself
"
Sampling Process
tT"
-)f~
-H-.t
--r~.
The sampler converts a continuoustime signal W into a sequence of pulses 'Whereinthe magnITudeof the pulse gives the
strength of the input signal at the instant of sampling, The pulse considered is of very short time duration and thus may be
approximated as an impulse,
1'1
Figure 2.2: Uniform penodic s.mpllng: (a)Sarnpler (b)Continuous signal (c)Practical sampling (0ldeal
sampling
Considering the sampler output to be a train of weighted impulses, we can relate the continuoustime signal f(Q to the
sampler outputt'(t) as
Dept. of EEE, 5J8fT
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Dept. of EEE, 518fT
Page 48
10EE55
10EE55
Moderri Control Theory
!XI
t [(kT)8(t - kT)
(2:3)( (I) =
(2.1)[ '"(t) =f(t)oy(.t)
k=-oo
where oy{l) represents a train of unit impulses.
Equation (23) gives Ihe sampler output, which is a train of weighted impulses.
The sampler output is equal to the product of the continuous-time input signal
fW
and the train of unitimpulses 8y{1) In other
words, the sampler may be considered as a modulator with the continuous-time input signal f(l) as the modulating signal
and the train of unitimpulses ~(t) as the carrier, as shown in Figure 2.4.
Most of the standard timefunctions are zero for t < 0, then in Equation (23), the lower limit can be put as zero instea
as the function f(kT) is zero for t < In this book, therefore, unless othe011isestated, we shall assume that this is thE
..
Thus, Equation (2.3) becomes
eo
(2.4)(1) = L f(kT)o(t-kT).
I,!
k=O
~
~~
-':;;~.!vJt.1t'.l':)r -1rl1d."
_-
2,2,2,1 Laplace Transform of a Sampled (Starred) Function
'-6'.,ff~rt..tf"t. T 1<]1",1)
Figure 2.4: Sampling process
The unitimpulse 6(t kT), occuring at sampling instants I = !iT; k = 0,

I
1,2, ...... , is the firsftimederwative of the sampled unt-step function u(l k~ occuring at t = kT; k = 0,1.2, ...
'.
The unii-impulss train may be expressed mathematically as
Therefore,
00
(2.2)dr{t) =
E o( t - kT)
~ [u(t-kT)]
Ic=-oo
1 -.rkT
s . -;e
where 8(t - k TJ is the unitimpulse occuring at I= k T
As the continmus-fime signal f(l) appears only at sampling instants in the output; the same is denoted.by f(1r. TJ and the
sarnpled-oulput signal can be represented as
-skT
Thus, the Laplace transform of Equation (24i is given bi'
'.
Dept of EEE, SIB!T
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Dept. of EEE, SIB!T
Page SO
lOEE55
ModerrcContro! Theory
lOEE55
"X
(2,S)F (s)::: f',

L. j(kT)e-
skT
k=1)
F '(5) is known as the Laplace transform of a sampled (starred) function or simply a starred transform.
..
If f(l) is a unit-step function, Ih~/) f(k D = 1 and the Laplace transform of the starred unit-step function r(l) is given by
F (1)
t I.e-skT
'Xi
(2.6)F" (1)
F (I)
catm
-2,.,
k=:()
1 + e -sT + e -ZsT +...
-1lI.-m",O
'
11\.111,
2010
(iI)
Figure 2.5: (a)Sampler (b)Sampler input Fourier spectra (c)Sampler output Fourier (a)Sampler output Fourier spectra: w s
_1_
.I_e-fl .
~ is immediately obselVed from Figure 2.5 (c) and Figure 2.5 (d) that so long as w s ~ 2 w m' the original spectrum is preserved
Signal Reconstruction: Holding Devices

The use of a sampler in control systems generates high-frequency components in the sampled oupu!. The sampler Input
Feurler-specna is shown in Figure 2.5(b) wherein wm is the highest frequency contained in the input signal. The sampler
in the sampled signal and can be extracted from it by low-pass filtering (shown in the dolled line in Figure 2.5 (c)). This is
the well-known Shanon's sampling theorem according to VYflichthe information contained in a signal is fully preserved in the
sampled version so long as the sampling frequency (w ~ is at least twice the maximum frequency (w rJ contained in the
signal. That is,
output contains the Originalinput frequency component wm and complementary high-frequency components in addition, as
shovln in Figure 2.5 (el and Fi[IUre2.5 (d) that correspond to W s > 2w m and OJ s < 2w m respectively, where w s is the
sampling fre(IUency.
f(J,J)~F'(jW)
(al
___2h_
-ll\n 0
Dept. of EEE, 5j8fT
(1m
The original signal is reconstructed from the sampled signal by means of various types of hold-circuits (extrapolators). The
simpfest hold-circuit is the zero-order-hold (ZOH) in which the reconstructed signal acquires the same value as the last
received sample for the entire sampling period. The zero-order-hold (ZOH) circuit has the characteristics of a low-pass filter and
therefore, if a ZOH circuit is placed after the sampler, the high-frequency (complementary) components present in the
recMSlftJcted signal are easily filtered out and at the output of ZOH the original signal appears. The ZOH de~ce is also known
as a "box-car" generator. The schematic diagram of sampler and ZOH is ShOVv11 in Figure 2.6 (a), while signal reconstruction
is illustrated in Figures 2.6 (b) and 2.6 (c).
(b)
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Dept. of EEE, S~BrT
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lOESS
lOEE55
f'(t)
. :. ..
Therefore, the Laplace transform of the output of ZOH is given as
H(s)
S-
s'
-sT
, (I-e....n
If(s)
'.,
= ---s
Now, the transfer function of ZOH is given by
laplacetrailSform 0/ OUlplu 01 ZOR .,

laplacetrmlSjormoJ inputoj ZOH
(2.7)or,
H(s)
Gho(S)
(~l
Figure 2,6: (a)Sampler and zero-order-hold (ZOH), (b)Sampled signal. (e) Reconstructed signal by ZOH
(I_esT)
Note that the higher-order holds offer no particular advantage over the ZOH, The ZOH, when used in conjunction with a high
sampling rate, provides satisfactory performance,
'
Transfer-Function
2.2.3,2 Frequency Response of ZOH
of a ZOH Circuit
We already know from Equation ~}) that the transfer function of a zero-orderhold circuit is
In Figure 2,7, a unit impulse input is given to a ZOH circuit that holds the input signal for a duration T and thus the output
appears to be a unit-step function until duration T. Therefore, the output of ZOH can be
as
.'
Put s = jlJJ in the pteceeding relation and we have
(l-e -j"T)
jw
Figure 2,7: Unit impulse input to ZOH
h(t) = u(t) - u(t - T).
Dept of EEE, 51BIT
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Page 54
lOEE55
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(2.8B)
:::
I -J..;T12
\e
-e -l-,rr")
.
'
p
,e jw
sin( :.':) > 0

sin(~} < 0
O'
()
{ 7r,
T!~
~
To view th: previou~derivations,the amplitude and phase plots are shown in Figure 2,8.
Ia,.,{jwll
. (' IT)
"Ill ,-.
u-
iA!j"m
t
Te-pTiZ
--:;;-
'(
wT)
(1) . Sill T
sU'T'
If the sampling frequency is
(Ij
0)
w,
3;0.
LGI>cIi<
1': 'bT)
(1)
"
-jwT12
,e
3""
.:
m- then the sampling time T is given by
-180'
"
'.
""
"
""
..
(b)
Figure 2.8: Frequency response of the IOH: (a)Amplitudeplot (b)Phase plot
T= ,b1..
f.;.,,!s
Gho(j(u)
= Tsin(~)
(6
e-jC~;).
(2.8A)IGho(j(u)I == T
Dept. of EEE. Sl8fT
sin("W)
(ii
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lOEE55

UNIT-4 SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS
x(l) = e'" e
UNIT -4
Solution of state equation, state transition matrix and its properties, computation using Laplace transformation,
power series method, Cayley-Hamilton method, concept of controllability & observability, methods of determining
~~~
.
.'
At 1=0 (zerbinitial condition),
10 Hours
x(l) = <x(O)
A' X(tO)
= l"'O) x(lO)
(8)
.",.
From Eq.8, it is observed that the initial state

x(O) =x"
After
and canonical
at 1=0 is driven to a state X(I) at time 't ' by matrix exponential function e " . This matrix
forms of state models, the next step to analysis is to obtain the solution of state equation. From the
exponential function, which transfers the initial state of the system in '[' seconds, is called
solution
STATE TRANSITION MATRIX (STM) and is denoted by
of
obtaining
the
various
the state equation,
mathematical
the transient
models
such
as physical,
phase
response can then be obtained for specific input. This
completes the analysis of control system in state-space.

The solution of state equation consists of two parts; homogenous solution and forced solution. The
model with zero input is referred as homogenous
Properties
1).
system and with non-zero input is referred as forced
system. The solution of state equation with zero input is called as zero input response (ZIR). The solution
of state model with zero state (zero initial condition) is referred as zero state response (ZSR). Hence
total response is sum of ZIR and ZSR.
A,
of State Transition
Matrix
(I):
(0)=1 proof follows from the definition,
iI't'
A'I'
= 1 t At t --
t --
2!
3!
= ~(/)
(0)=1.
Substituting t=O results into

2). ~.'(t) =~(-l):
a)
Zero Input Response (ZIR):
.1'l'Ooj:-Consider
Consider the n-th order LTI system with zero input. The state equation of
such system with usual notations is given by
.
= 1-
~(-/)
X(I) = AX (t) (I)

with x(O) = XO
(2)
(3)
where e" is matrix exponential function defined as

A'I'
A1/'
e" =ltAI+--t--t
(4)
......
A'I'
A/t ---+
2!
3!
$(1)$( -I) = I
Pre-multiplying both sides with
X(/) = e"'.k
3!
A't'
A'I'
2!*~-_
.....
Multiplying $(/) and $( -I),
Let the solution of Eq.( I) be of the form
2!
~(I) - ! + Ao' t
$.'
$(-1) = $ '(I)
3). $(/,')$(1,)
Proal
,!,
'!'(I,) =
= $(1, + I,):
A' I,'
1 tAl, ~~
and k is a constant vector.

and $(1,) = 1 + At, t
Differentiating Eq. (3);
A't,'
+3'-
A't'
A
---z1--t-t.. ..
3t1
A'(t, t/,l' ,1(/, ~/.'i

(/,Mt,)=ltA/,t~)+---.,.-- t
21
:1
X(/) = Ae"k
k = (e'''),' x(tO) = eO A' x(O)

Dept. ofEEE. SJBIT
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Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 58
lOEE55
lOEE55
= ~(I, + I,)
4)~(l2al,)~(I,
-I,,)=~(I,
31 - 21 +...
1-21+
2
3
-In):
(This property implies that state transition processes can be divided into a number of
sequential transitions), i.e. the transition from z, to 12.
____
x(t,) =~(I, -/o)x(lo);
x(l, ) = ~(I, -I" )X(I,,)
is equal to transition rrom'to'to
't,'and
from
itj
to 't2' i.e.,
o =
b)
x(l,) = ~(t, - I, )X(/, )
Proof: ~(I, -(,) = [+ A(I, - I,) t
A (I, - I,)
--2:-! -
A 2 (I, -10)
,I'
e1
,A:!t2
AJf~
=[+,j/'r--+--t
21
X(IO)=x(O)
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides,
Sx(s) - x(O) = Ax(s)
[SI - A]x(s).: x(O)
3!
".".
I
-2
-]
Premultying both sides by [SI-Arl,
a) ~(I) =
b) A = 0
I t AI + -I 0
I
I'
Ar
xes) = [SI J x(O)

Taking Laplace Inverse on both sides,
x(t)=
.I[SI-Ar'x(O)
I 1
. A'I'
Al('
t __
2!
3!
o
-]
I'
- 2
1--+-+
...
2 3
,
(3
_I + 1.- -_
e
2 -,
+
te'
'
Example, Compute the STM by power series method given

=
3!
Consider the-state equation with zero input as

x(t) = Ax(t);
theorem
1). Power series method:
I'
2!
Itl+ -+ -t".
2). Inverse Laplace Transform Method:
It is infinite solution which can be trunkatcd to 2 or 3 terms.

By the definition.
o a)
I'
...
o e'
Power series method
IN'
2I't
0)
3) Cayley-Hamilton
II
..,,,.
... It/2
P(I, -/
2) Inverse Laplace transform method
I'
2! 3!
Evaluation or State Transition Matrix ~(I):

Few method to evaluate the STM arc;
I)
3!
It/t-t-+
_ .
. Ail, tlor A'(I, +~,j .
ljl(/,-t,)j;(/,-/o) -/TJ{t,+/n)~--2!- +--]- T."""
=
A'I2
0 I
I 2 12
t
It
-t" ...
0 1
0 1
0
2!
t .".
+""
2!
~(,-I,,)=/tA(I,-lo)+
. A'/2
4- -t-t
2!
[+ AI
1+
Comparing the above example with

X(I) = eAr x(O) .
"""
o
-I
,
1-1-
te-I_,_
- 2
'I'-t
I'
2!
-2
It shows that
.
e'" = STM = ~(t) =
t'
31+""
~(/) =
+ -t
..
,
o
-]
-I
Example:
te-I
-I lSI
Ar'
[SI - A]-'
Obtain the STM by Laplace Transform (Inverse Laplace Transform) method for given
system matrices
a). A =
Dept. of EEE, SjBIT
Page 59
'.
I I
Dept. ofEEE, SjBIT
, '
1 b).
A=
o
Page 60
-I
S-I
-I
a). A =
lSI - A]
~(s) = lSI - Ar'
=
e'
~(t) =
c). A =
- 2 '
.1~(S) =
lOEE55
lOEE55
S-I
[SI- A] =
-I
(S ~ 2)
OS-I
-I
S -I
b).A=_1_2
S-I
0 S -I
[S_1]2
- 1 -,
~{t) = [SI - Ar' =
S+2
(S + I)'
(S + I)
-[
S+2
(S+ I)' (S+I)'

"'( )
't' t
'"
(I + t)e"
.l't'(t) =
-Ie -,
te"
(I - t)e -,
te'
c). A = _ 2
.,
lSI - Ar'
lSI _ A] = S
-3
S+3
-2 S
(S + 2)(S + I)
-I
S+3
S+3
- 2
-I
S+3
..
Hence ~(t) = --(S + 2)(S + I)
S+3
- 2
~(t) =
.'~(I) =
., (S
2e-' - "
- 2e-' + 2e-21
I
S
+ 2)(S + I)
e' - e-.:!I
e' + 2e--:'1
3. STM by CaUJy-Hamilton Theorem:

This method is useful for large systems. The theorem states that "Every nonsingular square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation." This theorem helps for
evaluating the fu?ction of a matrix.
For nxn, non-singular matrix A the matrix poly function rCA) is given by
f(A)=rxoJ+rx,A+rx,A'+
.
. ~...
.... +rx"A"'
= ~(t)
where rxo ,rx, .. ,rx, constant coefficients which can be evaluated with eigen values of
matrix A as described below.

~:
For a given matrix, form its characteristic equation
eigcn values as
Dept of EEE, SjBIT
Page 61
Dept. of EEE, SjBIT
'.
IAi- AI = 0 and find
A" A, ,..... 1., .

Page 62
Modert._1Control Theory
lOEE55
Step2 (Case 1):lfall eigen values are distinct, thcn form 'n' simultaneous
equations as,
I(A)=A'O
I 0
= ()(.o O
()(o
e'''' "I(A,,)
S:ve for
A" t
= ()(0 t ()(,
()(o,()(, ,()(, , .. e
IX2 A,,' t .....
()(o
= ()(ol t()(,A
0
+,
+
- I -2
0
()(,
-()(,
- 2()(,
-9
10
(Case 2); If some Eigen values are repeated then obtain one independent equation
by using this Eigen value and find co-efficentstx , .(X,.()(, .. ()(,
Step 3: Substitute the co-efficients
()(n'()(,
,()(, ..... ()("
in function
o b)
1
A= 0
a) Consider A =
of
A'o for A = 0
-I
Now characteristic equation is
Characteristic equation is
-2
A-
1M- AI = o.
A-
A,
e" =()(o t()(,A .
"
A, = -1.A, "O.A, =
-I.
c)
A=
1M- A I = 0
(I)
A = A,
e' = ()(o t ()('.
./(1\) = A'" = o, ',
(1)
()(,A
o
- 2 -3
= landA, = 1. Since A is of2x2 second order system, hence,
e = ()(0 :+ (X ," at
will be e'" =()(o.+()(,A,
Since' A' is of 2x2. the corresponding poly function is
1
-2
-I
(A t I)' = o.
Hence, Eigen values arc
A=
-I
Examples:
I) Find /(A)
.
-10
II
2). Find STM by Cayley Hamlton method, given;

a)
= ~(t)
lQEE55
(2)
Differentiating Eq, (1) with respect to

te" = (X ,ilIA =71.1
and substituting
= 2
(3)
(-I)'" = (Xo ()(n -()(,
11;:
From Eqs. (2) arid (3) ()(0
()(,
Since it is case of repeated Eigen values, to obtain the second equation

di fferentiating the expansion for[( ) on both sides (i.e. Eq I),
!!"[A
dA IO]
- 0Ii
= e'
- te'
~(/) = e" = ()(ol+ ()(, A

1 0
,.-,
= e'
= e' (1- I)
Hence STM is given by
=()(oO
= ()(,
lOA'
Hence.jx,
=It()(,
=1-10=-9
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 63
"
I:t()(, 0
e' (I -I)
e'(J- t)
Dept of EEE, SIBIT
tel
let
te'
Page 64
10EE5&

ao=
o
o b)
X.
A -= I
= -1, A, =-1.
(I)
Now characteristic equation is,
e-'=oco-ex,;(A,=-I)
(2)
A-2'-1
and substituting
I;v:- AI ~
= 2=-1
ex, = te"
The STM is given by ~(t) = e"
On simplification,
= OCol + A
I A+3=OI
A
-I
characteristic equation is
and e'"
A, = -I,A, = -2.
(I)
(2)
(2)
= ao +
ex,A,
= exo- 2ex,
(3)
From Eqs. (2) and (3) solving for
,=2,
(3)
= e, + ex,A, + a,A;
ao + ex, + a,
(2), (3) and (4), solving for ao,a,
exo = Lte' - 3e 2t + 4e' ;
(Xl = - 3te21 + 4e21 - 4e'
ex 2 = te" - e21 + e'
Hence STM o = (Xol + ex ,A + a,A'
(4)
e-t =((0 -(Xl
=2e-I-e-"
=0
From Eqs.
(1)
ao
A -I
A, = 2.A, = 2.A, = I
+ 4a,
te' = ex,
IAI - AI = O.
e~" =ao +oc,A,
e-"
Differentiating Eq. (I) with respect to ,and suhstituting

On simplification
Eigen values are distinct. The corresponding functions are,
And e~"
e" =ao +2ex,+4a,
(1- t)e -,
-2 -3
A- 2
e~" =a,,+a,A.+ex,A,'
.I. )
c). A =
-4
0.
Eigen values are

Corresponding function will be
OCo = e-' (1 + t) from Eq. (2).
as before.
, ,
t)e-'
...
(/ = (I-+te-'
,-21
:~ L 4
A = 0 2 0 by Cayley-Hamilton method.
+ OC A
Differentiating Eq. (I) with respect to
hence
- e-I + 2e
Deterimine the STM of system matrix
e" = OCo +ex,A

e~" =
e-/ -e -2r
-i-e-' + 2e-"
For second order system,
ex
3a,
Ze" _ e-2t
; characteristic equation is AI - A = 0
-2
ex,
- 2a, ao
lOEE55
and
a, ,
e"
12e' - 12e" + l3te"
- 4e' + 4e"
o
o
e"
- 3e' + 3e"
e'
.,
",
"
and
"
Hence the STM will be ~(t)

Dept. of EEE. SIBIT
= aoI + a, A.
On simplification
Page 65
Dept. of EEE, SIBIT
Page 66
10EE55
x(t, = -I-I
Solution of Non-homogeneous State Equation

Consider the state equation with forced input u{t) as
x(l) = ,1x(/)
+ BII{t);
(1)
x(t" ) = ,t"
.I{t) - Ax(l)
x{t)
-10
u(t)
10
yet) = [1 O]x(t);x(O) = 0
Solution: The state equation solution is
= BII{t)
Pre-multiplying both sides by e' A,

e- /'[x(l) - AX(/)] = e-'''I/(I)
= eAIx(O) +
x(t)
"
Consider,
(2)
eA(H)
BU(T)dT
(I)
Since x(O) =0,
d [e-'''x(l)]
ill
",
-Ac' "x(l) te "x(t)
= ~(t -T)Bu{T)dT
(' - /,[.\'9TO - Ax(l)]
Now, th~ state transition matrix ~(l) can be evaluated as
d Ie -"
' x ()]
t = (' -/,
11(1 )
e" ~~(t)
ilt
Integrating both sides with time limits 0 and t
lilt
:1
~,t-T);,
x(t)"
e" ,
If the initial time is I" instead of 0 then,

(4)
The Eq (4) is the solution of state equation with input as utt] which represents the change
of state from .1(1,,) to x(1) with input utt).
Example 1: Obtain the response of the system for step input of
0.114e-,(H)
- 0.0128e-Q (H) + 1.012e-"-"
~(t _;T)
'
10
lOdT
= 9.094 -1O.247e-a,1 + 1.153e-a"

where, al=1.1125, a2=9.88
Example 2: Consider the system
t ~(/-T)BlI{T)dT.
t ~(l-T)Bll(T)dT
0.114e-a, (I-
.'. y(t) = Cx(i) = [I 0}x(1)
ISR
x(l) =~(t - t. )x(t.)
0.0128e-"('-'
9.094 -IO.247e-a,1 + 1.153e-,1

-0.132 + 1.15Ie-,1-1.01ge -at
eAI'-Tt BU(T)dT
lIN
X{t)'=~(t)X(O)
- 0.114e-,(H) + 0.114e-.,(H)
:-1
x(l) = e""lol x(O) t
I.bI28e-u,(H)
Hence'
e-" BU{T)dT
Pre-multiplying both sides by
lSI - A]-I
- 0.114e-,1+ 0.114e-",1 - 0.0128e-,1 + 1.012e -al
..
+
-I
1.0128e-a" - 0.0128e-
= e' ".8I1(T)dT
e-"x(t) = x(O)
(2)
(3)
hence Eq (2) can be written as
"e-'/'X(/)I'
lOEE55
x(t) =_ 2
yet)
= [!
1
0
_ 3 x(t) + I U(I)
l}x(t); x{O) =
Solution: The
10 units given state model
as
Dept. of EEE,5J8fT .
Page 67
Dept. ofEEE, SJ8fT
Page 68
-21
2e -e
10EE55
Solution: State transition matrix
e-/ -e -21
-I
10EE55
2~,
2.
-e --e
ZIR = ~(t)x(O)
2e-
e-2t
e " _ e-2t
-2e~'+2e~2'
2e-t
- 2e~'
I
-e
3
-I
-e~'+2e~2'
x(t) = ~(t)x(O)
e" _e" + e-21

+ 2e~2' + e~' - 2e~2'
-t
. 4 ~"
"'t'-e
3
~(t - T )Bu(T)dT
10~, -e ~" --1

4 ~4,
3
3
~e--I
+ e" + ~e'41
-c
~,
-e
~4'
3.
.'
ZSR = ~(t -r)Bu(r}dT
Cootr611abjlity and Observability

2e~(r-T) - e~2(r-T
+ 2e~2(1~T)
_ 2e~'('-T)
e-(l-T)
e~('~T) - e~2('~T)
- e-('~T)
+ 2e~2(r-T)
0ldr
I
Consider the typical state diagram of a system .
e-2(t-T
dT
_ e~(I~T) + 2e~2('~T)
.'. x(t) = ZlR
-e
+ ZSR
The system has two state variables. XI(t) and X2(t). The control input u(t) effects the state
variable XI(t) while it cannot effect the effect the state variable X2(t). Hence the state
variable X2(t) cannot be controlled by the input u(t). Hence the system is uncontrollable.
i.e., for nth order, which has 'n' state variables, ifany one state variable is uncontrolled
by the input u(t), the system is said to be UNCONTROLLABLE by input l1(t).
-,
.!.(l+e~2'
Definition:
For the linear system given-by
-e ~2'
y(t) = Cx(t) =
[l
X(t) = AX (t) + Bu(t)

y(t) = CX(t) + Du(t)
l)x(t)
.!.(l + e~"
2
_ e-2t
= [I I J =
is said to be completely state controllable. If there exists an unconstrained input vector

u(t), which transfers the initial.stntcofthesysrcjn x(to) to its final state X(tf)in finite time
f(tt-to) i.e. fr. It can be seen if' all the initial states arc controllable the system is completely
controllable otherwise the system the system uncontrollable.
=.!.(I + e~") - e~2'
Methods to determine the Controllability:

I) Gilbert's Approach
2) Kalman's Approach.
=.!.(l-e~"
2
Example 3: x(t}
= _2
y(l} = [2 i]x(t};x(O} = [I
Dept of EEE, SIBfT
2
_ 5 x(t)
o
I
u(t)
Gilbert's Approach:
It determines not only the controllability but also the uncontrollable state' variables, if the
it uncontrollable.
2]"
Page 69
Dept. of EEE, SIBIT
Page 70
Modern Control ~~eory
lOEE55
Consider the solution of state equation

.-\'(1) = AX (I) + fJu(t); x(t,,) = X (0)
as
.1'(1) = (" X(O)
-I
- X(O) = e:" BU(T)dT
o -2
I
I -I I 0
p-IB = 0
-I I 0
The system is state controllable, iff'the none of the elements of B is zero. If any element
is zero. the corresponding initial state variable cannot be controlled by,the input u(t).
Hence the system is uncontrollable. The solution involves A, B matrices and is
independent of C matrix, the controllability of the system is frequently refen-;d,to ali the
controllability of the pair [A, B].
o -
X(I)
u(t)
Solution: First, let us convert into diagonal form.
1A/-AI=lo
X(/) = Ax(t)
y(t) = ex(t)
I
11+2=0
III .; I
ii' + 311+ 2 "0

(II t 2)(iI + I) = ()
II = -2,11 = - I
Q,
- I+2
f'=
v~ :; 0
p(Q,)=n
Example: Using:Kalman's Approach determine the state controllability of the system
described by
Dept. ofEEE, SJBIT
(I)
y+3y+2y=u+u
with x, = y,x, '= y - u

x, = -3x, :-2x, - 2u
XI
=x2 + u
'.
X,
x,
o
p.' = _-_1_1
I
IABIX BI..... yt' sj.
= [B
where p Q,.) is.rank of Qc.
I
I
Eigen vector associated with II = - I

I-I + I
+ ElI(t)
i.e., if system matrix A is of order nxn then for state controllability
Eigcn vector associated with 11=-2
11o 01 v, =
o
-I
is said to completely state controllable iff the rank of controllability matrix Q. is equal to
order of system matrix A where the controllability matrix Qc is given by,
[1I-1](1I+2J~0
-2
0
-I
This method determines the controllability of the system.

Statement: The system described by
I
0
2) Kalman'S approach:
identify the state, which is uncontrollable.

X(t)
o
-2
As [TI B vector contains zero element, the system is uncontrolled and state XI(t) is
uncontrolled, '
Example: Check the controllability of the system. If it is uncontrollable,

-I
-I
o -2
+ e"('" BlI(T)dT . Assuming without loss of generality that X(t) =0, the
solution will be
-I
lOEE55
=,0
- 2
o
A=
-I
..
~'lge 71
0'.
-2
I'
-
x, + I
u(t)
x,
-2
I
I
: ,B =
-3
-2
o
Dept. of EEE, SjBIT
Page 72
:.
lOEE55

Now AB =
IQ,I
= _I2
-2
Verify the result with Gil~_r!,~ upproach.
-2
4
-2 -3 -2
Q, = [BIAB]=
Solution: Kalman's approach: Here,
0
0
1 ,B = o ;AB=
0
0 -2 -3
I
A 0
-21
4 =0
031
-3
Example: Determine the state controllability of the system by Kalman's approach.

x(t) = 0
0
-2
Q
0
1 ;A 'B = - 3
-3
BIA2BIAB
controllable.
I
-2
hence rank P(Q,) is <2 and system matrix A is of2x2. Therefore system is not state
lOEE55
1 x(t) + 0 u(t)
-3
I
Order of system. Therefore, system
is state controllable. Verification

Gilbert's
by
approacb:
Transferring the system model into canonical form with usual pr~edure.
Z(I) = 0 -I
o
o
o o
-2
Her~, B =
- 1
2
Z(I) + - I 11(1)
I
2
has no zero element in any row. hence system is controllable.
Observability:
Concept:
A system is completely observable, if every state variable of the system effects some of
the outputs. In other words, it is often desirable to obtain information on state variables
from the measurements of outputs and inputs. If anyone of the states cannot be observed
from the measurements of the outpits and inputs, that state is unobservable and system is
not completely observable or simply unobservable.
Consider the state diagram of typical system with state variables as x I lind x, and y and
u(t) as output and inputs respectively.
..
tt.)
u~.,
-I
-~
Dept. ofEEE, SJBIT
Page 73
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
.'
.'
Page 74
10EE55
On measurement of yet), we call observe x 1(1) but we cannot observe X2(t)by

measuring alii y(I), hence statc is not completely observable.
y(/)
= CX(/) + P"(/) is said to be completely observable iff with measurement of output
yet) over-finite time interval

estimated.
to
t If along with input u(t); t to the initial state x(to) c~n be
-~------
A'CT
A"C'
A"
1 x(t)
0 u(t)
-11 -6
yet) = [4 5 I!x-(t) is not completely observable by

I) Kalman's approach
2) Gilbert's approach
Solution: Kalman's
0
approach
A; 0
is said to be completely observable iff the rank of observability.matrix

order of system matrix A where,
~,,=[C'
Example: Show that the system
-6
DU(f)
pet) < 2
=0
Order of system is 2. So, system is unobservable.
x(t) =
All the stale variables x(t) can be estimated with measurement of yet) provided C matrix
do not contain the 'zero' clement. If any element of C matrix is zero, the corresponding
slate cannot be estimated and hence system is_un~bscrvablc.
Kollman's Approach:
The system described by the model
X(f) = AX(I) + Butt)
lit
-2
00
o.
Explanation:
Consider the output equation
y(f) = CX(/) + /)11(1)
Assuming /)=0, y(I)=Cx(t).
,1'(1) = CX(I)
ATCT]=
" =[C
Definition:
J\ system described by
x(t) = AX(/) + BU(f)
10EE55
0
I
-6 -II -6
~" is equal to the
'C'l
0 0
-6
0 -II
-6
4
C= [4 5
For nthorder system, rank of~" must be n.
11 cT
i.c. P(~,,) = n
It involves A and C matrices. The pair A. C is observable.
Example: Consider the system
- 2
x(t l = 0
1'(1) = [1
()
_ I x(t)
AT
cr : _ 7
I lI(f)
-I
oh(1)
t4=
Solution: Here
- 1
A= -
oj
P(~:)
.'
-2
-2
=
6
5
1
;C=jJ
Dept. of EEE, SJIlIT
-I
Test the observability using Kalman's approach.
A'e'
-6
; A r' C T
()
-I
.'
Gilltert's
<3
-61
-7
-I
"I
=0
-I
add order of system is 3, Therefore system is unobservable.
approach:
Transferring the system model into observable canonical form with usual
procedure ..the output equation will be
yet) = [0 - 2- 2j;(t
Page 75
Dept of EEE,S)BIT
Page 76
10EE55
lOEE55
UNIT-S POLE PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES

UNIT- 5
POLE PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES: stability improvements by state feedback, necessary
& sufficient conditions for arbitrary pole placement, state regulator design, and design of
state observer, Controllers- P, PI, PID,
#/I
10 Hours
Stability improvement by state Feedback: The main goal of a feedback design is to
stabilize a system, if it is initially unstable or to improve its stability if transient
phenomena don't die out sufficiently fast,
Consider single input single out put system with n-th order described by
X(t) = AX(I)
+ Bu(t)
'
Let us dssumc that all th~ state variables are measured accurately, and then it is possible to implement
a linear tontrollaw of the form
u(t) = -KX(t)
where,
K = [k,k2
.. ....
kn,
is
(Ixn) feedback gain matrix.

Subs~tute Eq (1) in Eq (I) to obtain closed loop system
model as
'
X(t) = AX(I) - BKX(t)
= [A - BK]X(t)
The characteristic Eqn of closed loop system will be
=10
S~-(A-BK)
When Eq (4) is evaluated, this yields an nih order polynomial in S containing the n-gains K"
K2, .....
Kn. The control Law design then consists of picking the gains so that the roots of Eq
(4) are in desired locations.
In the next section it can be seen that if the state model is in controllable canonical' form, then the
roots of characteristic Eqn (4) can be chosen arbitrarily. If all the given values of (A-BK) are
placed in len- half of s-plane, the closed loop system is asymptotically stable. And the state Xu)
decays to Zero irrespective of initial state X(O)- the initial perturbation in the state. The system
state can be maintained Zero value in
spite of disturbances that act upon the system. System with this property arc called
REGULATOR SYSTEMS. Control configuration of such system as shown
Dept. ofEEE, SJBIT
Page 77
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT

, "
"
Page 78
'.
10EESS
Algorithm for Design:

a) Let the desired Locations of closed loop Poles be AJ ,A,
b) The correspondry cha Eqn will be
(S -
nl =
o
S" + ,S, + .s- + .... + n = 0
c) Let the controller gain matrix be
K=[K, Kr--------Knl.
d) Sl- (.11\ - BK) = S".. ,sn' + ,S""
e)
Corresponding equation is
S + ,sn" + ,S' + ......
(I)
X(t) = f1X(t)
0 -------(2)
(3)
0
X(I) + 1 u(l)
P,
P2 ;
Pn
Such that the system shall have damping ratio as 0.707 & settling time as I sec.
Solution:
a) Converting the desired specifications as locations of closed loop poles at - 4 j4
b) The corresponding cha Eqn will be

(S+4+J4) (S+4-J4)=O
S' +8S+32=0
c) Let the controller be of the form
K=[K1 K2].
d) From given state model
. [A _ SKJ = 0
0 0
)1) = AX + Bu(t)
Where'A = PAP-',
o
o
(I)
P,.l
(4)
B=PB
0......
1......
(5)
0
0
(6)
o
-B =PB = .
=?' +K, S+K
c) The 'corresponding characteristic equation is

(2)
From Equ.(3),
= Pl1x, + P12X2 + ......... + P'nxn =
P,x
Taking the derivative
= P,x(l) = P,[Ax(t) + Bu(t)]
= P,Ax(t) + P,Bu(t)
Comparing (8) and (9), P,S = 0
x,
x,
Hence controller K=[32 8].

Controller gain matrix K=[32 8] in feed back will have desired specifications.
Dept. of EEE, SJRIT
P"
n-t
K, K,
S' + K,S T K, = 0
Comparing the co-efficient of like powers ofS from Equ (I) and (2)
K2=8, K,=32.
PI = [P"
Taking the derivative ofEqn (3) and substituting for X(t) from Equ(l)
-K, -K,
SI-(.II\-SK)
Pn,
Pn,
Example: Design a controller K for the state model
(2)
Where P iii nxn non singular transformable matrix, and assumed as

P'1 : P12
P'n
P = p,,'. P'2
P 2n
can be Evaluated and this completes design of state back controller K.
0' 0
(I)
The above model cdn be converted into controller canonical form through the
transformation .
I) Comparing the co-efficient of like powers of s form Eqn (I) & (2) K/,Ky-------KI/
.. X(I)
10EESS
Necessary and sufficient conditions:

The sufficie~t conditions for arbitrarily pole-placement is, the system
must be completely controllable.
Consider: the state model
X(t) = AX(.) + B~(t)
Y(t)=CX(t)
.
A"
(S- ,)(S- ,
)
Page 79
Dept. o.liE._Sj81T
(7)
(8)
(9)
Page 80
"
10EE55
i'
Taking again derivative of Equ(l0)

Hence the corresponding characteristic poly will be
=B)<
SI-lA
= sn t (, tKn )sn-,
K [i<,K KJ
'(10)
& X2 = P,Ax(t)
t n tK,
(14)
ntK,=O
(15)
and
,+Kn)sn-'t(
2tKn)8'-2
=0
,
Equating the coefficients of like powers of S from equation ( 15) and (Hi)
a, =
Kn =a,+Kn
a2 = 2+ Kn_, Kn_, =a2t
a n = n+K,
K, =an-
(A -
ISI-
Let the desired characteristic equation be
, + an
o
o
0
0
K,
n -
; -Kn
5) Determine the Cha equation as
WhereK~K2, ...-:-:Kn can be chosen real numbers arbitrarily.
'S + a,sn-, +
o
o
[A - B K J =
Determine
+ .......
2.
and characteristic equation will be
'S +(
10EESS
B KI = sn + ( n + K, )8'-' +
7) Determine the elements of gain matrix

as K1
K2
(17)
K =[an - n an_,- n-t a, - ,]

(18)
Transferring to original system
K :-KP = [an - n an_, - n-t a, - ,]P
,
The necessary condition is the system should be completely controllable. If the system is
not completely controllable then there are certain states that cannot be controlled by
stable feedback.
'
Thus the necessary and sufficient condition for arbitrarily pole placement is the'
system should be completely controllable in s-plane.
'
Steps to design the controller K:
I) For given state model, test the controllability of the system by determining the rank
of controllable matrix Q"
'
2) If it is controllable, transfer the model into controllable canonical form through
similarly transformation matrix P ; where P can be
'
obtained as. a) PI=[OO---------O I]Q,-I
=0
6) Determine the desired cha equation as

sn + a,sn-' + a sn-2 +
+ an = 0
(16)
Hence the controller x will be
+ 7Kn
an -
an--1 -
Kn = a, -
K, K,. K, ,.... K"
n
n ..1
, and hence
K = [K,K2. K.l
8) The feedback controller K for original system is
K= KP
This completes the design procedure
Design of controller by Ackermann 'sformula:
We have
p~ .'
P=
P,A "&
'PAn-,
P, = [Q,'l[OO
01]
K=[an -
an_1 -
a, -
n-t
,]P
(QJ'[OO
= [an-
an_1
n-t
a,-
,] (Q,)'A[OO
(Q,)'An,[OO
01]
01]
01]
P2=P1A
P3=P1A2
Pn=P1An-1
P,
b)
P fl,
pIA
(I)
n-.,
Characteristics poly of A matrix is

181= S" + _,8n-' + 28'-2 +
AI
3) Compute A & B as
According to Cayley-Hammilton
A"+ ,An-'4
+ nl=O
A=PAB=PB
4) Assume the controlierK
Dept. of EEE,SJB!T
(2)
theorem,
n-t
Page 81
Dept. of EEE,SJB!T
Page 82
lOEE55
_Modern Contr9'.Theory
K = [00
01]Q," (A).-... --------(4)
X(t) " Ax(t) + Bu(t)
",.
Yet) = CX(t)with
u(t) -KX(t)where
Where
(A) = An t a,An.' + a,A'"
& Q, = [B I AB IA'B 1
t a3An.3 + .:..... t ani
(5)
An'B]
K=[K,K2Kn]
(6)
Design procedure:
I. For given model, determine Q, and test the controllability.
2. Compute the desired characteristics equation as
S' t a.S'" t
t an = 0
and determine coefficients a, (I"
Fromabove
If controllable,
2.: Determine the transformation matrix P, which transfers the given state mode]
into controllable caunomical form.
P,
P=
A P, ,
P,An.'
1
0
X(t)+
u(t) using Acermann's formula.
1 0
1
[BlAB] = 01
(S -
1
1 0
'.
6 ~ ~
[0..0... QI] Q"
....... An,B]
(S - nn)= S + a,Sn., + a2Sn.2 +.....an
2 )
an
il, ,il, ,
4. The required state feed back controller K is
K1 = [an - a
n n_1
II. Desired characteristics equation is (S+4+j4)(S+4-j4)

82", 8S t 32 = 0
a, = 8,a, = 32. .
32 0
Ill. (A) = A' + a,A + a,l = 0 8
IV. K = [0 1]
1 )(S
determine
Q' = 0
c
3.. Using the desired location of closed loop poles (desired Egen values) obtain
the characteristics pol y
Its controllable as I(Q,)=2.
;P
Q = [BIABIA2BI
Answer: Checkfor controllability
(1)
Determine ()(" ()(2 , ()( n
il"
4. Determine Q.' and then controller k will be K=[O 0 .... 0 IJ Q;'. ct>(A)
This completes the design procedure.
Ex. Design controller k which places the closed loop poles at - 4 j4 for system
Q =
relations, the closed loop system is
X(t) '" [A - BK]X(t)

I. From the characteristics poly of matrix A
I 51- A = S" + 1 sn.' + 2 sn.2 +
+n
3. Compute the characteristics poly of system matrix A as

(A)=A" +a,An'ta,An't
+a"
X(A) =
lOEE55
0-1 .. 1
Examples. A regulator system has the plant

X(t)
= 0
0
0
-6 -11
Y=[1 0
0
X(t)+ 0 u(t)
-6
O]X(t)
State regulator design: The state Regulator system is a system whose non zero
initial state can-be transferred to zero initial state by the application of the input u(t).
Design of such system requires a control law
U(t)=-KX(t) which transfers the non-zero initial state to zero initial state (Rejection of
disturbances) by properly designing controller K.
The following steps give design of such controller.
For a system given by
Problems
1) Design a state feed back controller which place the closed loop poles at - 2 j3.464 and-S. Give the block
diagram of the control ccnfiguration
Solution: By observing the structure of A and B matrices, the model is in controllable conmical
form. Hence controller K can be designed.
$I.
ISI- A = 0 -1
6
0
-1
S3 +6S2 +11S+17
11 S +6
Dept. of EEE. SJBIT
Page 83
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 84
10EE55

Comparing with 83
10EE55
+ ,8 + 28 +
a, we obtain
,=
6, 2
= 11, = 17
2. Desired characteristics poly is

(S+ 2+j3,464 )(S+-j3 ,464)(S+5)
;; 83 + 982 + 208 + 60
Comparing with
sa + a.s
+ a2s + a,
we obtain
a, =9, a2 =20, aJ =60

Y(t) = Cxtt}iinitial state X(O) are known and
X(t) is estimated states and
3. Hence the required controller K is

K=[aa- 3 a2- 2 a,-,I
= [K, K2 K31
= [43 9
X(O) is estimated initial states the resulting observer in open loop observer.
31
DfOW backs fJjop(m Igop obsersec.c.c.:':__

1. Precise Lack of information of x(O)
2. If X(O) X(O), the estimated state X(I) obtain from open loop estimator will have
continuously growing error and hence the output.
3. Small errors in A,B, and disturbances that enters the system but not in
estimator will cause slow estimate process.
Hence betterto go for closed loop estimator.
Block Diagram:
Design of closed loop Full-order state observer:

s~ate observer (Luen berger state observer)
Figure shows closed 100fYFullorder
K,=43
K2=9
K3=3
Design of state observer:

Design of observer: The device that estimates the state variables with measurement of
output along with input u(t) is called state observer.
-'--~---.-.--_j
If all the state variables are estimated, it is called Full-order state observer. If only few
statevariable are estimated (which can't be measured accurately), the observer is called
Reduced-Qrder state observer.
Design of Full-order observer: In this case all the state variables are to be
estimated. a) Open loop observer: Here it is assumed that all the state variables
are estimated
correctly and initial state are also estimated correctly.
i.e For State model
X(t) = Ax(t)
Dept. of EEE, SIBlT
..
State model is X(t) = Ax(t)

Y(t)= Cx(t)
+ Bu(t)
Estimator output is Y(t) = CX(t)
(1)
(2)
(2a)
+ Bu(t)
Page 85
Dept. of EEE, SIBlT
Page 86

Moderfl Control Theory
.
. Y(I) - Y(I) = e[X(I)- X(I)]
mis nx! constant gain matrix.

Differentiating equation (3)
(2b)
Error 111 output IS

Error in state vector
X = X(I) - X(I)
X(I) = X(I)- X(I)

from figure X(I) = AX(I) + Bu(l)
lOEE55
1:0EE55
(3)
+ m(Y(I)
- Y(I)
(4)
= [A-me]X(I)
........ by equations (2 to 3)
(5)
The characteristics equation of the error is given by
-----181- (A - me)1= 0
If'm'
(6)
is chosen.properly,
(A-me) have reasonably fast roots, then
X (t)
will decay to
zero irrespective of X(O) i.e X(I) ~ X(t), regardless of X(O). Further it can be seen that
equation (5) is independent of control input u(t).
The observer gain matrix 'm' can be obtained in exactly the same fashion as controller
gain matrix 'K'
Design procedure:
I. Let the desired pole locations of observer error
~"
~2 ,....... ~.
then the
roots be corresponding pol y equation will be
(8 - ,)(8 -
2 ) .....
(8 - n)
S" + a,81-' + a28n-2 +
an
determine co-effients a, ,a, ,
(I)
=
(2)
an
2. Let the observer gain matrix be m

m = [m"m2,
.......
mnl'
obtain the characteristics poly equation of the closed loop system with observer as
181-(A-me)1= 0
S" + ( ,+ m, )8"-' + ( 2 + mn_, )8"-2 + ....... + ( n + rn.) = 0
(3)
3. Comparing the co-efficient oflike powers of S from equations (2) and (3)
a, = ,+ mn mn = a, - ,
an
n:+ m1
m1
an -
where the co-efficients ()(,,()(2 , .......
lSI - AI;, 0
8~+ . ,8n-t + ....... +
.'
()(
are obtained from poly equation
=0.
4. The observer gain matrix 'm' will be then

m'= [m"m2, ....... mnlT
Example: Consider the state model

X(I) =
Page 87
Dept. of EEE, 5j61T
1
0
1 X(I)+ 0 u
-6 -11 -6
1
Y(I) = [0
Dept. of EEE,Sj61T
o
0
11X(I)
Page 88
10EE55
Reduced-order state observer
2) Design an observer; where observer-error poles are required to be located at - 2 j3.64

and -5
Solution: Model in oberserver conamical form will be
state variables cannot be measured accurately. Design of Reduced-
-6
0
In this design procedure, let us assume one measurement Y(t). Which measures one state
X1(t). The output equation is given by
Y(t)=CX(t)
(1)
Where C=[ I 0 -----0]
Partitioning the states X(t) into states directly measured X,(t) and states directly non
measurable X,(t), which arc to be estimated.
.,.
-11 X(I) + 0
-6
yet) = [0 0 1]X(I)
I) Desired characteristic
.. .
equation will be
=> 83 + 982 + 208 + 60 = 0
hence comparing with 83 + a.s"
=9,
Q,
=20,
QJ
=0
X,(t)
(1)
[A-mc]=
-6
-'6'
X. (I)
m, l'
0 0 rn,
0
m2
0 m3
2) Let the observer be m = [m] , m, ,
0
1 0
(2)
Partionionly the matrixes accordly & state equation can be written as
+ a2s + a,
=60
_ X1(1)
i.e X(I) - Xe(l)
(S+2+j 3.64) (S+2-j3.64) (S+5)=0.
Q]
Required when few of
order state observer:
o
X(I) = 0
lOEE55
a" a"
a., ae
and Y(I) = [1
X,(I) + b, u(l)
X,(I)
b,
(3)
Or x (I)
(4)
X,(I)
from equation (3)
X. (t) = a.eXe(I),+ a ;(I) +J'J
o
[A-mc]=
0
0
-(6+m,)
-(11+m2)
-(6+m3)
from (4) Y(I) = X,(I)

=> X1 (I) =
+ a,eX, (I) + b,u(I).
~..
53 + ,52 + 25 + 3 = 0
1 = (6 + m,). 2 = (11 + m2), 3 = (6 + m,
Y(!l- al1X, (I) - b,u(l) = a'eXe (I)
Comparing with
(II)
(6)
Known terms
Comparing equation (5) & (6) with
X(I) = AX(I) + bu(l)

and Y(I) = CX(lt
we can have similarity as
3) From I and II,
9= 6+m3
rn, = 3
20 = 11 + m2
m2 = 9
60 = 6+ m, rn, = 54
9
Also from
Collecting the known terms.
83 + (6 + m3 )82 + (11 + m2)8 + (6 + m.) = 0
rn = [54
Y(l)
Equa,tion (3) X,(I) = al1X,(I)
181- (A - me ~ = 0
4) Hence
(5)
Knowninpul
X(t')- X.(t),
A(I'l- ;.:
bu - a.,X,(I) + b.u(l)
3]T
(7)
c = a,.
Y = Y(I) - al1X,(I) - b,U(I>'
Using Equation (7), the state model for reduced order state observer can be obtained as
~(I) = a ee X.(I) + ae1y + beU(I)X,(I) + m (Y(I) + (Y - a"y - b.u - a,,)<, (I

Dept. of EEE, 5J8fT
Page 89
Dept. of EEE,5JBIT
(R)
Page 90
M_o~e_rnControl Theory
10EE55
(same as X(I) = AX(I) + bu(t) + m(y(l)- y(I)) where

Detining
yet) = a,.X. (I)
Solution: :
Xe (I) = X. - Xe
From output Equation it follows that states X,(t) & X2(t) cannot
be measured as corresponding elements ofC matrix are zero. Let
us write the state equation as
Xe (I) = x, (1).- Xe (I)
000
Substituting for X, (1)& X. (I) in above equation & on simplification,
X(I) = (a.e
ma,. )X.
10EE55
(9)
-24
-10
X,(I)
50
X,(I)
+ 2 u(l)
X3(1)
Corresponding characteristic equation is
81- (aee
- ma., ~ = 0
(l0)
Comparing with desired characteristic equation 'ru' can be evaluated same as m in fullorder observer.
To implement the reduced-order observer,
Equation (8) can be written as
X.(I)
rae. - rna-, )X.(I) + (a., - mal1)Y(I) + (be - mb ,)u + m y(t)
(11)
As Y(I) is difficult to realize,
81- (a - rlna,e) = 0
8' + m2S + m, = 0
X,,(t) = Xe (I) - m y(t)

-
m = rn,
Characteristic equation of an observer is
x.' (I) = X.(t) - my

(aee
Let
m2
Define
0 0
0
o ,a., = -24 a,. = [0 1]
1
50
al1=[-10];be=
= [1]
2 b,
8ee
ma.; )X. (t) + (ae,
rna,
)y(t) + (b. -
rnb, )u(l)
(12)
Desirable characteristic equation is

(S + 1O)(S + 10) = 0
S2 + 208 + 100 = 0
From two characteristic equations, equating the co-efficient of like powers of S
20=m2 & lOO=m"
Equation (12) can be represented by block diagram as shown below.
100
m = 20
Hence state model of observer will be
x ..(I) -- {10
o - 24
1
Y\1l,= [0
2 u(t)
.~
Assume the full-order observer model be
To design the reduced-order observer for un measurable states such that the given values
will be at --10, -10.

Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
He
nc
c
the
sta te
fee
db
ae
Let the control law be

u(t) = -kX(t) .
-10
1]X(t).
100 1}u(l)
20
X(I) = AX(I) + Bu(l)

Y(t)= CX(I)
50
X(t)+
100
50
20 x {-1 O}]}Y(I)+ { 2
Design of compensator by the principle of separation:

Consider the coinpletely controllable and observable system described by
Exatnple: System is described by
0 _ [100 0 1"X (I) { 0

0
20
Y.
+ - 24
Page 91
X(I) = AX(!) + B)J+ M(y - eX(I))
k
co
Dept. of EEE. SJBIT
Page 92
.lOEE55
Modern cdntrof Theory'
ntrollaw using the estimated states will be
lOEE55
(2)
U(I) = -KX(I) .
From
Using equation (4) in (Ia)
(5)
X(I) = AX(I)- BKX(I)

(6)
= (A - BK)X(I)+ BK(X- X(t))

Defining observer state error vector as
SX(s) = (A - BK - mC)X(S) + mY(S)

mY(s) = [SI- (A - BK ~mC)))S)
X(I) = X(I)-X(t)
X(t) = (A - BK)X(t)+ BKX(I)
WKT observer error-vector model is
(7)
X(t) = (A - mC)X(t)
Equation (7) & (8) can be obtained in vector model as
(8)
characteristic equation is ISI-(A -BK)IISI- (A -mC)1 = 0
(10)
Equation (10) represents the poles (given values) of the system, which is union of poles
of controller & observers. The design of controller & observer can be carried by
separately, & when used together, the system is unchanged. This special case of
separation principle controller can be designed using
.
K[SI- (A - BK - mCr'lm
=D(S)
R(Sy~g)
1)(s)
Plant
X(I) = 0
0
X(I) + 0 u(l)
-5 -6 -11
1
Yet) = [1 0 OlX(I)
The corresponding block diagram is as shown
"'"
Design" co~tI;oller to take place closed loop poles at -I j I,-5. Also design an observer
such that observer poles are at -6. -6, -6. Derive the Un compensated & compensated
T.F.
'1(0
Solution: S'ystem is observable & Controllable. Using the procedure of controller design
& observer design, the controller will be
K=[4 I I] and observer will be
M=[12 25 _72]T
I
leot'lt",oItf:"T
Transfer function of uncompensated system will be
bb5f.T'it y
--00\
;<-CC"1r""""l"':
Mu(S)=qSI-Ar'B.
M _
1
'tSI - S3 + 6S 2 + 11S + 6
function of compensator:
Now X(t) = AX(I) + Bu(t) + m(y - eX(I))
Dept of EEE, SJBIT
Example: A System is described by

o 1 0
0
ISI- (A - BK)I= 0 and observer by ISI- (A - mC)1= O.
Transfer
U(S)
(9)
Equation (9) represents the model of 2n dimensional system. The corresponding
(5)
U(S) = -K.X(S)
From equations (4) & (5)
-YeS)
X(t) =(A - BK)

BK
X(t)
0
(A - mC) X(t)
(4)
Taking L.T. of equation (2)
--
Xct)
X(I) =
(3)
.. , ~
(A.!.BK - mC)X(I)+ mY(I)
Taking L.T.
using (6) in (5)
m&(2)
,,'
Transfer function of compensated system will be

(I)
Page 93
Me(s)= U(S) = K[SI- (A - BK - mCW'm

YeS)
Dept of EEE, SJBIT
Page 94
--Modern
==
Control
Theory
_<_.
10EE55
10EE55
control mode is expressed as pet) = Kp.e(t) + Po.
CONTROLLERS
The performance of proportional controller depends on the proper design of the gain Kp As
Thc~"n:roller is an element which accepts the error in some form and decides the proper corrective
the proportional gain Kp increases, the system gain will increase and hence the steady state error will
action. The output of the controller is then applied to the system or process. The accuracy of the entire
decrease.
system depends on how sensitive is the controller to the error detected and how it is manipulating such an
error. The controller has its own logic to handle the error.
The controllers are classified based on
the response and mode of operation. On the basis of mode of operation, they are classified into
instability of the sysiem. So, compromise is made to keep steady state error and overshoot within
acceptable limits.
Hence, when the proportional controller is used, error reduces but can not
Continuous and Discontinuous controllers. The discontinuous mode controllers are further classified as
ON-OFF controllers' and multi position controllers.
But due to high gain, peak overshoot and settling time increases and this may lead to
make it zero. The proportional controller is suitable where manual reset of the operating point is
possible and 'the load changes are small.
Integral Controller:
Continuous mode controllers, depending on the input-output relationship, are classified into three
basic types named as Proportional controller, Integral controller and Derivative controller.
In many
practical cases, these controllers are used in combinations.

The
examples of
We have seen that proportional controller can not adapt with the changing load
conditions. To overcome this situation, integral mode or reset action controller is used. In
this controller, the controller output pet) is changed at a rate which is proportional to
actuating error signa! ett),
"
composite controllers arc Proportional _ Integral (PI) controllers,
such
the feedback signal b(l) with the' reference input nt) to generate an error. crt) = ret) _ bet).
r(l)
r..
U)c!t
+ Po
The constant
K. 'is called
integral constant. The output tram the controller at any instant is the area
under the actuating error curve up to that instant. If the error is zero, the controller output will not
change. The inte,grar controller is relatively slow controller. It changes its output at a rate which is
-:
dependent on the integrating time constant, until the error signal is cancelled.
0(\)
s,
Mathematically the integral controller mode is expressed as pet)
'Prop')J1ional- Derivative (PO) controllers and Proportional - fntegral- Derivative (PID) controllers.
The block diagram of a basic control system with controller is shown in Figure. The error detector compares
Controller output
(p)
Compared
to
the proportional controller, the integral control requires time to build up an appreciable output.
Controller
However it continues to act till the error signal disappears.
~)-
Error
..
steady state error can be made to zero.

constant T;. j.e., T; =. ilK;.
detector
L.._~
-j
Feedback element
1------'
Hence, with the integral controller the
The reciprocal of integral constant is known as integral time
Derivative Controller:
Feedback
Signal
Proportional Controller:
In the proportional control mode, the output of the controller is proportional to the error e(t).
The relation between the error and the controller output is determined by a constant called proportional
gain constant denoted as K. i.e. p(t) = Kp eu).
Though therc, exists linear relation between controller output and the error, for zero error the
controller output should not be zero as this will lead to zero input to the system or process.
Hence,
there exists some controller output Po for the zero enor. Therefore mathematically the proportional
In this mode, fhe output of the controller depends on the rate of change of error with respect to time.
Hence it is alsb known as rate action mode or anticipatory action mode.
The mathemafical equation for derivative controller is p(t)
_ K. ~
+ P"
'
.
Where Kais the derivative gain constant. The derivative gain constant indicates by how much
percentage the controller output must change for every percentage per second rate of change of the
error. The advantage of the derivative control action is that it responds to the rate of change of
error and can produce the significant correction before the magnitude of the actuating error
becomes too large. Derivative control thus anticipates the actuating error, initiates an early corrective
action and tends to increase stability of the system by improving the transient response.
When
the error is zero or constant, the derivative controller output is zero. Hence it is never used alone.
PI Controller:
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This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional mode
integral mode. The mathematical expression for PI controller is
rC2J(De(t)
x,
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and
The PD Controller has following effects on the system.
"ft)dr , i'"
The transfer function is given by g~
I . It mcreases the damping ratio and reduces overshoot.
2. It r~duc~s the rise time and makes response fast.

3. It r;eduees the settling time
4. The type of the system remains unchanged.
5. Steady state error remains unchanged.

In general it improves transient part without affecting steady state.
The advantage of this controller is that the one to one correspondence of

proportional controller and the elimination of steady state error due' to integral
controller. Basically integral controller is a low-pass circuit.
The transfer function is given by
The PI Controller has following effects on the

system.
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
It increases the order of the system

It increases the type of the system
It improves the steady state accuracy.
It increases the rise time so response become slow.
It filters out the high frequency noise
It makes the response more oscillatory.
PD Controller:
This is to note that derivative
This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional

mode and derivative mode. The mathematical expression for PI controller is
,
deft) .
P(f'J T(p,(t, 4- IC,~
-e-
control is effective in the transient part .~' the
response as error-is varying, whereas in the steady state, usually if 'any error is there, it is
constant and does not vary with time.
P"
-the--stearr-y-state part of the response,
The transfer function is given by Kt K,s
In this aspect, derivative control is not effective in
In the steatly state part, if any error is there,
integral control will be effective to give proper correction to minimize the steady state
eITOr. An integral controller is basically a low pass circuit and hence will not be effective in
transient part of the response where error is fast changing,
Hence lor the whole range of
time response both derivative and integral control actions should be provided in addition
to the inbuilt proportional control action for negative feedback control systems,
PID Controller:
This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional mode,
integral mode and derivative mode. The mathematical expression for PI controller is
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UNIT-6 NON LINEAR SYSTEMS
UNlT- 6
Non-linear systems: Introduction, behavior of non-linear system, common physical non linearitysaturation, friction, backlash, dead zone, relay, multi variable non-linearity.
3 Hours
Many practical systems are sufficiently nonlinear so that the important features of
Figure 6.1
their performance may be completely overlooked if they are analyzed and designed
through linear techniques.
The mathematical
models of the nonlinear
represented by nonlinear differential equations.

for the analysis and synthesis
superposition
of
A nonlinear
systems are
Hence, there are no ~en'eral methods
nonlinear
control
principle does not apply to nonlinear
systems.
The
system, when excited by a sinusoidal
harmonics in a~dhion
to
the fundamental corresponding
amplitude' of the :fundamental
f;~tjhat
input, may generate
several
to the input frequency.
is usually the largest, but the harmonics
The
may be of
significant implitude in many situations.
systems makes generalisation
difficult and study of many nonlinear systems has to be specific for typical situations.
Another
jump phenomenon.
6.2 Behaviour of Nonlinear Systems
spring-mass-
The most important feature of nonlinear systems is that nonlinear systems do not
obey the principle of superposition.
systems to a particular test signal is no guide to their
behaviour to other inputs.
The nonlinear system response may be highly sensitive to
is changer'
behaviour
increased
nonlinear
systems
exhibit
limit
sustained oscillati~ps of fixed frequency and amplitude.
cycles
which
are
systems
is
called
The frequency responses of the system with a linear
For a hard
spring,
as
the
input
frequency
is
gradually
from zero, the measured response follows the curve through the A, Band
If the frequency is now decreased, the response follows the curve EDF with a jump up
to B frorq the point F and then the response
may
nonlinear
after which with further increase in frequency, the response curve follows through DE.
when the input amplitude
Hence, in a nonlinear system, the stability is very much dependent
the
by
C, but at C an increment in frequency results in discontinuous jump down to the point D,
on the input and also the initial state.

Further,
exhibited
For example, let us consider the frequency response curve of
damper system.
6.2(c) respectively.
For example, a nonlinear system giving best response for a certain
step input may exhibit highly unsatisfactory
characteristic
spring, hard spring and soft spring are as shown in Fig. 6.2(a), Fig. 6.2(b) and Fig.
Due to this reason, in contrast to the linear case,
the response of nonlinear
input amplitude.
peculiar
phenomenon
self-
curve
moves
towards
A. This
which is peculiar to nonlinear systems is known as jump resonance.
For
a soft spring, jump phenomenon will happen as shown in fig. 6.2(c).
Once (he system trajectories
converge to a limit cycle, it will continue to remain in the closed trajectory in the state
space identified as limit cycles.
In many systems the limit cycles are undesirable
particularly when the amplitude is not small and result in some unwanted phenoraena.
'.
Fig.6.2(a)
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,
Fig.6.2(b)
Fig. 6.2 (c)

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When excited by a sinusoidal input of constant frequency and the amplitude is increased ~
Liapunov's
low values, the output frequency
If a numerical solution is attempted, the question of stability behaviour can: not be fully answered
and
continue
to remain
synchronisation
at some-point
as such
or matching
thereafter.
exactly matches with the input frequency

This
of the output frequency
phenomenon
which
results
with the input frequency
in .a
is called
as solutions to an infinite set of initial conditions are needed.
The Russian mathematician A.M.
Liapunov introduced and formalised a method which allows one to conclude about the stability
without solving the system equations.
frequency entrainment or synchronisation.
6.4 Classification of Nonlinearities
6.3 Methods of Analysis

Nonlinear systems are difficult to analyse and arriving at general conclusions are tedious.
However,
starting with the classical
differential
equations,
analysis.
Method for Stability: The analytical solution of a nonlinear system is rarely possible.
techniques
several techniques
for the solution
of standard
nonlinear
have been evolved which suit different types of
It should be emphasised that very often the conclusions arrived at will be useful for
the system under specified
conditions
and do not always lead to generalisations.
The
The nonlinearities
are classified
into i) Inherent
nonlinearitics
and ii) Intentional
nonlinearities. The nonlinearities which are present in the components used in system due
to the inherent imperfections
nonlinearities.
gears etc.
or properties
of the system are known as inherent
Examples are saturation in magnetic circuits, dead zone, back lash in

However
in some cases introduction
of nonlinearity
may improve the
performance of the system, make the system more economical consuming less space and
commonly used methods are listed below.
more reliable than the linear system designed to achieve the same objective.
Linearization
Techniques:
approximations
information
In reality all systems are nonlinear and linear systems areonly
of the nonlinear systems.
In some cases, the linearization
yields useful
whereas in some other cases, linearised model has to be modified when the
operating point moves from one to another.
Many techniques like perturbation method, series
approximation techniques, quasi-linearization
techniques etc. are used for linearise a nonlinear
Such
nonlinearities introduced intentionally to improve the system performance are known as

intentional nonlinearities.
Examples are different types of relays which arc very
frequently used to perform various tasks. But it should be noted that the improvement
in system performance
conditions.r
other
due to nonlinearity
conditions,
is possible only under specific operating
generally nonlinearity degrades the performance of the
system.
system.
Phase Plane Analysis: This method is applicable to second order linear or nonlinear systems
6.5
for the study of the nature of phase trajectories near the equilibrium points.
nonlinearities are saturation, dead zone, coulomb friction, stiction, backlash, different
The system
behaviour is qualitatively analysed along with design of system parameters so as to get the
desired response from the system.
The
periodic
oscillations
in
.
.
Common
Physical
of the system.
driven by sufficiently
limitations
Analysis:
This
method
is based
on the
common
examples
of
physical
types of springs, different types of relays etc.
Saturation:
Function
The
nonlinear
systems
.
called limit cycle can be identified with this method which helps in investigating the stability
Describing
Nonlinearitles:
principle
of harmonic
This is the most common of all nonlinearities.
of physical
All practical systems, when
large signals, exhibit the phenomenon

capabilities
of saturation due to
of their components. Saturation
is a common
phenomenon in magnetic circuits and amplifiers.
linearization in which for certain class of nonlinear systems with low pass cha,racteristic. This
method is useful for the study of existence of limit cycles and determination
frequency and stability of these limit cycles.
of the amplitude,
Accuracy is better for higher order systems as they
range of :ippqt, the output is zero.
For a particular
This is called dead zone existing in a system.
The
input-output curve is shown in figure.
have better low pass characteristic.

Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Dead zone: Some systems do not respond to very small input signals.
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needed to close the relay than the current at which the relay drops out, the characteristic always
exhibits' hysteresis.
Saturation
Deed-zone
Multivariable
Figure 6.3
servomotor,
Nonlinearity:
transistor
Some nonlinearities
characteristics
such as the torque-speed
etc., are functions
characteristics
of more than one variable.
of a
Such
nonlinearities are called multivariable nonlinearities.

Backlash:
Another important nonlinearity
commonly
occurring
in physical systems
hysteresis in mechanical transmission such as gear trains and linkages.
is
This nonlinearity is
somewhat di ffercnt from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash. In

servo
-.
systems,
the
gear
backlash
may
cause
sustained
oscillations
or
chattering
phenomenon and the system may even turn unstable for large backlash .
. Figure 6.4
Relay:
amplification
relay
is
a nonlinear
power
amplifier
which
can
provide
large
inexpensively and is therefore deliberately introduced in control systems.
power
A relay
controlled system can be switched abruptly between several discrete states which are usually oft;
full forward and full reverse.
Relay
controlled
systems
find
wide applications
in the
control field. The characteristic of an ideal relay is as shown in figure. In practice a relay has a
definite am~t
of dead zone as shown.
This dead zone is caused by the facts that relay coil
requires a finite amount of current to actuate the relay.
Further, since a larger coil current is
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variables are zero. These points arc called singular points.
UNIT -7 PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS
of the system.
UNIT-7
undisturbed.
Phase plane method, singular points, stability of nonlinear system, limit cycles, constructlon of phase
trajectories.
phase portrait.
These are in faet equilibrium points
If the system is placed at such a point. it will continue to lie there if left
A family
of phase trajectories
starting from different initial states is called a
As time t increases, the phase portrait graphically shows how the system moves
in the entire state plahe from the initial states in the different regions.
Since the solutions from
,7 Hours
each of the initial conditions are unique, the phase trajectories do not cross one another.
Phase plane analysis is one of the earliest techniques developed for .the stugy of second
order nonlinear system.
It may be noted that in the state space formulation, the siate variables
system has non linea; elements
which are piece-wise
If the
linear, the complete state Jjlace
can be
divided into different regions and phase plane trajectories constructed for each of the regions
separatel y.
chosen are usually the output and its derivatives.

two state
derivative
variables XI
y.
and
xz
The phase plane is thus'a state plane where the
are analysed which may be the output va~iable y and its
The method was first introduced
by Poincare, a French mathematician.
The
method is used for obtaining graphically a solution of the following two simultane~us equations
7.3 Phase Plane

Method
,
Consider the homogenous second order system with diffcrcnnai equations
dx
of an autonomous system.
This equation may be written in the standard form
....fl(X1'X~;
~f,Cx"x,)
where
f,~X;;.f,) and .t,

{,('X"x,) are either linear or nonlinear functions of the state
Where it
variables XI and x2 respectively. The state plane with coordinate axes x I and X2. is called the
phase plain. In many cases, particularly in the phase variable representation. of systems, take the
form
-
and
narc t4e damping factor and undamped natural frequency of the system. Defining the state
variables as x = x 1 and
variable form as ,
:\-=
X2,
we get the state equation
in the state
"
."t~
These equations may then be solved for phase variables x I and x2. The time response plots of
The plot of the state trajectories or phase trajectories of above said equation thus gives an
idea of the solution of the state as time t evolves without explicitly solving for the state. The
phase plane analysis is particularly
constant inputs.
suited to second order nonlinear systems witli no input or
x I, X2 for various values of damping with initial conditions can be plotted. When the differential
equations describing the dynamics of the system are n~lj*ar.
it is in general not possible to
u
obtain a closed form solution of x I, x2. For example, if the spring force is nonlinear say (k ] x +
It can be extended to cover other inputs as well such as ramp inputs, pulse
k2x3) the state equation takes the form
inputs and impulse inputs.
7.2 Phase Portraits

From the fundamental
theorem
of uniqueness
of solutions
of the: state equations
or
differential equations, it can be seen that the solution of the state equation starting from an initial
state in the state space is unique.
This will be true if I,(x"x,) and j, (Xl'X~)
are analytic.
For
Solving these equations by integration is no more an easy task.

method known as the phase-plane
111such situations, a graphical
method is found to be very helpful.
The coordinate plane
such a system, consider the points in the state space at which the derivatives of all the state
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with axes that correspond to the dependent variable x I and X2 is callcd'phase-plane.

described by the state point (x ),X2) in the phase-plane
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The curve
with respect to time is called a phase
trajectory. A phase 'trajectory can be easily constructed by graphical techniques.

7.3.1 Isoclines Method:
Let the state equations tor a nonlinear system be in the form
dx2
dxl =-3
r,
Where both t,(-""X,;
and t,(,\'"X,;
arc analytic.
dx2
r:di;=-oo
From the above equation, the slope ofthe trajectory is given by
XI
Therefore,
the locus of constant slope ofthe trajectory is given by I;(xlox,) ~ Mfl(xl,x,)
The above equation gives the equation to the family of isoclines. For different values of
M, the slope of the trajectory, different isoclines can be drawn in the phase pIane.
Knowing the value of M on a given isoclines, it is easy to draw line segments on each of these
isoclines.
.
Phase plot
Consider a ~mple linear system with state equations

Figure 7.1
- x.,
= -~y')-
The Procedure
below:
XI
Dividing the above equations we get the slope of the state trajectory in the XI-X2plane as
d.1z
_-x,-x'_M
for construction
of the phase trajectories
can be summarised
as
I. For the given nonlinear differential equation, define the state variables as XI and X2
and obtain the state equations as
;i;. '"
x,
2. Detenninc the equation to the isoclines as

For a constant value of this slope say M. we get a set of equations
-1
(M.;,
...
,_x
1) J
which is a straighi line in the xl-x2
plane.
We can draw different lines in the xI-x2
pIane for
different values of M; called isoclines. If draw sufficiently large number of isoclines to cover the
complete state space as shown, we can see how the state trajectories arc moving in the state
plane. Different trajectories can be drawn from different initial conditions.
A large number of
such trajectories together form a phase portrait. A few typical trajectories arc shown in figure
given below.
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'dxz '" {(xl'x:) = M

dx,
r,
3. For typical values ofM, draw a large number of isoclines in XI-X2
plane
4. On each of the isoclines, draw small line segments with a
slope M.
5. From an initial condition point, draw a trajectory following the line
segments with slopes M on each of the isoclines.
Example 7.1: For the system having the transfer function .'.~,)
and a relay with
dead zone as nonlinear element, draw the phase trajectory originating from the initial
condition (3,0).
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Region 3:
--r
.i...:l;.~v..~
1..::!'.J..~
11 -
II.>
x, '" -'1
-.\':+1
u
or r..-~ 1
These are also lines parallel to x - axis at a constant distance decided by the value
of the slope of the trajectory M.
where u is
113
0
I
0.75
..",
0 If-l"'
{ -1
tIe'" -1
2
113
0.5
-5
3
0.25
-0.25
-4
-3
-2
-0.33
-0.5
~_~~J
-t-X,
Since the input is zero, e = r - c = -c and the differential equation in terms of error
will be -11
Region n
Region III
Region I
s=o
;;..f..iDefining the state variables as X,

equations as
= e and X2 = ;. we
get
the
113
state
I
3
.'
.'
-5
-3
-713
-2
The slope of the trajectory is

given by
dA.~
Q=
Here u = -I so that on substitution we get x, =-
._.~~
The differential equation for the system is ,,+; -"

given by
-!-1
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-X ...-JI
dx; - --;;- -
1.1
Figure 7.2: Phase portrait of

Example I
Equation to the isoclines is

given by
-x ..-u
Isoclines drawn for all three regions arc as shown in figure. It is seen that
trajectories from either region I or 2 approach the boundary between the regions
and approach the origin along a line at -I slope. The state can settle at any value of
x, between -I and + I as this being a dead zone and no further movement to the
origin along the x.-axis will be possible. This will result in a steady state error.
the maximum value of which is equal to half the dead zone. However, the
presence of dead zone can reduce the oscillations and result ill u faster response. It,
order that the steady state error in the output is reduced, it is better to have as small "
dead zone as possible.
.:.t~-~
We can identify three regions in the state plane depending on the values of e
=x.,
,,=
Re
gio
n
1:
x. ~ 1
Here u = I,so that the isoclines are given by
x~ =
-.~- J
or
1:2
= ,,-.
Example 7.2: For the....s.ystcmhaving a closed .1001' transfer function
For different values of M, these are a number of straight lines parallel to the
x-axis.
rc
plot the phase trajectory originating from the initial condition (-1,0).
The differential equation for the system is
given by
i'....
-?,7"-+--:c,-"-~--IO,-----,-----~
Here u = 0, so that the isoclines are given by x~ = ~ or M = -I. which ate

parallel lines having constant slope of -I. Trajectories are lines of constant slope -I.
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The slope of the trajectory

is given by
dx~ _ -2x~ -
5'''"1 ~
dX1
If ..,.A,1
...",
-SXt
.".1,,'"
10
-;;-::;:-;+ ,~.,_;__?
When~Xl= 0,
-Sx,
-;:;;-:;;
"
10
:v-:;:; -
4-
or X t
"
ie., all the isoclines will pass through the point x,
= 2, X, = O. When M = 0,
x:
-s
When M
x.
10
---;--\I-i--:;= 2,
When M
-~
In
_ c:
111
= 4, When M = 8,
-""4'\'-4'
Figure 7.3
The isoclines are drawn as shown in figure. The starting point of the trajectory is marked at (_
1,0). At (-1,0), the slope is
co, ie., the trajectory will start at an angle 90. From the
next isoclines, the average slope is (8+4)/2 = 6, ie., a line segment with a slope 6 is drawn (at an
angle 80.5).The same procedure is repeated and the complete phase trajectory will be obtained
as shown in figure.
X, -~Xl';"~
-c:
x' -
W'\j
in
-e-
1ii
7.3.2 Delta Method:

When M = -2', When M = -4,
The delta method of constructing phase trajectories is applied to systems of the form
:C. -
"
(C
2
S
Where fL".",t") , may be linear or nonlinear and may even be time varying but must be
continuous and single valued.
I,'
"\'-iA,--
With the help of this method, phase trajectory for any system with step or ramp or any time
varying isput can' bc conveniently drawn. The method results in considerable time saving when
a single or a few phase trajectories are required rather than a complete phase portrait.
"
"".
When M = -6, When M = -10,

<;
x:
='4""-4
<;
x:
..;.j(x.x.tJ-~
While appl~n~ the delta method, the above equation is first converted to the form
III
.'i
-+ Cl~[X
In general, 8(x,f.~f'd~tJJds llpon the variables x,

,. and t, but for short intervals the
changes in th,se variables are negligible. Thus over a short interval, we have
I,'
=fix,-R'
fiJ
i' ~S(Q' +is a eolil;tant.
Let us choose the state variables as x, = X;
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~TL
=~X2
12
- -W'/~l
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~, - x/lAJ", then
+ e;
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Therefore, the slope equation over a short interval is given by
dx: _
Xc
dXl
7.4 Limit Cycles:
+8
Xl)
With known at any point P on the trajectory and assumed constant for 'a short interval,
we can draw a short segment of the trajectory by using the trajectory slope dX2/dxI given
in the above equation. A simple geometrical construction given below can be used for
this purpose.
1. From the initial point, calculate the value of .
2. Draw a short arc segment through the initial point with (- , 0) as centre,
thereby determining a new point on the trajectory.
.
3. Repeat the process at the new point and continue.
Example 7.3: For the system described by the equation given below, construct the
trajectory starting-at-the initial point (I, 0) using delta method.
J(
Xi
4- ;
As an example, let us consider the well known Vander Poi's differential equation
+ :.\.~ n
'=
-Xl
""\~~
- -X., -
Limit cycles have a distinct geometric configuration in the phase plane portrait, namely,
that of an isolated closed path in the phase plane. A given system may have more than
one limit cycle.
A limit cycle represents a steady state oscillation, to which or from
which all trajectories nearby will converge or diverge. In a nonlinear system, limit cycles
describes the amplitude amrperiod of a self sustained oscillation. [t should be pointed out
that not all closed curves in the phase plane are limit cycles. A phase-plane portrait of a
conservative system, in which there is no damping to dissipate energy, is a continuous
family of closed curves. Closed curves of this kind arc not limit cycles because none of
these curves are isolated from one another.
Such trajectories always occur as a
continuous family so that there are closed curves in any neighbourhood of any particular
closed curve.
On the other hand, limit cycles are periodic motions exhibited only by
nonlinear non conservative systems.
which describes physical situations in many nonlinear systems. In terms of the Slatevariables
x;
A, -
The above equation can be rearranged as
c,ncf .:t_: -
i., we obtain
""
- x~
x:--rx,-!-x .;....~-X,)
So that ,~- x,
+."r-x,
At initial point is calculated as = 0+ I- I = O. Therefore, the initial arc is centred at

point (0, 0). The mean value of the coordinates of the two ends of the arc is used to
calculate the next value of and the procedure is continued. By constructing the small
arcs in this way the complete trajectory will be obtained as shown in figure.
The figure shows the phase trajectories of the system for > 0 and < 0. In case of
> 0 we
observe that for large values of x,(O), the system response is damped and the amplitude or
x,(t) decreases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown by the outer trajectory. On the
other hand, if initially XI(O)is small, the damping is negative. and hence the amplitude of x,(I)
increases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown by the inner trajectory, When < 0,
the trajectories moves in the opposite directions as shown in figure.
Unstable
limit
cycle
(ii)
(i) II> 0
<0
Figure 7.5
A limit cycle is called stable if trajectories near the limit cycle, originating from outside
or inside, converge to that limit cycle. In this case, the system exhibits a sustained
Figure 7.4
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oscillation with constant amplitude. This is sliown in figure (i). The inside of the limit cycle is
an unstable region' in the sense that trajectories diverge to the limit cycle, and the outside is a
stable region in the sense that trajectories converge to the limit cycle.
Where, k, = ( 2/ i)
0 so that the trajectories
become a set of parabola as shown in figure (b) and
the equilibrium point is called a node.
In the
original system of coordinates, these trajectories
appear to be skewed as shown in figure (c).
A limit cycle is called an unstable one if trajectories near it diverge from this limit cycle. In this
case, an unstable region surrounds a stable region. If a trajectory starts within the stable region, it
converges to a singular point within the limit cycle. If a trajectory starts in the unstable region. it
diverges with time to infinity as shown in figure (ii). The inside of an unstable limit cycle is the
stable region. and the outside the unstable region.
7.5 Analysis and ClassifIcation of Singular Points:
\ \
Singular points are points in the slate plane where x', f:

.,rAt these points the slope of the
trajectory dx)/dx, is indeterminate. These points can also be the equilibrium points of the
nonlinear system depending whether the state trajectories can reach these or not. Consider a
lincariscd second order system represented by
('1'........
,,"
"".......
;".._,
. r
:
;
Using linear transformation x
Where, ,and
If the eigen values are both positive, the nature of

the trajectories does not change, except that the
trajectories diverge out from the equilibrium point
as both ZI(t) and Z2(t) are increasing exponentially.
The phase trajectories in the XI-X] plane are as
shown in figure (d). This type of singularity is
identified as a node, but it is an unstable node as the
trajectories diverge from the equi!ibrium point.
\ -( \ \
>~
.
~ . J\\i 7',
Consider now a system with eigen values are real.

distinct one positive and one negative. Here, one of
(.,""...........--the states corresponding to the negative eigen value
converges and the one corresponding to positive eigen value diverges so that the
trajectories are given by Z2 = C(ZI)'kor (Z,)kZ2 = c which is an equation to a rectangular
hyperbola for positive values of k. The location of the eigen values, the phase portrait in
ZI - Z2 plane and in the x, - X2 plane are as shown in figure. The equilibrium point
around which the trajectories are of this type is called a saddle point.
Mz, the equation can be transformed to canonical fonn
,are the roots of the characteristic equation of the s~.
The transformation given simply transforms the coordinate axes from X'-X2 plane to ZI-Z2plane
having the same origin, but docs not affect thc nature of the roots of the characteristic
equation. Thc phase trajectories obtained by using this transformed state equatjon still carry the
same information except that the trajectories may be skewed or stretched along the coordinate
axes.In general, the new coordinate axes will not be rectangular.
jrll
The solution to the state equation being given by
1:""
z,lt,- ,,\"z.,(U'
The slope of the trajectory in the z, -
Saddle Point:
"
(a) Location of cigcnl'l1uc.1
z, plane is given by
dz: _ l:z, _'!""~

a'Zl
ll=l
(b) Saddle
pointin (tl.t,)plane
Based on the nature of these cigcn values and the trajectory in z, points arc classified as follows.
z,
XI
.'
plane, tho sihgular
Nodal Point:
(e)Saddlepointin ("" xv-plane
Consider cigen values arc real, distinct and negative as shown in figure (a). For this case
the equation of the phase trajectory follows as
= =J"
=:
Dept. of EEE, Sj BIT
Page 115
.Phase trajectories around saddle point
Dept of EEE, Sj BIT
Page 116
lOEESS
lOEESS

Focus Point: Figure 7.7
dy,
dy,
Consider a system with complex conjugate eigen values. The canonical form of the state
equation can be written as
= _ 2:!
j''')'l
=lwv
y,
Centre or Vortex Point: Figure 7.8
[!~]= [a ~iw <1:: .,

Using linear transformation, the equation becomes
Consider now the case of complex conjugate eigen values with zero real parts. ie.,
= j
Integrating the above equation, we get .Y,~ +y,; = 1<2 which is an equation to,a
circle of radius R. The radius R can be evaluated from the initial conditions. The
trajectories are thus concentric circles in YI-Y2 plane and ellipses in the XI-X,
plane as shown in figure. Such a singular points, around which the state
trajectories are concentric circles or ellipses, are called a centre or vortex,
The slope
dyz -cuYI + aX2 _ Yz - kYl
dy, - a)l, + wy,
)', - k"z
ann
I,
&-
joo
tan 6
Y1.
We get,
:
lanll -It
tal1l/J - 11 kton{}
.t.; ~ t
nr tal1(ll-
This is an equation for a spiral in the polar coordinates. A plot of this equation : for negative
values of real part is a family of equiangular spirals. The origin which is a singular point in this
case is called a stable focus. When the eigen values are complex conjqgate with positive real
parts, the phase portrait consists of expanding spirals as shown in figure and the singular point is
an unstable focus. When transformed into the X,-X2 plane, the phase portrait in the above two
cases is essentially spiralling in nature, except that the spirals are now somewhat twisted in shape.
(b) Center
(a) Elgen values
in)'1 )'2 plane
(cj
Cemer in .tlX2 plane
Phasetrajectoriesaround vortexor ct!~ter
Figure 7.9
Example 7.4:
1M
D,',terlpinethe kind,of singularity for the following diffcrential equation.
y.+
.
,,
3,- + tv -
Let the state variables be x, - v ami
-"!:
.i .
The corresponding state model is
-o.-jtA
..\';1 - x ..
(b) Ph..
u.nw:rmes!UDl>le b.."lr.I
.i-, -
PhHf!traiettctesaround stal::ft:fotU$
-3'1'- 2x,
',At si~glllar ~oints, '\:1 -
X::! = nand
kr
-3,.\:['"
l.rF (,
Therefore, the singular point is at (0,0)

A _
.
,
[n-7
1 -
-:L
The characteristic equation is
-/<0
. II.2
i.e,
I-A
-I
;.+:.1
=0
- n
or
(b)Ptluetmjec:tnfieltntable incus
I,
Ph.le tr"je<.t.o1Jes
.round unsteble focus
= -2, -I. Since the roots are real and negative, the type or singular point is stable
node.
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 117
Dept. ofEEE, SJBIT
Page 118
..

Example 7.S: For the nonlinear system having differential equation;
y- (n.l
_.!j,2)y
,
,
+].
_),2 ~
Defining the state variables as
l'
..
.'
Example 7_~:
Determine tlie kind of singularity for the following differential equation.
O. find all singularities.
X " 'I'
lOEESS
lOEESS
r.;-
x" the state equations are
O.5:i: + 2.-
+ r2
=0
Let the statevariables be x 1 = x ulu.t x, = iThe,correspondihg state model is
x, := x
At singular points, ;\,I ,." :Y~ =
(l
So that the singular points ~, i :e;
a.nd
x~ = -x
o'1r",,-' - X, -
~ O.lx. - .1:f
< _"
-7- x~
!.e x_(Xt
=0
+ 1: -
ZX1 -
At si~gular points, Xl -
r
X, - 0
a...:1
So tfiat rhe singuler points
.:':l=Ol",'-I
.t:; = e-O.5.~'2 -
i.e;
The singularities are thus at (0,0) and
y,
-On ...d
i;
-2"",-,,,;
i....,x,(x,.,I.2)
~"':l~nor-?
(-1,0). Line'ruizationabout the
The singularities are thus at (0,0) and (_
singularities:
2.0). Lineari~ation about the

singularities:
The Jacobean matrix J
11 1
Linearization around (0,0), i.e., substituting
XI
= 0 and X2 =
-'lox~l
.;};"a:;-
The Jacobean matrix J =
Ai ..
-1
) - nt
. /(0.0)
I- A
1-
)1
-'1
-\-01
Therefore
I. 2 =
2 _
II
I( -7..0; - [~
-u.s.
I- A =0
r
2
+ 0.5 + 2 = 0
1 .
_flO;
The characteristic equation will be

n
1
1 -1
0.1 _ I = 0
-1 I
,(+0." - n
Therefore
1.05 and -0.98. Since the roots arc real and one negative and another
positive, the singular point is a saddle point.
+ 0.5 _2 = 0
I, 2 = 1.19.'and -1.69. Since the roots are real and one negative and another positive.
the singular point is a saddle point.
Dept. of EEE, SjBIT
Page 119
...
=0
Linearization around (-2 0)
1 1
1-
= 0 and X2
The eigen values are complex with negative real parts. The singular point is a
stable focus.
The characteristic equation will be
1=
XI
A,.A. - (-O.2~ =i Jl.:i',J'
Linearization around (-1,0)

11
-1
..;+ 0"
~Xl~
i.e., ( + 0.5) + 2 = 0 or
+ jv'J.99;
The cigen values arc complex with positive real part. The singular point is an
unstable focus.
r~
l2
...,.
dNa. d.!:!
AHA, - O.S( 11 1
[0
". -:4
i.e., ( -0.1)+ I = 0 or '- 0.1 + I = 0
J(-I.O;
(]
Linearization around (0,0), i.e., substituting
I I
011
d!'j - [-(2 ,~ ,
at'df. a:
..:.!.1. ..:.:.J..
-_.__ ._----
Dept. of EEE. SI BIT
Page 120
.'
10EE55
UNIT-8: STABILITY ANALYSIS
10EE55
'.
UNIT-S
Liapunov stability criteria, Liapunov functions, direct method of Liapunov &: the linear system,
Hurwitz criterion & Liapunov's
direct method, construction of Liapunov functions for nonlinear
system by Krasvskii's method.
tc}
6 Hours
For linear time invariant
(LTI) systems,
the concept
of stability
is simple and can be
formalised as per the following two notions:
a) A system is stable with zero input and arbitrary initial conditions if the resulting trajectory
tends towards the equilibrium state.
b) A system is stable if with bounded input, the system output is bounded.
In nonlinear systems, unfortunately,

two notions. The linear autonomous
behaviour about the equilibrium
entire state plane.
deviations
Therefore,
equilibrium
there is no definite correspondence
systems
have only one equilibrium
between the
state and their
state completely determines the qualitative behaviour
In nonlinear
systems,
about the equilibrium
on the other hand, system behaviour
point may be different
local stability does not imply stability
concepts should be considered
Fig. 8.1 Global and local stability
separately.
states, the system trajectories
for small
from that for large, deviations.
in the overall state plane
Secondly,
in the
and the two
in a nonlinear system with multiple
may move away from one equilibrium
point and
tend to other as time progresses. Thus it appears that in case of nonlinear isystems, there is no
point in talking about system stability.
an equilibrium
neighbourhood
the equilibrium
point.
Stability
More meaningful will be to talk about the stability of
in the region close to the equilibrium
of equilibrium point is called stability in the small.

point, the stability
point or in the
For a larger region around
may be referred to as stability
in .the large.
In the
extreme case, we can talk about the stability of a trajectory starting from anywhere in the
complete state space, this being called global stability. A simple physical illustration of different
types of stability is shown in Fig. 8.1
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 121
rex.
Equilibrium State: In the system of equation

,. =
r), a state x, wherej(x,.t) = 0 for all
't' is called an equilibrium state of the system. If the system is linear time invariant, nal11ely./(x,t)~~
Ax, then there exists only one equilibrium state if 'A' is non-singular and there exist infinitely many
equilibrium states if 'A' is singular. For nonlinear systems, there may be one or more equilibrium
states.
shifted to the origin of the coordinates, or/(O,I)
Any isolated
equilibrium
0, by a translation or coordinates.
slate
can
he
flit
S.2 Stabilicy'Definitions:
The Russian ~;thematician
These are discussed belGw,
A.M, Liapunov has clearly defined the different types of stability.
Stability: An equilibrium state x, ofthe system

.. = f(x, t~ is said to be stable if for each real
number
> 0 there is a real number (,/(1) > such that lI.r,
- .i<]1pkeS'{I"" t;x", t.,'
for all t to. The real""W)Ue~ .,dependson and in general, also depends on to. If docs not depend
on to, the equilibrium state is said to be uni formly stuble'.
t:
An equilibrium state x; of the system of equation

i. - Iix,
is said to be stable in the
sense of Liapunov il; corresponding to each S( ). there is an S( ) such that trajectories starting in S(
) do not leave S( ) as t increases indefinitely,
Asymptotic Stability: An equilibrium state x, of the system
_. - (!;c,!.) is said to be
asymptotically stable, if it is stable in the sense of Liapunov and every solution starting within S( )
converges, without leaving S( ), to x, as 't' increases indefinitely.
Asymptotic Stability in the Large:
If asymptotic stability holds for all states from
which trajectories originate, the equilibrium state is said to be asymptotically stable in the large. An
equilibrium state x,- of the system
ft
.It;-<;aid to be asymptotically stable in the
large, if it is stable and if every solution converges to x,, as 'r' increases indefinitely. Obviously a
necessary condition for asymptotic stability in the large is that there is only one equilibrium state in
the whole state space,
~
x.n
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 122
Mo~_ern Control Theory
lOEE55
The above said definiuons are represented graphically in Fig. 8.2
10EE55
A scalar function Vex) is said to be negative semi-definite in a region

if it is negative for all
states in the region: and except at the origin and at certain other states, where it is zero.
A scalar function Vex) is said to be indefinite if in the region
negative values, no matter how small the region is.
it assumes both positive and
Examples:
- -(x1'+x~)
Vex)
Fig. 8.2 Liapunov's Stability
+ X,)l
C.l,
Vex)
Vex)
(3x,
= -xf-
Fosit:l1~ semi def'mtte,
Negatitle def tnite.
+ 2x,)l
/legative cUJfinite
V(x)
= -:r) + ,,)2
Nel1C1tivesemi definite.
Vex)
= x-:xJ
tndefintte.
+ x;
8.4.2 Sylvester's Criteria for Definiteness:
Instability: An equilibrium state .\'" is said to be unstable, if for some real number > 0 and any
real number > O. no matter how small, there is always a state XII in S( ) such that the trajectory
starting at this state leaves S( ).
A necessary and sufficient condition in order that the quadratic form xTAx, where A is an nxn
real symmetric matrix, be positive definite is that the determinant of A be positive and the
successive principal minors of the determinant of A be positive.
8.3 Stability by the Method of Liapunov
a" ~ 0,
Russian mathematician A.M., Liapuuov has proposed a few theorems for the study of stability
of the system. The most popular among this is ealled the "Second Method of Liapunov" or
"Direct Method of'Liapunov".
'
This method is very general in its
formulation and can be used 10 study of stability of linear or nonlinear systems. The method
is called 'direct' method as it docs nut involve the solution of tile system diffct1lbti~1
equations and stability information is available without solving the equations which is
definitely an advantage for nonlinear systems.
The stability information obtained by
this method is precise and involved no approximation.
rp
a~l
(112/ ~.
ClO?
a:~
0,
t?:.a
1"11
0"
a., au/
If....,
::
~. 0..........
rl1aT'
a"l
au
a"
(I.,
"1
lit"
1
;...0
Sl......
A necessary and sum bent condition in order that the quadratic form xTAx, where A is an nxn real
symmetric matrix,. be negative definite is that the determinant of A be positive if n is even and
negative if n is odd, and the successive principal minors of even order be positive and the
successive principal minors of odd order be negative.
First .Met~d of Liapunov: . The first method of Liapunov, though rarely talked about, is
essentially 3 theorem stating the conditions under which system stability information can be
inferred by examining the simplified equations obtained through local linearization. This
theorem is applicable only to autonomous systems.
8.4 Sign Definiteness

Let V(x" Xl, Xl,
Xn) be a scalar function of the state variables x, Xl, Xl,
the following definitions arc useful for the discussion of Liapunov's second method.
: il-1"
x., Then
: a~. -c 0.......... IAI '"
:fn
If n
~ a'Q
8.4.1 Scalar Functions:

A scalar function V(x) is said to be positive definite in a region
states x in the region and V(O)~ O.
if Vex) > 0 for all nonzero
A necessary and sufficient condition in order that the quadratic form XT Ax, where A is an nxn real
symmetric matrix, be positive semi-definite is that the determinant of A be singular and the
successive principal minors of the determinant of A be nonnegative.
A scalar function Vex) is said to be negative definite in a region

states x in the region and V(O)= O.
if Vex) < 0 for all nonzero
i.e.,
A scalar function V(x) is said to be positive semi-definite in a region

if it is positive for all
states in the region and except at the origin and at certain other states, where it is zero.
Dept. of EEE, 5J81T
Page 123
a.,
Dept. of EEE. 5JBIT
all
:> 0..U-21
Page 124
.'
Modern Control
Theory
Modern ControfTheory
lOEE55
consideration at the origin of the state space.

A necessary and sufficient condition in order that the quadratic form xT Ax, where A is an nxn real
symmetric matrix, be negative semi-definite is that the determinant of A besingularand all the
principal minors of even order be nonnegative and those of odd orders be non positive,
311
< 0,
lau
la:1
O"I>v,
n:a
ll
O-DL
a.::.'l'
aUI
a.~ Q:m
a..
alll
a",
lau
a.,
Theorem I: Suppose that a system is described by - tix.t ; wheref(O.t) ~ 0 for all l.

If there exists a scalar function V(x,t) having continuous first partial derivatives and
satisfying the following conditions.
I. V(X,I) is positive definite
a'' 1
a:n
0_1.,
n~!
2. V(x,t~ Is negat1\edeflnlt.
Then the equilibrium state at the origin is uniformly asymptotically stable. If in addition,
V(x,1) .....00 a-s Uxl! .....00 then the equilibrium state at the origin is uniformly
asymptotically stable in the large.
a.~
Example 8.1: Using Sylvester's criteria, determine the sign definiteness of the
following quadratic forms
lOxi + x# +
A visual analogy may be obtained by considering the surface ~'= ~x; + ~kxi'- This is a
cup shaped surface as shown. The constant V loci are ellipses on the surface of the cup.
Let (,,~, ,g) be the li1ITiiit1:ondition. If one plots trajectory on the surface shown, the
representative point X(I) crosses the constant V curves and moves towards the lowest
point of the cup which is the equilibrium point.
+ 4-"1X, + 6r,x. + 1x.x,
2l-Y~]
1 1
1
..
t IAI:> n
.j.
Successive
principal
minors arel~o
2">
10""0;
Hence the given quadratic form is positive

definite.
Example 8.3: -''\:1

1'x~x!l
A _
-1]
-1
1
[-t
_<
1."",-
-2 ~1~
Successive principal minors are
-I
11 ",
-3
Hence the quadratic form is negative definite.
8.5 Second Method of Liapunov

The second method of Liapunov is based on a generalization of the idea that if the system has an
asymptotically stable equilibrium state, then the stored energy of the system displaced within the
domain of attraction decays with increasing time until it finally assumes its minimum value at the
equilibrium state. The second method of Liapunov consists of determination of a fictitious energy
function called a Liapunov function. The idea of the Liapunov function is more general than that of
energy and is more widely applicable. Liapunov functions are functions of XI. X2, .X3,
; Xn.- and t.
We denote Liapunov functions V(xt. xi, X3,
, xn, t) or V(X,f) or Vex) if functions do not include t
explicitly. In the second method of Liapunov the sign behaviours ofV(x.l) and its time derivative I:'(x,r')
give information on stability, asymptotic stability or instability of the equilibrium state under
Dept. ofEEE, SJBIT
Page 125
Fig. 8.3 Energy function and movement of states

Theorem 2: Suppose that a system is described bye - {(x.t:' whcrcj(O,t) ~ 0 f~ all t
O. If there exists a scalar function V(x,t) having continuous tirst partial derivatives and
I. Vr.-.:,1) is positive definite
Dept. ofEEE, SJBIT
Page 126
iOEESS
lOEESS
Let us choose another V(,,)
2. ~!(XJ' t.~ is ut!'!i:allvt! GQmid"nn.ih~
1-~(0Ct,xc.to).( does not vanish identically in t to lor any to and any xn

0, wheJ0(t. X, . tc'; denotes the trajectory or solution starting from XII at tu.
xl+
2x;
4).';'(.(,1+
4X,( -,Y, - x~) -
This is negative semi definite function. lfV(,,) is to be vanish identically for t to, then
must be zero for all t 10. :. i., - II. Tlu",,i, - -x, - .~: - !l !.~."
1must l!~zero
This means that V(;~) vanishes identically only at the origin. Hence the equilibrium state
at the origin is asymptotically stable in the large.
Then the equilibrium state at the origin of the system is uniformly asymptotically stable in
X2
the large.
If however, there exists a positive definite scalar function V(x,t) such that V(~.[) is
identically zero, then the system can remain in a limit cycle. The cquilibriqw;!state at the
Example 8.7: Consider a nonlinear system governed by the state equations
origin, in this case, is said to be stable in the sense of Liapunov.
Theorem 3: Suppose that a system is described by x = f(x,t: where j(O,t) = 0 lor all t
If there exists a scalar function W(.r,t) having continuous first partial derivatives and
satisfying the following conditions
to.
I.
Then Vex) -' 4x1.1:1+ h,;i,-
Let us choose ~'(x) =
IV(x.1) is positive definite in some region about the origin.
Then vex) ='
2. ~-V:"',t; is positive definite in the same region, then the equilibrium stateat
the origin is unstable.
-x,
xr+xi
2x,x, +
Zx,:i";, 'l'\l(
-x, +
J"'i = -:lxf( 1-
= -2XI -I: 1,..1x: LEI. V(x~ """yaU"" ':.[lnlw if (1-
'"
2x,x,l
2X1XZ)
'> R
Example M.4: Determine the stability of following system using Liapunov's method.
Therefore,
Let us choose ~'(x) =
:'f~""
region
xi
for asymptotic stability we require that the above condition
of state
instability. Let
satisfied.
xZ..;..
Then (~(X) = 2xt,\',,,,,
2x:~
2x:l""! 2x.,1-Xl - x ..:
::=
on
the
and are rectangular
hyperbolas
unique,
it' may
be.
possible
Let liS choose V(X)
tI\"c
-7.1::;
stability of following system using Liapunov's
the region
of
condition
is
as shown in Figure. 8.4. In the second and

and X2. Figure 8.4 shows the
Liapunov
function
for the system under
consideration which yields a larger region of stability.
.',
Stable qundmnl
This means that ~)ix.'vanishes identically only at the origin. Hence the equilibrium state
at the origin is asymptotically stable in the large.
8.6: Determine:
is possibly
of state J space wIn:fe this
Since the choice of Liapunov function is not
to choose another
This is a negative semi definite function. If Vi x) is to be vanish identically tor t to, then
x: must be zero for all l to. . 3:1 - (I. Thor: :\'1 - -x, - x ...- (l i. f1.'i:J. nUist 7:Je=9'1"0.
Example
is not satisfied
region
region of stabiJity and' possible instability.
.'
.'
.rj
this condition
fourth quadrants, the

. inequality is satisfied for all values ofx I
Example 8.5: Determine the stability of following system using Liapundv'a method.
Let us choose V(:l) -
where
The
The limiting condition for such a region is.The dividing lines lie in the first and
third quadrants
This is negative definite. Hence the system is asymptotically stable.
space
us concentrate
is satisfied.
method.
"
S,abJequad,.,,,
x7 ..;...r.~
-xT!
This is an indefinite function.
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 127
'.
Dept of EEE. Sj BIT
Page 128
eory
Modern
Example 8.8: Determine the stability of the system

described by
Copclusions:
I. Failure in finding a 'V' function to show stability or asymptotic stability or

instability of the equilibrium state under consideration can give no information on
stability.
2. Although a particular V function may prove that the equilibrium state
under consideration is stable or asymptotically stable in the region ,which includes
this equilibrium state, it does not necessarily mean that the motions are unstable
outside the region .
3. For a stable or asymptotically stable equilibrium state, a V function with the
required properties always exists.
Assume a Liapunov function Vex)

ATp-j. pj.
-1.11''
1'121
-I
~"
t:
l'11.
[ F,
?P"
P..1
1'12
-I
- P,,] ~ [-1
P." -~,
f... -2P.,
LFI! - P':Ji-
Theorem: The equilibrium state x = 0 of the system given by equation 1: = A x is

asymptotically stable if and only if given any positive definite Hermitian matrix Q (or
positive definite real symmetric matrix), there exists a positive definite Hermitian matrix P
(or positive definite real symmetric matrix) such that
A'P + PA = -Q. The scalar
function x:' Px is a Liapunov function for the system.
21'"
-2P'2 =-1
P" - PI2 - P22 = 0
2PI2-2Pn=-1
"'p,,
v(~l = x'Px
--1
I'll
[
[ nI
8.6 Stability Analysis of Linear Systems
V(,t} =
x'rx
Solving the above equations,
+ k'PX
= (A.,\}Px";' x'PAx = ~.A' P::: + ,,'FAx

where Q =
(A'P
PII
PI2 ~ 0.5;
1.5;
and
P22 = I
+ PAl
:. P _
Hence, for the asymptotic stability of the system of .f - A", it is sufticient that Q be
positive definite. Instead of first specifying a positive definite matrix P and examining
whether or not Q is positive definite, it is convenient to specify a positive definite matrix
Q first and then examine whether or not P determined from ,.q.1I'is -elso positive
definite. Note that P being positive definite is a necessary condition.
.
[1.~
0.5]
O.~ 1.0
1.5 > 0 and det(P) > O. Therefore. P is positive define. Hence, the equilibrium
state at origin is asymptotically stable in the large.
The Liapunoy function Vex) =
x'rx
0.5'
[X(
1.0. Y,.
.tilW::
= o.S(3xf +'2Xl:C~
I. If tI'(~)
-x'Qx does not vanish identically along any trajectory, then:Q may
be chosen to be positive semi definite.
.
,
2. In determining whether or not there exists a positive definite Hermitian or
real symmetric matrix P, it is convenient to choose Q = I, where I is the identity
matrix. Then the elements of P are determined ,fJ'<Jml. JU - _I and the matrix P is
tested for positive definiteness.
l'(x! = nS[6., ",
+ 2x;.)
+ 71',( -.r,
- ":)
+ lx,,,,, +- 4>::t.+x
= -(:::f.+x;)
Jl:xam'ple8.9: Determine the stability of the equilibrium state of the following system.
r-?
X]
. [~ ":' -1+}
A'P+PfJ-?
r -l-j
Dept. ofEEE, SIBIT
Page 129
Dept. of EEE,SIBIT'
-T
.-
I';'
-3
il
OJ
-{
Page 130
"
lOEE55
Modern Contrai Theory
lOEE55
ExaO:ple 8.U: Determine the stability range for the gain K of the system given below.
4P" + (I - j)P'2 + (I+j)P21
':] [n: '1

~x: - 0; -2
(I - j)P" + 5P2, +(1 - j)P22 = 0
-k
Jt
0]1 [Xl]z, + ~]0

X
11 -1
x"
[1IJ
+5P'2 +(1 +j)P22 =0
(I +j)P"
In determining the stability range ofk, we assume u = O.

PI'
O.:'I7~
.' p-
Let us choose Q
P12 = - (I + j)/S;
3/8;
r-0125
P'2
-O.1:!~ -
+ 10.1.25
=-
(I -j)/8;
-l~
P22 = 1/4
n OJ
0
n
n
a positive semi definite real symmetric matrix
This choice is permissible since V-:x.l - -x'Qxcannot

except at the origin. To verify this, note that
}u.n~l
(t.25
be identically equal to zero
P is positive definite. Hence the origin oftbe system is asymptotically stable.
[~Jl- r-1'
x -:
Assume
;;1'0
~'(,,) being identically zero implies that X3 is identically zero. If X3 is identically zero,
then x, must be must be zero since we have 0 = - kx, - O. If XI is identically zero, then X2
must also be identically zero since 0 = X2. Thus Vex) is identically zero only at the
origin. Hence we may use the Q matrix defined by a psd matrix.
8.,10: Determine the stability of the system described by
Example
it
-'J'
[;'(1"
-J..
X,.
Let us solve,
Liapunov function V(x)
XTpX
-+ .0.< - =I
i'''lr
-I
[
-2
."
P.,
IT
fI]
i.e.,
+ Pn =0
:.p=-1 Z3
liO -7
P'2 = -7/60;
1 -1
.tt
-kp13-kpJJ
=0
=0
-kp33 + PI} -PI3 = 0

PI! -;2p}} + PI! - 2pn

= 23/60;
n
o
0 ?Zl
-kp23 + PII-2pl1
-4P'2 -.8P22 =-1
PII
-k] ~"
-1
-2P" + 2P'2 =-1

-2P" -5P'2
-~n
and
PJJ -: 2P23 + PZ2 =trn = 0
P22 = 11/60
PlJ -,P13 + P2J - PJJ = -1
-7J
II
Solving the above equations, we get

P=~
23 > 0 and detj P) > 0, Therefore, P, isposTfive'lenfjc.-H~IICe,1he eqUIlibrium

state at origin is asymptotically stable in the large.
1
,0
[k' + 12k 3kk

lik it0]
6
For P to be positivf,kdefinite, it is necessary and sufficient that 12 - 2k > 0 and k> 0 or

o < k <6. Thus fo} 0 < k <6, the system is stable; that is, the origin is asymptotically
stable in the Iarge,
Dept. of EEE,SJBIT
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Dept of EEE,SJBIT
Page 132
10EE55
10EE55
If f;x) is negative definite. we see that \',xl is negative definite.

Hence V(x)is a
Liapunov function. Therefore, the origin is asymptotically stable. If FC \" - /'(x)f(x)
tends ,to infinity as II.,II - ,'r .' then the equilibrium state is asymptotically stable in the
large,
.
8.7 Stability Analysis of Nonlinear Systems

In a linear free dynamic system if the equilibrium state is locally asymptotically s.table,then it is
asymptotically stable in the large. In a nonlinear free dynamic system, however, an equilibrium
state can be locally asymptotically stable without being asymptotically stable in the large.
Hence implications of asymptotic stability of equilibrium states of linear systems and those of
nonlinear systems are quite different.
.
Example 8.12: Using Krasovskii's theorem. examine the stability of the equilibrium stare x
::11,0or.the system gt ven by ~:i::t - -x, jJ ad ;\:::e- X'I - ::r...:.~
If we are to examine asymptotic stability of equilibrium states of non linear systems, stability
analysis of linearised models of nonlinear systems is completely inadequate. We must investigate
nonlinear systems without linearization. Several methods based on the: second method of
Liapunov are available for this purpose. They include Krasovskii's method for "<:sting sufficient
conditions for asymptotic stability of nonlinear systems, Schultz - Gibson's variable gradient
method for generating Liapunov functions etc.
.
f(:r)
-):
r _
'__
"'\">"I
.]
".!,)
The Jacobian matrix is given by
J(rasoyskii's Method:
Consider the system defined by ,;,- trr), where x is an n-dimensional vector. Assume
that f(0) = 0 and that f{x) is differentiable with respect to Xi where, I = i,2,3, ..... ,n. The
Jacobian matrix F(x) for the system is
ail
ail
cfl
aXl
ax:
i);<.
ah cf:
afl
F(x) - ax!
oin
X1
ax:
I'(,K,} -
F'Ct)
+ F(: ....).
-
dx"
eir.
-?
- [1
cf.
ax..
[-'n
'1:h'; + 1_'
I-
'n
-1 -
1\';
-2 - 6x;
This is a negative definite matrix and hence the equilibrium state is asymptotically stable.
ch...
fT:,,)f(xl
Define
= r '(x) of- /'(x). wl:el'eFF.(::tl) is the conjugate transpose .of F(x). If the
Hermitian matrix f.(x~ is negative definite, then the equilibrium state x ~ 0 is
asymptotically stable. A Liapunov function for this system is ~'(x:- . f(x)f(xJ.
If
in addition f'(x)f(':e)""
".
IIxll
then the equilibrium state is
- x;
x-,
I (.~,
~!)'
"A
ashll
,eA.
Thereforetheequilibriu:,state
is

Example 8.13: Using Krasovskii's theorem, examine the stability of the equilibrium state
x = 0 of the system given by
r:t".,..)_ [ -3,.,. + x,,'il ]
Proof:
)'I-.t2-X,~
If !tx) is negative definite for all x

0, the determinant of f is nonzero everywhere
except at x = O. There is no other equilibrium state than x = 0 in the entire state space.
Since f(0) = 0, f{x) 0 for x 0, and Vex) =f'(x)f(x1 is positive definite. Note that
I(x) - F(x)i< - p( r)f(r)
.
F(,,) =
f'(~)
We can obtain Ii' as
-'l
l'
..... Ff(x)
"
_I_::I;:~
1 r(:~)
.'
Vex) - f'(x)f(x)
+ f'(x)!(x;
'"' [F(x)f(_")!'f(x)
= [,(x)[F'(x)
+ {'(x)F(x),fLy)
+ F(xjlf(x;
'"'f'(x)f(x)f(x:
This is a negative definite matrix and hence the cq?ilibrium state is asymp.toticallystable.
Dept. of EEE,SIBIT
Page 133
Dept. of EEE,SIBIT
Page 134
lOEE55
equilibrium state is asymptotically stable in the large.
lOEE55
Question Bank
UNIT 1& 2
1) Compare modern control theory with conventional control theory (Jan 2010).
'.
2) Determine state model for given transfer function (Jan 2007)

C(S)
".
24
R(S)
s3 + 982 + 26s +24
3) Determine state model for given transfer function (June 2007)

C(S)
R(S)
s2 +7S +2
s3 + 952 + 268 +24
4.) Develop a state model in Cascading form (June 2009)

C(S)
R(S)
24
s3 + 982 + 26s +24

24
(8 +2) (8+3) (S+4)
UNIT 3 &4
1) What is STM? Obtain the state transition matrix using power series method (Dec 09)
(Jan 2010)
a) A
=[
0
-I
b)A=[~ :J
.I
-2 .
2) What is STM? Compute the state transform matrix eAT. (Dec 2008) (June 2007)
. = [1 IJ
a). A
Dept. of EEE,SjBIT
I'
b).A=[O -I
IJ.
-2
c).
A=[ -2
0
I]...
-3
Page 135
Dept of EEE. SjBIT
Page 1
10EE55
4 ) What is STM? Compute the state transform matrix eAT using Cayley Hamilton
theorem. (Dec 2008) (June 2007)
a~.
A=[~
c).
10EE55
Example: Determine the state controllability of the system by Kalman's approach,
A= 0 .,. I]
. [ -2-3
i;(t) =
i.
0 1
[ ao ",Q-2
(J1 x(t)
[OJ u(t)
....3
5) Test the observablity using Kalmans method (Dec 2005)

5) July 2008
x(n = [-02
Deterimine the STM or system matrix

A '" [~
~
3
yet)
~Il
= [I
_OJ]x(f)
[~}(I)
01\"(/)
by Cayley-Hamilton method.
UNIT 6
UNITS
1) Explain the concept of Controllability and observability, with the condition for complete
controllability and observability in the S- plane (Dec 2010) (June 2010) .
1) Design a controller K for the state model ( Dec 2009)

Example: Design a controller K for the stare model
2) Check the controllability of the system (Jan 2008)
X(I)= [~ ~ ]!5(ll+[rr(t)
Example: Check the controllability of the system. If it is uncontrollable, Identify the ShIle,
which is uncontrollable.
. [-I -I] ~ [I]
X(t)=
_2.~t)+
Such Ihallhe system shallhnw damping ratio as 0.707 & senling lime as I sec.
2) Design controller K which places the closed loop poles at -4
011(1)
j4
(or a system using
Acermanns formula. (Dec 2007)

Ex. Design controller k which places the closed loop poles at - 4 j4 for system
3) Check the controllability of the system by Kalman's method (Dec 2009)
X(A)=[~
Exomple: Using Kalman's Approach delennine the state controllability of the system
described by
H3H2Y;Qitll
with XI :; y,x% ;;; )'-11
(I)
~]X(t)1o[~}(t)using Acennann's
formula.
3) Design a full order state observer. Assume the eigen values of the observer matrix at
-2 j 3.464 and -5 (June 2010) (Jan 2010)
," - 3""2 -2""'I -"11

..
, 2 --
,\'1 =Xz +11

4) Determine the state controllability of the system by Kalmans approach. (June 2006)
Dept of EEE. SjBIT
Page 2
Dept. of EEE. SjBIT
Page 3
10EESS
10EESS
UNIT 7
0
>:(1)=
0
6 ,11
[1 0
011 X(t)+'OCD'IU(t)
6,
1) What is phase- plane plot?
[,1
2) What are singular points? Explain the different
2 j3A64und
of non-linear
4) Design a full order state observer. Assume the eigcn values of the observer
phase- plane trajectories
o]X(t}
Dc,ign" ,("I<" r""d back controller which place Ih,' do,,,,.1 "><'1' pole'; at
5, Give the bk"l\:k diagram nf the contro] configuration
Describe delta method of drawing
(Jan 2010)
matrix at
singular
points with respect to stability
system (Jan 2010) (Dec 2009) (June 2009) (June 2010) (Jan 2009)( Dec 2010)
3) Explain
3.464 and -5 (June 2010) (.Jan 2010)
the common physical
Non-linearities
(Jan 2010) (Dec 2010) (Jan 2008) (June
2010)
Example : Consider the state model
X(tl=[~. ~ ~ lX(t)+l~lu
-6
-11 -6
UNITS
"
1) Determine-the
"
Y(t) = [0 0 ljX(t)
Design an observer; where observer-error poles are required to be located at - 2 .i3.64
2) Determine
and -5
3) PID controller
stability of the system. (Jan 2009)
the stability of the system described
by (Dec 2010)
(June, Dec 2010) (Jan 2010)
5) Design controller to take place closed loop poles -I jl, -5. Also design an observer such
that observer poles are at -6, -6, -6. (Jun 2009) (Jan 2007)
Exompl: A System is described by

0
1
[o~
X(t) ",.[i
1 X(t)+I"o,i,u(t)
- 5 - 6 -II.
11 ;
Y(t)=[1
ojX(t)
Design controller to take 1'1,,,,"clos..,1 loop pole, at 1.II. -5. AI,o design au observer
such that observer poles arc ai -6. -6. -6. Derive the Un compensated & compensated
'1'.1'.
"
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 4
",
Dept. of EEE, SJBIT
Page 5
10EES5
MOdern Control Theory
MecleFR CeRtFel Theo:Fy
.
.
X3= - 24 XC26 X2-9X3+
Question Bank Solutions
X3+ 9X3+26 X2+ 24 XJ= 24R
UNIT 1&2
1) Compare modern control theory with conventional control theory (Jan 20tO)
24R
Comparison: Conventional vs. Modern Control

Modern Coritrol (Linear)
Conventional Control (Linear)
Time domain analysis

and design(Differential
equation based)
Based on MIMOmodels
Deals with input, output
and state variables
Initial conditions are
taken into consideration
Applicable to nonlinear
time variant system also
Frequency domain
analysis & Design(Transfer
function based)
Based on SISO models
Deals with input and
output variables
Initial conditions are
assumed to be zero.
Restricted to linear timeinvariant systems
"~ =[0 1. OJ[X~ ~OJ
X2
X
3
0 0 1
~24 -26-9
C = [1
X2 + 0 R
X
24
3
."
oJ[x~
X2
X3
3) Determine state model for given transfer function (June 2007)
s2 +7S +2
s3 + 982 + 26s +24
R(S)
2) Determine state model for given transfer function (Jan 2007)
C(S)
24
R(S)
SJC + 9S1C + 26sC + 24 c = 24 R
Take in LT
~(S)_
1
---~--~~------
c: + 9 C +26 C + 24C = 24R
83
+ 9s2 + 26s +24
Taking in LT
C=Xl
C=Xl=X2
C=Xl=X2=X3
'C=X3 =Xl
Dept. of EEE, SjBIT
Page 1
Dept. of EEE. SjBIT
.'
Page 2
L_
(S)lX
("H)
J
(S)'X
.'
.'
.usls '333)0 '~d"a
(tH) (f+s)(Z+ s)
tZ
a t~J
o1+~~J
r~-:-: ] 0~
~;]
Lo
~x
t'l+
s9(: + zS6 + ~
tZ
(600, aunr)mJ0.lllUlPIl3SIlJ
(S)H
(s)~
UI.I0J.I01~llJUI oq 01 SI :11JO .I01m,!LUOllJp~q1
~-
~~t
Atz+rXZ
ul lapom J)IlIS B dopAaa (."
xXJ
~ X.[1
tJ'~
J!.
;:]
co;)
- =r~
J x r _rX =ZX
IXi:+ZXL+''X=
IX Z + IX L + IX = (1)J
1x~-ZX=1~
JX Z + IX sL+ IXZS= (S):)
(S)TX
(S);)
lJ ~ l
1
(l)a
t+s
=-1-
(+8)
T
SS3:3:01
0
o
6-9(:-
Ix
+ zXOJ
tz-
-T
rX
.;
[tX]
z~
l~
r~
r-
(Z+s)
(S)fX
tZ
(S)H
= l.~
='lX=
l:x
'lX= l~
IX
A.IOcH{l. [O.IlUOJ U.IapOW
SS3:3:01
AJOal{l [O.I:lUO:>urapojq
Modern Control I heory
lOEl!55
MOd'eI Il'6oIltl 01 'fheoI Y
IDEESS
UNIT 4
1) What is STM? Obtain the state transition matrix using power series method (Dec 09) (Jan 2010)
Example: Compute the STM by power series method given
a)A=[O -1 -21],
=[~ 0]+[1 1] [I
b)A=[1 0 1I]
A2t2
A3f2
a) J(t)
= I +At+--+--+
2!
3!
1t+ 0
_
-
t-t
3
r
r
l+t+-+-+
'l
2!
= [e-'
+.
+-+... 1
t3
2
(3
3t2
2t3
-t+t --+ ...1-2t+---+
1]1
t:
21 + .....
=[~ ~]+[~l_12}+[~1
t2
t3
1--+-+...
.r:::
...
3!
...
,
l r+ l "
+-+ ...
t2
t3
2
t3
1+1+-+-+ ...
2! 3!
el
.- [ p
i:
- te -I
- Dept. of EEE. 5JBlT
Page 5
Dept. of EEE. 5JBIT
Page6
lOEE55
2) What is STM? Compute the state transform matrix
=[~ ;J
a), A
a).
= [0
b). A
-1
I]'
[S-I
A = [~ I ~ [SI-A]=
.
.
.
~ o)(s)
= [SI-
, .
Arl
= s- I
,L
-1
S-J
c). A = [ 0
-2
c). A
_13]
A=[O
=> (t)
0 1] =>
-2
lOS= -'---.
[S -If
_I
-1
]-1
= (S
+!__.)2
-I
[
(S + 1)2
s
[ -2
[S
.S
'. (S+2)(S+1)
..
[S+3
-2
1]
=> J(t) = ,t-1 J(t) = :-1 (S + 2)(S + 1)
S+2
S+2
+3 1]
= [I
[Sf _ A]
Hence J(t)
- Arl
-3
1
-
-1
.1 ]=>[SI-AJ=IS
-1
- 1 - 2
-t41:-----+2(Sf--=-t-F-02&)J4-J
= LSI
=[
..
b).
,
lOEE55
(Dec 2008) (June 2007)
_121
'[S
- 1
S -I
eAT.
(S 1
+ -]1)
(S:
. 2e-I -e -21
= [ - 2e-t + 2e-2t
1)2
e-I -e -21]
- ' + 2e-21
(1+ t)e-I
(t)
=-1 (t)
Dept. of EEE, SIBI'J"II'
= [ _ ie:
.'
.'
Page 7
Dept. of EEE, SIBI'!'
Page 8
...
lOP:E55
IeEESS
Model II COlIll 01 'PheOI Y
(Jan 2006)
1) Find f(A)=A10
forA=[O
-1
Now characteristic equation is

-1
1 A+2-
1]
-2
IAI- AI = O.
-~~.J
= 0 => (A+l)2 = O.
Hence, Eigen values are ~ = -1, ~ = 0, ~ = -1.

Since 'A' is of 2x2, the corresponding poly function is
ICA)
a)
aD -2al
= AlO = ao + alA
[-9
-10J
11
10
4 ) What is STM? Compute the state transform

2008) (June 2007)
=> f(AI) = ~IO = ao +al~

=> (-1) 10 = ao
-2
matrix eAT using Cayley Hamilton theorem. (Dec

...
2). Find S:rM by Cayley Hamlton method, given:
- at
1I)
I=> ao -at = 11
A =[1
:]
b)
a) Consider A =
A=[O
_I..,
-I
-.J
d )10 I
"dX[tt.
1 .i=-l= at
'[A-lo -I]
A-I
=:>
A,
= landA, = I. Since A is of 2x2 second order system. hence,
eA' = ao +a,A at A
will be eAt' = ao + alAI
=> lOt ,1=-,= a, =-10
=> e'
=ao +a,
i0
_13]
L- 2
AI = 0
-
e"=ao+a,A
=:>
A=
[:1 :]
Characteristic equation is IAI -
Since it is case of repeated Eigen values, to obtain the second equation

differentiating the expansion for.f(A)on both sides (i.e. Eq 1),
CI
(I)
= A,
(2)
Hence, ao = I + at = 1-10 = -9
Dept. of EEE,Sj8fT
..
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Dept. of EEE,Sj8fT
Page 10
.l3...
14
= 82 +7S +2
C(S)
Xl
4(8)
X2
= '8+"-:-
..
C(t)
s-1
s-1
=
1 + 4 s-1
1-(-4s-1)
~=
= Xl + 7 Xl + 2 Xl
24
-1
s-1
s-l,
X X2~Xl '
'0'0
, OC(S)
~X3
R(S~
X3 ..
-2
3. Cascadingform
tfJ:!edenominator ofTF is to be in factor.fonn
-_
C(S) _. __
R(S)
2_4
'
-3
Xl =X2-4 x
X2= X3- 3
-'I,
X3= -2X3+24V
c= [1 0
s3 + 982+ 265 +24
24
_ (s +2)(.5+3)(st4)
(s +2)
X (8)
-L., X2 (8)
(S+3)
[xj [~4 1 OJ
X2
Xl
0 -3
0
() -2
[~l
~Ol
X + Q R
X3
24
.15
..
16
Consider the state model
X(t)= AX(I)+Bu(t)
Y(t)=CX(t)
Algot;.ithm for Design:

a) Let the desired Locations of closed loop Poles be ~, ~ ........1.
. b) The correspondry cha Eqn will be
(S-AJS-A2)
......
""
(I)
(2)
The above model can be converted into controller canonical form through the
transformation
(S-An)=0 .
X(t)=.px~)
"
::;:>. S" +01Sn-l+02Sn-2+

+c, = 0
c) ~t the controller gain matrix be
. .; K=[Kl K2---------Kn}.
d)'ISI-(A;..BK),,=sn.t~'IS":"I+~2S~2+;'~'''~n
(1)
(3)
Wher[;,~jsp~:n ~,~~ ~:gu1lar transformable
matrix, and assumed as
P = ~~,' ~~~ ... ~~~

Pn, Pn2
e) Coire~p~~ilingequation is.
,',
sn:+ 131Sn-1
+P2Sr>-2
+ ";"'~n =0 ------(2)
Pnn
P, = [p"
Comparing the co-efficient of like powers of s form Eqn (1) & (2) J(J,K2,-----:::K~
can be Evaluated and this completes design of state pack controlled<i
.' Example: Design a controller K for the state m'o~~I" ,'" .' '.... ~ ~.
P'2 ... P,n]
f)
.. X(t)=[~
~]X(t)+[~}(t):
Taking the derivative of Eqn (3) and substituting for X(t) from Equ( I)
X(t)= AX + Bu(t)
Where
Such that the syst~~ 'shall have d~~ping ratio,as 0.107 & setlling time as 1 sec:
Solution: .. ,"
...... ,.,':
., " ,.
,
.'. 'a)' Ct:mvefting thed~ireri specifications as locations'of closed loop poles at - 4 j4
b)" The corresponding cha Eqn will be -.
(S+4+J4) (S+4~J4)70
, ~S2
+.M;+32=0
. t)te~ th~con~oller be of the'fonn '

. '.~~:_'.,. . ','K"[K'
= l' 'K2l-'
.. J;' -:-::--;:-:',7""
','
.
oX From given state model " .
.,,"[A;-:~~lJ[O.1]:_[ 0'"
:OJ. .r
, ,\'.:,. : ,.ll0, 0. ...K1;: K2 .

.-
,',
..
., ,",.
(4)
A=PAP-',
=[_:.
B=PB
0......
-L '-~ _:.
-B=p.,.n --.-----
(5)
(6)
.(7)
(1)
i "
From Equ.(3),
":"
x, = P
x,+P'2X2+
l1
+P'nxn= P,x
Taking the: derivative
X, = P,x(t) = P,[Ax(t)+ BU(t)]

",.
,"
= P,Ax(l)+ P,Bu(t)
(8)
From Equ(4)
x=x
2+0
Comparing (8) and (9),
&
(9)
P,B= 0
=P,Ax(t)
Taking again derivative of Equ(1 0)
(10)
18
VTUJe.
.
Learning
x = P,A[AX(t)+ Bu(t)]
=P,A2X(t)+P,AB
xn = P,An-'X(t) & P,An-2B =0
P,X
P,AX
Learnfng
---------------------------------------------Hence the corresponding characteristic poly will be
Let the desired characteristic equation be

sn +a,sn-' + ....... +an =0
Equating the coefficients of like powers of S from equation (15) and (16)
P,
P,A
a, = a, + Kn => Kn =a,-o,
an =
.... P,An-2B=0
FromEqu(4)
B=PB=
P,B
P,AB
o
o
P,An-2S
P,An-'B
=>P,[BIABIA2BI
Defining
.... An-2 An-'Bj=[0
o, =[BI A2B I A2B 1.
=>P,Qc =[0 0 - - 0 1]
Post-multiplying both sides with
P, = [0 0 -
an
+ K, ~
1<, =an -an
1]
~,A
Q;l
1P~'
U=
-1Ot)
= -KX(t)
b) P=[~:A
P,An-'
Substituting u(t) = -KX(t) in Equation (4)
SKjX(t)
t:-~
-0n-,-K.
1......
(17)
:_fltl
P.1=P,A2
Pn=P,A'"
Where, K = KP-' = lK,K2K, ..KnJ
0 ....
(16)
Steps to design the controller K:

I) Forgiven state model, test the controllability of the system by determining the
rank of controllable matrix Qc.
2) If it is controllable, transfer the model into controllable canonical form through
similarly transformation matrix P ; where P can be obtained as.
"
'.a) 11=[00----0
IJQ;'
1 A"-'B]
Under this transformation, the control law will be
X(t) = [A-
(,1_5)
Hence the controller K will be

K"'[an~an .. a ...,-a ..., .. a,-o,j
(18)
Transferring to original system
K'" KP!: [a. -a n" a...,-o n-, .. a,-o,lP
TIIC necessary condition is the system should be completely controllable. If the system is
not completely controllable then there are certain states that cannot be controlled by
st'abl~feedback.
, Thus the necessary and sufficient condition for arbitrarily pole placement is the
system should be completely controllable in s-plane,
& P,An-'B=1
a, = a, + Kn_1=> Kn_,=a,-o.
(11)
p,~n-,
With P,B=P,AB=P,A2B=
(14)
Where K"K" ..... K. can be chosen real numbers arbitrarily.
1[ 1
X = P,A-;'_'X =
+(0, +Kn)S'-' + ....... +0. +K,
and characteristic equation will be

Sn+(a, + Kn)Sn-, +(02 +Kn)S .......... +on +K, = 0
Taking again derivative

P,An-'B=1
Thus,
VTU~
ISI-(A-BKI=sn
andfromEqu(4)
x. =P,A2X(t) & P,AB=O
x=x.+o=>
Similarly
'.
3) Compute A & B as
A=PAP-t
B=PB
4) Assume the controller
(13)
-o,-Kn
5
4
.. 19
20
VTU_2
.
Learnrng
K = lK,K2....KnJ and
K= [0001)0, -'<p(A)-------c-----(4)
1 0
Determine
tA_SKJ=[
010
~_
Where
-an-K,
5) Determine the Cba equation as
ISI-(A-SKI=sn
+(a. +K,)Sn-' +
+a.
=:
(6)
sn +a,S"-' + .........+8n =0
7) Determine the elements of gain matrix

as
(5)
Design procedure:
I. For given model. determine Q, and test the controllability. If controllable.
2. Compute the desired characteristics equation as
+a, -K. =0
6) Determine the desired cha equation as
S" +a,S"-' +a Sn-2+
cp(A)= A' +a,An-' +a2An-2 +a3An-3 +....... +8nl

& Q, =[SI ABIA2BI.......An-'B]
and determine coefficients a" a,.: a,

3. Compute the characteristics poly of system matrix A as
K.K,.K2 K.
K, =a.-an
<Il(A)= A"+8,An-' +a2An-2 + .......+8.
K2 = an-,-an-,
K. = a, - a, and hence
K=(K,K2 KnJ
4. Determine Q;' and then controller k will be K=[O0 .... 0 I] Q;'. <1>( A)
This completes the design procedure.
Ex. Design controller k which places the closed loop poles at - 4 j.4 for system
8) TIle feedback controller K for original system is

X(A) = [~
K=KP
]X(I)+[~]u(I)
using Acermann' s formula.
This completes the design procedure

Answer: Check for controllability
Design of controller by Ackermarm's formula:

We have
0, = [BI ABJ=[~ ~] Its controllable as f(Q,)=2.
j& P, =[0;'].[00 ... 01j
P=[::A
P,An-'
~O-'
c
=fL1o OJ11
II. Desired characteristics equation is (S+4+j4)(S+4'j4)
K = [a. -a. ..an-,-an-, ... a,-a,jP
~S2+aS+32=0
~8, =a.a2 =32.
III. <Il(A)= A2 + a,A + a21 = [32
0 0a]
= [00 01jO;'[(a,-a,)An-'(a2 -a2)A-2 +

Characteristics poly of A matrix is
lSI-AI = S +a,Sn-' +a2S-2.+ ..+I1.
+(an -a.),]
N. K=[P 1{~ ~r02
a]
State regulator design: The state Regulator system is a system whose non zero
initial state can be transferred to zero initial state by the application of the input u(t).
(2)
Design of such system requires a control law

U(t)=KX(t) which transfers the non-zero initial state to Zero initial state (Rejection of
disturbances) by properly designing controller K.
According to Cayley-Hammilton theorem.
A +a,An-' +
+a.I=O
~ A' =-a,An-'- .........._a.I
~]=[32
,(1)
(3)
The following steps give design of such controller. For a.system given by
From equation (1) and (3).
.'
" "21
22
VTUJe
.
Learntng
X(I)= Ax(l)+ Bu(t)

Y(I)= CX(t)with
u(l) = -KX(t)where
K =[K,K2 Knl
From above relations, the closed loop system is
X(I)= [,1\ -BK]X(t)
1. From the characteristics poly of matrix A
ISI-AI=sn +o,S"" +02sn-2+ .......+on
Determine
al,az,
2. Desired characteristics poly is

(S+2+j3.464)(S+-j3.464)(S+5)
=:;S3+9S2 +20S+60
Comparing with S3 +a.s" + a,s + a3 we obtain
Q, =9, a2 =20, Q3 =60
(1)
3. Hence the required controller K is

K=[aa-03
a2-02 a,-o,]
= [K, K2 KJ]
= [43 9 3]
aft
2. Determine the transformation matrix P, which transfers the given state model into
controllable caunomical form.
P=[::A
" P,A""
l;
Block Diagram:
P, = [0..0...01 1 O~'
Oc = [BI ABI A2BI .......A""B]

3. Using the desired location of closed loop poles (desired Egen values) ~btai!l the
characteristics poly
"
(8-1I.')(S-1I.2).....(5-1I.n)=sn +a,Sn~'+828n-2+ .....an
determine a1, a2 , a"
.'
"
K,=43
K2=9
4. The required state feed back controller K is

K = [an-onan_,-on_,.....a, -o,p
Kl~3
Example: A regulator system has the plant
X(t)
=[ ~ ~ ~
-6
-11"-6
Design of state observer:

Design of observer: The device that estimates we state variables with measurement of
output along with input u(t) is called state observer.
-
lX(t)+[~lU(t)
1"
Y = [1 0 O])(t)
Design a state feed back controller which place the closed loop poles at - 2 j3.464 and
-5. Give the block diagram of the control configuration
Design of Full-order observer: Inthis case all the state variables are to be estimated.
a) Open loop observer: Here it is assumed that all the srate variablesare estimated
correctly and initial state are also estimated correctly.
i.e For State model,
X(t) = Ax(t)+Bu(t)
Y(t) = ex(t);
initial state X(O) are known and
X (I) is estimated states and
--5(0) IS estimated lrutial states !he resulting observer in open loop observer.
By observing the structure of A and B matrices, the model is in controllable

conmical form, Hence controller K can be designed.
"
Solution:
8 -1
ISI-AI= 0 8
~1
16 11 8+6
1.
"
H all the state variables are estimated, it is called Full-order state observer. If only few
statevariable are estimated (which can't be measured accurately), the observer is called
Reduced-order state observer.
I~
8' +682 +118+17

"
Comparing with S +0,82 +02S+0., we obtain 0, = 6,02 = 11,0. =17
24
Differentiating equation (3)
.~(t)
X(t~~
L:_I -
'.
~(t.)
X= X(I)-X(I)
= [A-mc)X(I)
by equations (2 to 3)
(5)
The characteristics equation of the error is given by
!SI-(A-mc)!=o.
(6)
If 'm' is chosen properly, (A-mc) have reasonably fast roots, then
';((t)
zero irrespective of X (0) i.e X (t) = X (I), regardless of

equation (5) is independent of control input u(t).
Draw backs of open loop observer.

I. Precise Lack of information ofx(O)
2. If X(O)i:X(O), the estimated state X(t) obtain from open loop estimator will have
continuously growing error and hence the output,
3. Small errors in A,B, and disturbances that enters the system but not in estimator
will cause slow estimate process.
.
Hence better to go for closed loon estimator.
Design of closed loop Full-order state observer: Figure shows closed loop FuH orcter-
state observer (Luen berger state observer)
.
X (0).
X (I)
will decay to
Funher it can be seen that
*"
The obserVer gain matrix 'm' can be obtained in exactly the same fashion as controller
gain matrix 'K'
De!ligT)procedure:
I . Let the desired pole locations of observer error roots be

'corresponding poly equation will be
(S-I3')(S-132) ....(S-I3,)=0
~ S' +a,S~-1 +a2Sn-2 + ..... a, = 0
determine co-efflents ai'
fJ" fJ" ......fJ" then the

(1)
(2)
i12 , .. all
Z... Let the pbserver gain matrix be m
m'=-,im"IJl., ....... mnlT

obtain the characteristics poly equation of the closed loop system with observer as
I~HA-mc)I=O
S' +(0, +m,)Sn-' +(0. +mn_,)Sn-2 +.......+(0, -rn.) =0
=:;.
(3)
3. Comparing the co-efficient of like powers of S from equations (2) and' (3)
a, =01 +rn, ::::)mn =a1-u1
I
I
I
an =On
L_____
"-=- S~A~E:B~E:V:;- - - - -
-rn,
==>
rn, =an -an
where the co-efficients
I
I
a" a, ,
a. are obtained
from poly equation
ISI-AI=O
.J
=:;. S'
+o,sn-l +.......+0,=0.
4. The observer gain matrix 'm' will be then

State model is X(I)= Ax(l) + au(l)
(1)
(2)
Y(I)= CX(I)
Estimator output is V(I)=CX(I)
Error in output is Y(I)- V(I) C[X(I)- X(I)J

=:;. Error in state vector
X(I)= X(I)- X(I)

From figure ;(1)=AX(I)+Bu(I)+m(Y(I)- V(I)
'rn is nx 1 constant gain matrix.
m=[m"m2,
.......
m,lT
Example: Consider the state model
(2a)
X(I) =[
(2b)
~ ~ ~ ]X(I)
-6 -11 -6
+[~lu
1
(3)
Y(I)= [0 0 1)X(I)
(4)
Design an observer; where observer-error poles are required to be located at - 2 j3.64

and-5
11
.'
..25
26
Reduced-order
Solution: Model in oberserver conamical form will be
~I)'[~0~~]X(I)+m
Y(t)=[O
Design of Reduced-order
1) Desired characteristic equation will be

(S+2+j 3 .64) (S+2-j3.64) (S+5)=0.
=> 8'+98'+208+60=0
hence comparing with S' + a,s' + a,8+ a3 = 0
-6]
[0
-11 - 0
-6
[A-mel=[~
0
0
X~(I)]=(al1
[ X.(I)
a.,
m,l
m
2J
0 0 m,
from (4) Y(I)

=> Xl (t)
=0
=(S+m,)
(I)+ b,U(I).
= a., X. (I)
(6)
Comparing equation (5) & (6) with

)(1)= AX(I)+bu(l)
and Y(I) eXIt)

we can have similarity as
:::>tn, =54
= [54
Also from
X, (I)= a" X,(I) + a,.X.
Knownlerms
20 =11+m. :::>m, = 9
4) Hence m
(5
KnownlnpUI
Y(I)- a" X, (I)- b,u(l)

(II)
3) From I and II.

9=6+m3:::>m,=3
SO=6+m,
(4
Collecting the known terms.
+ o.s + 0. =0
=(11+m.),03
= X,(I)
= Y(t)
Bquation (3)
Comparing with
S3 -I'O,S2
0G:\::]
and Y(t) =[1
:(;~::'!)l
+(11+m.)S+(6+m,)
a,.][X,(I)]+[b']U(I)
aee X.(t)
b.
from equation (3)

X. (I) = a .. X.(I) + a.,X(I)+ boo
-(6+m3)
~ S3 +(6+m3)8'
('I
Partionionly the matrixes accordly & state equation can be written as
~181-(A-mc~=0
0, =(6+m3).0.
_f
Xl(I)]
r.e X(t)-~:e.e(~I)~
a, =9, a2 =20, a, =60

2) Let the observer be m = [m" m2 ........ m. l'
0 0
1 0
state observer:
In this design procedure. let us assume one measurement Yet). Which measures one state
X,(t). The output equation is given by
Y(t)=CX(t)
(l
Where C=[1 0---0)
Partitioning the Slates X(t) into Slates directly measured X,(t) and states directly non
measurable X,(t). which are to be estimated.
1]X(I)
[A-me]=
state observer
Required when few of state variables cannot be measured accurately.
X(t)~X.(I)
31T
A(t)~a
..
bu ~ a.,X,(t)+ b.u(t)
(7)
c=a,.
Y = Y(I)-a"X,(t)-b,u(l)
Using Equation (7), the state model for reduced order state observer can be Obtainedas
~.(t) = a )<.(I)+ a.,Y +b.u(I)X,(I)+
12
m(Y(I)+ (Y -allY -b,u -"-,.:>:.(1)
(8)
13
...
27.
..~
28
I
I
!
(same as X(I)::A)I)+ bu(l)+ m(y(l)- y(l)) where y(l)::a,.X.(I)

Defining X. (I):: X. - Xe :
~~~
b
d
From output Equation it follows that states X,(t) & X2(~)cannot e measure , ~s
corresponding elements of Crnatrix are zero, Let us write the state equation as
~ ~.(I):: X.(I)-~.(I)
I
I
Substituting for
X. (I) & ~. (I) in above equation & on simplification,

[
X(I)::(a.. -ma,.)X.
Corresponding characteristic equation is
ISI-(a .. -ma,.~::o
(J
Comparing with desired characteristic equation 'm' can be evaluated same as

order observer.
To implement the reduced-order observer,
Equation (8) can be written as
X.(I)::(a .. -ma,.)X.(I)+(a.,
As Y(I)is difficult to realize,
X'j :: [01 00 -24

0 l[X,(t)]
)(,
X,(t) + [50]
2 u(l)
0
1
-10
X3(1)
1
3
-ma,,)Y(I)+(be-mb,)u+mY(I)
a.. =[~
~J.ae,
=[-~4J. a'e =[0
1)
in fullau = [-.1o.1~e = [520]b, :: [1J
(I
Let
m =[::]
..
Characteristic equation of an observer is
Define
ISI-(a -ma,.)I=O
=>S'+m,S+m,=o
X: (I):: X. (Il -my
Desirable characteristic equation is
~ X.(I)::X.(I)-mY(I)
::(a .. -ma,.}X. (I)+(a., -ma,,)Y(I) + (b. -mb,)U(I)
Equation (12) can be represented by block diagram as shown below.
(S+ 10)(S+1 0) = 0
=>S'+20S+100=0
(12
From two characteristic equations. equating the co-efficient of like powers of S

20=m2& lOO=m,.
~m=[1;~]
Hence state model of observer will be
><.,(1) = {~
~].~[120~JrO~X.(I)+{ _~4]_[1;~]X{-10JJJY(t)+{520]_[1;~})U(t)
Design of compensator oy the principle of separation:

.
Consider the completely controllable and observable system described by
Exam:~::rrmt
lo
X(t) = AX(I)+ Bu(l)

Y(I)= eX(I.......
) ~~_
~eij::~[~o}(,)
1 -10J
Yel)::[0 0 1JX(I)
(Is)
(I)
lei thecoiitrollaw be
u(l) = -kX(t)
Assume the full-order observer model be
k(t)=AX(t)+Bu+M(y-CX(I
To design the reduced-order observer for un measurable states such that the given ~alues
will be at-IO. -10.
.
14
(2)
Hence the state feedback control law using the estimated states WIll be
U(I):: --KX(t)
(3)
(4)
15
..30
VTU)2:
Using equation
Learn~n
--0-_
Taking LT.
(4) in (I a)
. SX(s)=(A-BK-mC))S)+mY(S)
)1)= AX(I)-BKX(I)
= (A-BK)X(I)+ BK(X- )1))
(5)
Defining observer state error vector as
X(I)= X(I)- X(I)
(6)
using (6) in (5)
)1)= (A-BK)X(I)+BKX(I)
(7)
.,
::::>mY(s)=[SI-(A-BK-mC)]X(S)
(4
U(S)=-K.X(S)
(5

::::> U(S) =K[SI-(A-:BK-mCr']m
-Y(S)
WKT observer error-vector model is
=D(S)
X(I) : (A-mC)X(I)
(8)
Equation (7) & (8) can be obtained in vector model as

R.(S~g)
~(I)]=[(A-BK)
[ X(I)
0
. BK I~(I)]
(A - mC) X(I)
D (s)
Plant
(9)
Equation (9) represents the model of 2n dimensional system. The corresponding

characteristic equation is ISI-(A-BK)IISI-(A-mC)I=O
(l~)
Equation (10) represents the poles (given values) of the system, which is union cifpoleS:
ofcontroller & observers. The design of controller & observer can be carried by:
.'
separately, & when used together, the system is unchanged. This special case of:
separation principle controller can be designed using
.
ISI-(A-BK)I=O and observer by ISI-(A-mC)I=O.
The corresponding block diagram is as shown
Example: A System
if described by
)1)=[ ~ ~
~ lX(I)+[~l(l)
_-5 -6 -11
1J
Y(I)=[l 0 ojX(I)'
Design controller to take place closed loop poles at -I jl, -5. Also design an observer
such that observer poles are at --6, -6, -6. Derive the Un compensated & compensated
T.F.
Solution:,System is observable & Controllable. Using the procedure of controller design

& observer design, the controller will be
'1(t)
K=[4 I I]and observer will be

M=[12.~.
,
L
..
Transfer fynction of uncompensated system will be

Mu(S)=qSI-Ar'B.
1
MUIS1
-71IT
Co"t"olllf"T
ObSe:rve'Y
S3+6S2+11S+6
l-(_
Compew s,,for
Me(s)= U(S)=K[SI-(A-BK-mCJr'm
Y(S)
M S~
S~+11'gS+618
e( )- S3+19S2+121S+257
Transfer function of compensator:

Now X(I)=AX(I)+Bu(I)+m(y-cx(I))
(1)
U(I)=-KX(I)
(2)
From (1) & (2)
X(I)= (A-BK -mC)X(I)+ mY(I)
(3)
16
17
.3L.
32
.. , ....":(2.-'
"
.'
VT~
,':
Le~rnfn~
TakingL.T.
Solution of State Equations
SX(s)= (A-BK-mC)X(S)+mY(S)
~ mY(s)= (SI-(A -BK -mC)jX(S)
(4)
U(S)= ;"K.X(S)
(5)
~ U(S) =K(SI-(A-BK-mCr'jm
-ViS)
=D(S)
R(S~~)
The solution of state equation consists of two parts; homogenous solution and forcer
solution, The model with zero input is referred as homogenous system and with non-zen
input is referred as forced system. The solution of state equation with zero input is callec
as zero input response (ZIR). The solution of state model with zero state (zero initia
condition) is referred. as zero state response (ZSR). Hence total response is sum of zm
andZSR.
a)
o (s)
Plant
X(J)=AX(J)
.(1)
"
with x(O)=xu
X(I)=[~ ~ ~ lX(')+[~}(')
-5 -6 -11
Y(I)=[1 0 O)X(I)
Zero Input Response (Zffi):
Consider the n-th order LTI system with zero input. The state equation of such. systcn
with usual notations is given by
Example: A System is described by
.:.~:";'
X(I)=c".k
(3)
where e" is matrix exponential function defined as

A'I'
A'I'
T+AI+--+--+
......
2!
3!
and k is-a constant vector.
,;"
~.. =
Solution: System is observable & Controllable. Using the procedure of controller design
& observer design, the conrroller will be
K=[4 1 IJ and observer will be
M=[ll 25 _72]T
Differentiating Eq. (3);
Transfer function of uncompensated System will be

M.(S)= C[SI-Ar1B.
M _
1
~ k = (e"
ulS) -
(2)
Let the solution of Eq.(l) be of the form
Design c~troller to take place closed loop poles at -I jl, -5. Also design an observer
such that observer poles are at -6, -1;, -6. Derive the Un compensated & compensated
T.F.
After obtaining the various mathematical models such as physical, phase anc
canonical forms of state models, the next step to analysis is to obtain the solution of stat,
------equation.Flom die solution 01 tlie stale equation, -the transient response can then be
obtained for specific input. This completes the analysis of control system in state-space.
X(I) = Aea'k
r'X(IO)= e-A' xeD)
. (4)
(5)
(6)
Hence, X(I) = eA' e-M X(IO)
S. +6S"'2-+-1-1S-+-6
= eAU-'O) X(IO)
Mc(s)= U(S)=KfSI-(A-BK-mC)]-'m
YeS) .
At 1=0(zero initial condition),
M (S)S2+119S+618
c
-S'+19S'+121S+257
~ x(t)
= e" x(O)
"
From Eq.8, it.is observed that the initial state x(D)=xo
('7\
JJ
(8)
at 1=0 is driven to a state X(I)at
time 't' by matrix exponential function e'", This matrix exponential function, which
transfers the initial state of the system x(O) to arbitrary state X(I) in 't' seconds, is called
STAlE TRANSmpN MATRIX (STM) and is denoted by ;(1).
:
"",
rt
..

(01_ 'I); =
oJ
,a
[ ,a; ,a =
...
i z
+--;-+-+1+[
("
'(.1
Z
[ "'+,+,1+1
...
..... +~
,1,
[I
i iZ
+-+-+1+[
,I
z
Otl[1
1 IJ
0J+[I
1 1
i'l
1=
0J=
<l I
......+_+_1_. -+IJI+/=(I);
,I,Y ,I,Y'
,_dl[
[z-
.... +~~
, ,I
"'+__-_+17
(....r z 1
Z
".+_+
,I
I-]+~
0
[z-
,I,
,,-
,_dl-
z:
1+1-
.......+~~("z+'ty+[=("z-'ir/A..~-'t~
,!.."I+ 'I) t'z+ 't)~
.... +
iz
(1_ 'I),Y
+(OI-'I)V+[=(OI-'I)'"
iZ
....+
+('I-'I)Y+I=('I-'I)'"
('I-'I),V
('I)r('I-
'I'
'I'
'WUd
,#'
'I); = ('I)r
(0')r(01- 'I); = ('I)r
: (01_
'M = (01_
'1);('1_ 'I); '(17
('1+ '1);=
tz+
,_al+ ,_a
a1
l_
r ...+ --Z1
'",
J -;I-I
I-J/I
"~'! ,ll, 01 ,II, wOlJ pUll ,II, 01 ,0), wOlJ UOll!sU1!Jl

01 [Bnb:lS!! (OI)r(O,- 'I); = ('I)r
'.
"101 ollIIoll uO!l!sU1!Jl:ll{l
.;)., '(SUQ!l!SU1!Jl
[B!lU:lnb:ls
J? J:lqwnu.1lOIU!p:lp!AlPoq UIlJsosscoord U0!l!SUlIJI
;)IBISIBl{lS:!Hdw!A)J:ldoJdS!IlL)
(q
J=
.......
+~~('t+~y+[=('t)/!(~~
~) {1+ 1)~
i
iZ
....+-y;-;;+--y;-;;+
'W+ 1=('I); pue
.
,I,V,
I,V
iE
iZ
.
.... +-,-+-,-+
'W+I=('I); :joOJd
,',Y
,I,V
:('1+ 'lltP= ('I)('Ij .(
.,,+ + Z
I_I
lo
I-]+I[Z0
1
0JI -
(I) ,_; = (1-);
,_; l{l!A\S:lp!Sqioq jjUJAld!I(DUI-:IJd

1=(1-);(1);
'(H; pUB(I); jjU!Ald!llnw

....+~-~+W-I=(I-);<=
,I,V ,I,V
.... + --iZ + IV + 1
,I,V
= (I);
J~P!suo::>.joOJd
: (l-ltP = (I),_; ,(Z

'[=(0)$ OIU!sllns:!J 0=1jjU!llll!lsqnS
(1);=
iZ
....+--+--+IV+[=
<va
,I,V ,I,V
'U0!l!olPP Ql{lwGij SMOI\OJ
JOOJd/=(0)$ .(~
:(1):;:, Xl.lllIW U0!l!SUII.IJ. 31lllS JO S3!lndo.ld
6UIUJIt)'cq
\!) -:
-.
~n~A
.~
35
36
VTU~
LecirnTng
Example: For system matrix A =.[ 0
2 ] show that the STM is
-2 -5
b). A= [ 0 1] =>[SI-A)=
-1 -2
[S
""'1
4...
1 ...,
-e --e
-e
2 _, --e
2
3
3
3
3
-2
_,
2
...
,
[ -e +-e
1 ...4
-e
-e -"
3
3
3 3
-1
1 (S+2)
S+2
-1
S+2
= [~
=> (I)'= [SI- Ar'
J-' =
[
2).Inverse Laplace Transform Method:

Consider the state equation with zero input as
(I)=I(t)=
= Ax(I);
X(IO)=x(O)
X(I)
c). A
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides.
Sx(s)-x(O) = Ax(s)
~ [SI - A)x(s) = x(O)
=> SJ
r -
Premultying both sides by [SI-Ar'.

xes)=[SI -Ar'x(O)
Taking Laplace Inverse on both sides.
X{I) =
:.e-'[SI-Ar'x(O)
[ 0 I]
-2
.'
[S_+/
(S+I)
I
(S:I)2
(I-t)e-'
=> [SI - A) =
J-
(S+I)'
le-'
-ie:
h-' _[S
-I
j - 2 S+3
Hence.(I)
Comparing the above example with

X(I) = eA' x{O)
It shows that
eM = STM = (i) =:.e-'[SI - Ar'
~ (I) = ..,[SI -Ar'
-3
0 + I)e-'
[
(S+I)'
-1
[S -] J
,
2 S+.'
S+3
IJ
-2
- (S+2)(S+I)
~J
= (S + 2)(S + I)
.
[S_+23
~J
=> (I) =.I(I) =;..1(S+2)(S+I)
Example:
Obtain the STM by Laplace Transform (Inverse Laplace Transform) method
:~:r:J~b)A"[~l _1,J.
a). A=[~
:J~[SI-A)=[S~l
S-~IJ
s -I
~(s)=[SI-Ar'
=>(I)=.'(S)=[~
0)
I,J
For rum. non-singular matrix A the matrix poly function [(A) is given by
1
[ 0 S-IJ
= S-I -I] -"'-_-.--=[ OS-I
[S-I)'
:.']
A"[_O,
3. STM by Calley-Hamilton Theorem:

This method is useful for large systems. The theorem states that "Every nonsingular square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation." This theorem helps for
evaluating the function of a matrix.
.
....
f(A)=aol +a,A+a,A' + ....+a,A'-'
= (I)
where ao.a,......
a, constant coefficients which can be evaluated with eigcn values of
matrix A as described below.
Step]: For a given matrix. fo,:," its characteristic equation
eigen values as A" A., ..... .4.
IAI - AI ~ 0 and find
'~I 0 ]+[(/-I)'~
[ ,"1,''1
0
[:
~]'+[~
0
(I-I),"
J:
6-=01-[=
'+1=
,d
'- 0.0= 0'([-)';::
= 0 eEl pus ezl 'sb3 UlOid

IV
I [o,rl.1:!p
.([ ba ':I'!l S:lp!S rnoq uo (rJfJoJ uo!s~dX:l:;l1p SU!lIl!l=mp

uOflBnoo PUO:l:lS:lip u!1lJqo 01 'S:ln[1lA!!:lSm P:lIe:ld:ll JO :;SeJ S! Il :Y.IU!S
",a=ell,p
(I-I),a:
= ' -
IV + v
'r'zJ+ 0= o,y (1)/';::
,a1
(I)
r'D + 0 = o,r = (r!J

S! u0!lJIll1J A!<:'dSU!pUOdS:lllOJ:l1p 'ZlClJO S! .v. :lJUlS
'[- = l''0 = 1"[ - = y :1m S:ln[1lAU:lSm ':lJU:lH
,3 <=
''ra :lq_mM
Ie y'+ 0 =
<=
It'd
y'+ 0
[
0 ':I,u:lH
0[-='v='-I.r01';::
'='-
~]o=
V'+[o:.
lG---~
'zJ- 0 <=1
,{q U:lAf.1S! w.LS :l~U:lH
,d; - ,d
(E)
l': YII1'= rr~1

''Y:Y jjU!JnI[jsqns puu 'Y01 iocdsar tll!M (I) 'b:;I SU[je9U:lJ:lJJ!O
(Zl
y'v+o=
l' = Y
(ll
'rPUI1I=1'<=
':l~!!:lq'W:lIS,{SJ:lPlOPUO~:lSlZJOS!~~JU!S'I:
0=
'0= ,([+r)
= rr"
0]
I-Y
[_
. 0 = Iv -
[l[-
L-i"- =
<=o=~+1f
jI-
[1<=
rd S! UOflunb:L:l!lS!l:lI:ll!.l1lqJMON
I;]=V 10Jo,v=(v)!
Iv- I S! uonenbe ~!lS!l:lI~ll.IBq:J
PU!.d(l
:sa/dum:q
(I),p=
[~ ~] = V J:l;!SUO:J (e
[: ~]:v
H
[01-
OI]=[IZ-O
,_.v+....+ v'+
u0!1J!ll\j U! ..... ''''0
[0 = (vl!
SIU:lpgP-OJ:l1p :lJn)!lsqns:~
(n
. ..... '' ' '0 SlU:lJf.JJ:I-OJpug pUll :In[1lAU:IS!3:Slip Su!sn,(q

UO!lllnb;jIU:lPU:ld:lPUl:lUOu!1llqo u:lql P:lIB:ld:lJ:l1BS:ln[1lAU:lS!3::lWOSJI :<Z aso:;)
.....,' ''zJ.o 10J:lA[OS
'-]=
'v
6-'l_[ '
..... + ,'r'
'_]+[0
0 J=
0
0
+ 'r' + 0 = ('rl/
..... +,1"+
1"+
= ,..a
=(1')/ =
",d
.....+, y'+ y'+ 0 = (y)/ = 'I'''

'SIl suoQllnb"
~no"uel[nw!S .U. UllOJ U:llp '1Ju!lS!P:Im S:ln[1lAU:lS!:I[IBJ1:(["so:;) ~
v' + [oV = o,v: (vl/ <=
"
_-_Lt
8E
"
39
40
vru~
.
LearnIng
=[~ ~,']
b) A = [ 0
J;
-1 -2
~4,=-I,A,=-l.
IAI _ AI = 0 ~ /A1
characteristic equation is
-1 '
-0
A+2-/
Deterirnine the S1M of system matrix
For second order system,
eh =ao+a".t
2 1 4]
(I)
[o
~ e""=ao +a,4,
(4,=-1)
::)e-'=ao-a,;
(2)
3 1
Now characteristic equation is.
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to A and substituting A=A2=-I
A = 0 2 0 by Cayley-Hamilton method.
IAI-AI
=Ie-l
=IA~2 A-_I2. -04 =0

1
ao =e-'(l+I) fromEq. (2).

The S'IM is given by (I) = e" = aoI + A
hence
A-I
On simplification,
Eigen values are A, = 2,.~ = 2. A, = 1

Correspondipp function will be
-;. ..,
(t) = [ (I+I)e-'
_,
te
(!-t)e
e"" =ao'+a,~ +a,4,'

::)e" f a. + 2a, +.4~,
-r
c).
A". [ -2
0
1 ] characteristic equation is
-3
-!I=o~4,
A+31
(2)
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to 1'-1 and substituting A,=2,

Oil simplification
IAI - AI = O.
= at + 4a2
le,2r
::)/A2
(1)
=-I,A, =-2.
and e'"
(3)
= ao +a,A, +a,A,'
=ao+a, +a,
Eigen values are distinct The corresponding functions are,
(4)
From Eqs. (2), (3) and (4), solving for ao,a"
e""=ao+a,A,
(1)
ao = 2te' _3e2t +4e';
=ao-a)
(2)
a, =-3te" +4e" -4e'

a2 =te21 _e2f +e'
HenceS1M (t)=..a.I+a,A+a,A'
e"
And e"" =ao+a,A,
::) e-"
= ao -
2a,
From Eqs. (2) and (3) solving for
ao = 2e-' -e-"
(3)
ao and a,.
re"
and
=1 0
12e' -12e" +13te"

e"
-3e' +3e"
a.,
-4. e' +4e"j

0
e'
Hence the S1M will be

(I) =aoI + a,A. On simplification,
42
VTU
LearnTnc
-----------------,------_._-----
[Ol
-I
Solution of Non-homogeneous
Consider the state equation with forced input u(t) as

X(I) '" Ax(I)
+ BU(I)
",[I
y(l)
(I)
O]x(I);X(O)
",0
Solution: The state equation solution is
X(I.)"'X.
X(I) "'eA'x(O)
~ X(I) - Ax(I) '" BU(I)
Pre-multiplying both sides by
e-" ,
e-A' [X(I) - Ax(I)] '" e-" U(I)
X(I)
eAe'-<)Bu('t")dr
(I)
= J eAeH) Bu(r)dr
~[e-" X(I)]
dl
~ _Ae-A,X(I) + e-A' X(I)
~ e-"[x9TO-!i.x(I)]
, Since x(O)=0,
(2)
Consider,
(3)
(I-r)Bu('t")d't"
(2)
Now, the state transition matrix (I) can be evaluated as
hence Eq (2) can be written as
eA' =(I)=.:c,[SI-Ar'
~[e-"x(l)l'= ,,"'U(I)
=[1.0128e-." -0.0128e-"
dt
-O.l14e-
Integrating both sides with time limits 0 and t

e-'" X(I)
11
JX(I) +
JU(I)
-10
10
X(I) '" [
-I
State Eguation
+0.114e-"
Q"
I:", j e-A<Bu(r)dr
0.114e-" -0.114e-"
+1.012e-o,o
-0.0128e-a"
1.0128e "-') -0.0128e-"(o-')

<O-<) +0.1I4e-,e,-,)
[ -0.1I4e
~(I-r)=
0.114e-o,(o-,)-0.114e-'(o-')
- 0.0128e-O,,,-<)+ 1.912e-o,e,-,)
Hence
"
Pre-multiplying
boih sides by
X(I)"'~)~+
eA'
,,-.__
~_~
ZSR
I ~
+ J
I If the initial lime is instead of
X(I) '" (I)X(O)
X(I)"'(I-I.)X(I.)+
'1
J
'
where, a,=1.1I25, a2=9.88
p(I-'t")Bu('t")d't"
X(I)=[
0 then,
(4) ,
'.
The Eq (4) is the solution of state equation with input as U(I) which represents the
change of state from X(lo) to X(I) with input U(I).
Example 1: Obtain the response of the system for step input of 10 units given state inoa.,I,
$
r)
Exampl~ 2: Consider the system
(I~'t")Bu('t")d't".
I.
J, (I- }O
r OJ'10dr
=[9.094 -10.247e-o" + 1.153e-"']

-0.132+ 1.151e-:" -1.01ge-"
:. y(l) = CX(I) = [1 0]x(1)
=9.094 -10.247e-" + 1.153e-o,,;
jeAe'-<lBu('t")d't"
VR
X(I)';"
y(l)
iL__~.
=[ I'J
-1
Solution: The state transition matrix (I)

(I)=.:c1[Sl-Ar'
10
~[I:'t~;I);X(O)
=.:c
1 ]X(I)+[O]U(I)
-2 -3
0'
s
[2
"
. I-'
-I
S+3.
11
44
Solution: State transition matrix
4 _, -;_e
1
-e
.!.e-'
3
X(I)
3
3
[ -2 e-t +3.e-4J
3 - 3
= (I)X(O) + j (/_
+ie-
41
-r)Bu(-r)dT
+e-21 +~e-41
3
and yet) =5e-' - e-"
_?,
Hi _, -e -2, --e
4 _,,]
-e
- [ -5 e-I
1 '""
="2\,;-e
-4,]
2___._--e
2
-e
-4,
(I) =
_".
tr-e."
= !(l- e-2'l)
2
Ext;;mple3:
y(/)
= [2
*(/)=[ -2 -52 ]X(/)+

l}x(/);x(O) = ~ 2t
[O]U(/)
1
13
'.
.. 45."".
46
VTUg
Liarn7n
Controllability
and ObGervabillty
Independent 'if C matrix, tjte controllability of the system is frequently referred to as the
controllability of the pair [A, B).
Concept:
Consider the typical state diagram of a system.
Example:' Check the controllability of the system. If it is uncontrollable, identify tile state
which is uncontrollable.
~~]X(l/+[~}(t)
X(I)=[~I
Solution: First, let us convert into diagonal form.
. 1).1 ~ _/A.;I)
The system has two state variables. XI (t) and Xi(t). The control input u(t).effeclS
the state variable XI(t) while it cannot effect the effect the state variable X2(t). Hence the
state variable X2(t) cannot be controlled by the input u(t). Hence the system is
uncontrollable, i.e., for n" order, which has 'n' state variables, if anyone state variable is
uncontrolled by the input U(I), the system is said to be UNCONTROLLABLE byinput
u(l).
"
Y(I)
= AX(I)+
Eigen vector associated with ..I.

-2.
1 001
BU(I)
= ex (I) + Du(I)
-1+1'
Methods to determine the Controllability:

I) Gilbert's Approach
2) Kalman's Approach.
= X(O)
as
X(I) =eA1 X (0) + ,,'(1-<) BU(1')dT. Assuming without' loss of generality thatX(t)=O"the
solution will be
- X (0)
VI
1
-1+2
=>p"AP=fo
Consider the solution of state equation
=-2
~
.
M Bu(t')<i1'
0 1
L-l
11-1
-Ill olJ
- 2 I
~[Q'-2J[1 IJ=[-20-1 0]
P-IB_['O 'JIJ_'[ 111
I'~IIO
-I
= j e-
1=>10 11
pJO" t[~,:]
Gilbert's Approach:
It determines not only the controllability but also the uncontrollable state variables, if the
it uncontrollable.
.
= AX(I)+Bu(t);X(I.)
II => _11J
-L
Eigen vector associated with A.= -I
is said to be completely state controllable. If there exists an unconstrained input vector

u(t), which transfers the initial Slate of the system x(to) to its final state x(tr) in finite time
f(tr-to) i.e. fr. It can be seen if all the initial states are controllable the system is completelj
controllable otherwise the system the system uncontrollable.
.
X(I)
A~~-O
=>(A.+ I) [A.+ 2)=0

=>A' +3A+2=O
=> (A. + 2)(A. + 1)= 0
=> A.=-2,A =-1
Definition:
For the linear system given by
X(I)
1_
, 1
-nt- O.
I 0
-IJ
As,or1 B vector contains zero element, the system is uncontrolled and state XIii) is
uncontrolled.
o
The system is Slate controllable, iff the none of the elements of B is zero. If any
element is zero, the corresponding initial state variable cannot be controlled by th~ input
u(t). Hence the system is uncontrollable. The solution involves A, B matrices and is
14
.41 _
48
VTU)e
LecifnTns
2) Kalman's approach:
This method determines the controllability of the system.
Verify the result with Gilbert's approach.
Statement: The system described by
Solution: Kalman's approach: Here,
x(t)
Y(I)
= Ax(I) + BU(I)
= Cx(t)
is said to completely state controllable iff the rank of controllability matrix Qc is equal to
order of system matrix A where the controllability matrix Qc is given by,
.
Q, = [B lABIA2BI..... IA"-IB].
BIA2BlAB
p(Q,)=n
where P(Q,) is rank of Qt.
described by
ji+3y+2y=u+u
with x, = y,x2 = y-u
x2 =-3x2 ~2x, - 2u
(I)
= Order of system.
Therefore, system is ~tate controllable.
Verification by Gilbert's approach:
Transferring the system model into canonical form with usual procedure.
~
1
l
i, =X2 +u
.::
[0 1Tx,] [1]
2(1)= 0 -Io,
-2 -3..._x, + -2 U(I)
:=)A= [
Now
1 ] ,B= [ 1 ].
-2 -3
AB=[ -20
I]=[-2]
1
-3 -2
Here,
=,[~
-1 ~
has no zero element in any row, hence system is controllable. ....
Observability:
Concept:
A system is completely observable, if every state variable of the system effects
some of the outputs. In other words, it is often desirable to obtain information on state
variables from-the measurements of outputs and inputs. If anyone of the states cannot be
observed from'the measurements of the outpits and inputs, that Slateis unobservable and
system is not completely observable or simply unobservable.
~Q, =[BIAB]=[ 1 -42]

-2
IQ,I= 1-21
'I
[~ 1
0 Z(I) + -1[."(I)
_l_
0 -2
,_:.
-2
-3
'.
Example: Using Kalman's Approach determine the state controllability of the system
X, ]
[ x2
~Q<=[:
i.e., if system matrix A is of order nxn then for state controllability
-21
4 =0
hence rank p(Q,) is <2 and system matrix A is of 2x2. Therefore system is not
controllable.
Consider the state diagram of typical system with state variables as x, and
y and u(t) as output and inputs respectively,
X2
and
Example: Determine the state controllability of the system by Kalman's approach.

X(I)
=[~~
~lX(I)+[~}(I)
o
-2
-3
u~~.~(')
""--~
-1
16
17
50
VTU~
Ledrn1n!
On measurement of y(t), we can observe XI(t)but we cannot observe X2(t)by

measuring out y(t), hence state is not completely observable.
.
Order of system
Explanation:
Consider the output equation
yet) = CX(I) + Du(t)
Assuming D=O. y(t)=Cx(t).
yet) =[4 5 t]x(t) is not completely observable by

I) Kalman's approach
2) Gilbert's approach
All the state variables x(t) can be estimated with measurement of yet) provided C
matrix do not contain the 'zero' element. If any element of C matrix is zero, the .
corresponding state cannot be estimated and hence system is unobservable.
Kalman's Altproacb:
The system described by the model
i(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
yet) = Cx(t) + Du(t)
is said to becompletely observable iff the rank of observability matrix
order of system matrix A where,
. =[CT::?ATCT:AT'CT ... AT-'CT)
For n'" order system, rank of
,p. is equal to the

i(t)=[:-02
y(t)=!1
lX(t)
i(l) '"[ ~
~
-6 -II
~
-6
[~Jl(,)
I
Solution: Kalman's approach
A=
0 I 0] ~AT =[0
-6 -II
C=[4
-6
~~I~l
-6
=[:j
I]~CT
~ .
~J(t)+[~}(t)
O]x(t)
=rC:i--A;t--A~-~T1~I.I
5
-7
-I
-I
=0
~ p( 9.) < 3 and order of system is 3. Therefore system is unobservable.
Solution: Here
Gilbert's approach:
A=lo
Transferring the system model into observable canonical form with usual
procedure, the output equation will be
yet) [0 - 2 - 2]z(t)
'-2 0];C=[I 0]
~ ATCT
..
Example:Show.that the lystem
~A'c"[}"c'rl
,p. must be n.
i.e. p(.)=n
It involves A and C matrices. The pair A, C is observable.
..
1.1=0~p(!'.'<2
'j; 2. ~o, system is unobservable.
Definition:
A system described by
itt) = A.%(t)+ Bit(t)
.
yet) = Cx(I) + Du(t) is said to be completely observable iff with measurement of output
yet) over finite time interval t.::;t.$t(along with input u(t); ~Io the initial state x(lo) can be
estimated.
.
-1
As C matrix contains the element '0' the corresponding state

observed:Hence the system is unobservable.
=[-02 ~II~]=[ -02]
=. =[CT
ATCTl=[~
Zt
cannot be
~2]
18
19
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'.
CONTROLLERS
The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form and decides the proper
corrective action. The output of the controller is then applied to the system or process.
The accuracy of the entire system depends on how sensitive is the controller to th~ error
detected and how it is manipulating such an error.. The controller has its own Jof:jc to
handle the error. 'Ihe controllers are classified based on the response and mode of
operation. On the basis of mode of operation, they are classified into Continuous and
Discontinuous controllers. The discontinuous mode controllers are further classified as
ON-OFF controllers and mulliposition controllers. Continuous mode controllers,
depending on the input-output relationship, are classified into three basic types nanied as
Proportional controller, Integral controller and Derivative controller. In ID8DY practical
cases, these controllers are used in combinations. The examples of such composite
controllers are Proportional - Integral (PT)controllers, Proportional - Derivative (PD)
controllers and Proportional- Integral- Derivative (PIO) controllers.
The block diagram of a basic control system with controller is shown in Figure. Th'; error
detector compares the feedback signal bet) with the reference input r(t) to generate an
error. e(t) ret)- bet).
Conlroller oulpul
(p)
e(l)
I{l)
Conlroller ..
I--;_-,-l Processto
be controlled
~)-
E_
detector
L/-,,--
-I Feedbackelemenl 1-------'
Feedback
signal
Integral Controller:
We have seen that proportional controller can not adapt 'Withthe changing, load
conditions. To overcome this situation, integral mode or reset action controller is used.
In this controller, the controller output pet) is changed at a rate which is proportional to
actuating error signal e(t). Mathematically the integral controller mode is expressed as
pet) = K, f e(t)dt + Po. The constant K, is called integral constant. The output from
the controller at any instant is the area under the actuating error curve up to that instant.
If the error is zero, the controller output will not change. The integral controller is
relatively slow controller. It changes its output at a rate which is dependent on the
integrating time constant, until the error signal is cancelled. Compared to the
proportional controller, the integral control requires time to build up an appreciable
output. However it continues to act till the error signal disappears. Hence, with the
integral controller the steady state error can be made to zero. The reciprocal of integral
constant is known as integral time constant T;. i.e., T; = IlK;.
Derivative Controller:
In this mode, the output of the controller depends on the rate of change of error with ....
respect to time. Hence itis also known as rate action mode or anticipatoryaction mode.
The mathematical equation for derivative controller is P(t) = Kl ":;') + p . Where K,
is the derivative gain constant. The derivative gain constant indicates by how much
percentage the controller output must change for every percentage per second rate of
change of the error. The advantage of the derivative control action is that it responds to
the rate of change of error and can produce the significant correction before the
magnitude of the actuating error becomes too large. Derivative control thus anticipates
the actuating error, initiates an early corrective action and reur's to increase stability of the
system b}' improving the transient response. When the error is zero or constant. the
derivativeconttoEer output is zero. Hence it is never used alone.
PI Controller:
Proportional Contretlerr
In the proportional control mode, the output of the controller is proportional to th~ error
e(t). The relation between the error and the controller output is determined by a constant
called proportional gain constant denoted as Kp. i.e. pet) Kpe(t).
.
Though there exists linear relation between controller output and the error. for zen! error
the controller output should not be zero as this will lead to zero input to the system or
process. Hence, there exists some controller output Po for the zero error. Therefore
mathematically the proportional control mode is expressed as pet) Kp.e(t)+ p.. .
This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional mode and
integral mode. The mathematical expression for Pi controller is
pet) - Kpe(t)
The transfer function is given by 1(. I
s,
e(t)dt
1.1'0
The performance of proportional controller depends on the proper design of the gain Kp.
As the proportional gain Kp increases, the system gain will increase and hence the steady
.state error will decrease. But due to high gain, peak overshoot and settling time increases
and this may lead to instability of the system. So, compromise is made to keep steady
state error and overshoot. within acceptable limits. Hence, when the proportional
controller is used, error reduces but can not make it zero. The proportional controller is
suitable where manual reset of the operating point is possible and the load changes are
small.
.
The advantage of this controller is that the one to one correspondence of proportional
controller and the elimination of steady state error due to integral controller. Basically
integral controller is low-pass circuit.
The PI Controller has followin!-effects on the system.
15
16
,53
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
S4
It increases the order of the system

It increases the type of the system
It improves the steady state accuracy.
It increases the rise time so response become slow.
It filters out the high frequency noise
It makes the response more oscillatory.
PD Controller:
This is a composite control niode obtained by combining the proportional mode at
derivative mode. The mathematical expression for PI controller is
de(t)
= Kpp.(t) + K..~
The transfer function is given by Kp + Kos
pet)
+ p.
This is to note that derivative control is effective in the transient part of the response as
error is varying, whereas in the steady state, usually if any error is there, it is constant and
does not vary with time. In this aspect, derivative controi is not effective in the steady
stare part of the response. In the steady state part, if any error is there, integral control
will be effective to give proper correction to minimize the steady state errcr. An integral
controller is basically a low pass circuit and hence will not be effective in transientpart of
the response where error is fast changing. Hence for the whole range of time response
both derivative and integral control actions should be provided in addition 10 the inbnilt
proportional control action for negative feedback control systems.
I!J!'
Example: The figure shows PD controllerused for the system. Determine the value of Td
such that the system will be critically damped. Calculate the settling time.
ThePD Controller has following effect. on the system.

I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It increases the damping ratio and reduces overshoot.

It reduces the rise time and makes response fast.
It reduces the settling time
The type of the system remains unchanged.
Steady state error remains unchanged.
(1+ SId) 4
G(s)
Sol. :
s(s+ 1.6)
(1 + sId) 4
In general it improves transient part without affecting steady state.
PID Controller:
pet) -I(pe(t)
The transfer function i. given by K.
+ KI
s(t)dt
7(;+1.6)
C(s)
R(s)
This is a composite control 'mode obtained by combining the proportional mode,

mode and derivative mode. The mathematical expression for PI controlleris
H(s) = 1
1 +(1 + sId)4
s(s+ 1.6)
(1+sId)4
s2+1.6S+4Id
s+4
Comparing denominator with standard form,
+ Nd !!.~~t)+ P,
"'~
+.; + K.s
4,
ron = 2 and
2E, "'n
1.6 + 4 Id
..
~ = 1.6+ 4Id
4
Now system required is critically damped, i.e 1; = 1
1 = 1.6+4Td
4
..
4
1.6+ 4Id
..
..
"
Id
0.6
Is
_4_=
. 2x 1
and settling time = _4_
~ "'n
2 sec
18
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Chapter 6
NON LINEAR SYSTEMS

6.1 introduction
...
I
I
-I
Many practical systems'are sufficiently nonlinear so that the important features of their
perfonnance may be completely overlooked- if they are analyzed and designed through
linear techniques. The mathematical models of the nonlinear systems are represented;by
nonlinear differential equations. Hence, there are no general methods for the analysis lind
synthesis of nonlinear control systems. The fact that superpcsitlon principle does 110t
apply to nonlinear systems makes generalisation difficult and study of many nonlinear
systems has to be specific for typical situations.
.
6.2 Behaviour or Nonlinear Systems

The most important feature of nonlinear systems is that nonlinear systems do not obey the
principle of superposition. Due to this reason, in contrast to the linear case, the response
of nonlinear systems to a particular test signal is no gnide to their behaviour to other
inputs. The nonlinear system response may be highly sensitive to input amplitude. For
example, a 'nonlinear system giving best response for 2 certain step input may exhibit
highly unsatisfactory behaviour when the input amplitude is changed. Hence, in a
nonlinear system, the stability is very much dependent on the input and also the initial
state.
Further, the nonlinear systems may exhibit limit cycles which are self-sustained
oscillations of flxed frequency and amplitude. Once the system tmjectories converge to a
limit cycle, it will continue to remain in the closed trajectory in the state space identified
as limit cycles. In many systems the liurlt cycles JI1'Ccundesirable
particularly Whenthe
amplitude is not small and result in some unwanted phenomena.
Fignre 6.1
I
I
Fig.6.2(a)
Fig.6.2(b)
Fig. 6.2 (c)
When excited by a sinUSOidalinput of constant frequency and the amplitude is increaser
--from-IoW-vliJues,the output frcijiiency-aCCSom,q)oih[exactly matches wit}. the inpu
frequencyand continue to remain as such thereafter. This phenomenon which results in ;
synchronisation or matching of the output frequency with the input frequency is caller
frequency entrainment or synchronisation.
6.3 Methods of Analysis

Nonlinear systems are difficult to analyse and arriving at general conclusions arc tedious
However, starting with the classical techniques for the solution of standard nonlineai
differentialequations, several techniques have been evolved which suit different types ot
analysis. It should he emphasised that very often the conclusions arrived at will be usefu
for the syseem under specified conditions and do not always lead to generalisations. The
commonlyused methods are listed below.
_
Linearization Techniques: in reality all systems are nonlinear and linear systems are
only approximations'of the nonlinear systems. In some cases, the linearization yields
useful infonnation whereas in some other cases, linearised model has to be modified
Whenthe operating point moves from one to another. Many techniqueslike perturbation
method, series approximation techniques, quasi-linearization techniquesetc. are used for
Iinearisea nonlinear system.
LE~'cirnTn!
response follows the .curve through the A, B and C, but at C an increment in frequenc
results in discontinuous jump down to the point D, after which with further increase i;
frequency, the response curve follows through DE. If the frequencyis now decreased, th
response follows the curve EDF with a jump up to B from the point F and then th
response curve moves towards A. This phenomenon which is peculiar to nonlinea
systems is known as jump resonance. For a soft spring,jump phenomenonwill happen a
shownin fig. 6.2(c).
A nonlinear system, when excited hy a sinusoidal input; may generate several hannonics
in addition to the fundamental corresponding to the input frequency. The amplitude of
the fundamental is usually the largest, but the harmonics may be of significant amplitude
in many sitUations.
Another pec;]liar characteristic exhibited by nonlinear systems is called jump
phenomenon. For example, let us consider the frequency response curve of spring-massdamper system. The frequency responses of the system with a linear spring, hard spring .
and soft spring are as shown in Fig. 6.2(a), Fig. 6.2(b) and Fig. 6.2(c) respectively. For a
hard spring, as the input frequency is gradually increased from zero, the measured
Phase Plane Analysio;:This method is applicabte to second order linear or nonlinear

systems for the study of the nature of phase trajectories near the equilibriumpoints. The .system b.ehaviouris qualitatively analysed along with design of systemparameters so as
to get the desired response from the, system. The periodic oscillations in nonlinear
systems called limit cycle can be identified with this method which helps in investig"ting
the stability of the system.
.
Describing Function Aaa]ysls: This, method is based on the principle .of harmonic
.linearizationin which for certain class of nonlinear systems with low pass characteristic.
This method is useful for the study ofexistence of limit.cycles arid determination'of IlIC
amplitude, frequency :md'stabilfty of these.limit cycles. Accuracy is better for 'hfgber
order sYstemsasthey have better low pass characteristic.
.
58
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L1apunov's Method for StabDlty: The analytical solution of a nonlinear system israrely ,
possible. If a numerical solution is attempted, the question Of stability behaviqnr can nOI
be fully answered as solutions to an infinite set of initial conditions are needed: The
Russian mathematician A.M. Uapunov introduced and formalised a method which 8Jlows
one to conclude about the stability without solving the system equations.
.
"'--
6.4 Classification of Nonlinearities
'~"
The. nonlinearities are classified into i) Inherent nonlinearities and ii) Intentional
nonlinearities.
The nonlinearities which are present in the components used in system due to the inherent
imperfections or properties of the system are known as inherent nonlinearities, Examples
are saturation in magnetic circuits, dead zone, back lash in gears etc. However iii some
cases introduction of nonlinearity may improve the performance of the system, make Ihe
system more economical consuming less space and more reliable than the linear system'
designed to achieve the same objective. Such nonlinearities introduced intentionally to
improve the system performance are known as intentional nonlinearities. Examples are
different types of relays whiel, are very frequently used to perform various tasks. But it,
should be noted that the. improvement in system performance due to nonlinearity is
possible only under specific operating conditions. For other. conditions, generally
nonlinearity-degradesthe performance of the system.
.
6.S Common Physical Nonlbiearities: The common examples of physical

nonlinearities are saturation, dead zone, coulomb friction, stiction, backlash, different
types of springs, different types of relays etc.
..
Saturation: This is the most common of all nonlinearities. All practical systems,' when
driven by sufficiently large. signals, exhibit the phenomenon of saturation due to
limitations of physical capabilities of their components. Saturation is a common
phenomenon in magnetic circuits and amplifiers.
----
:~.-.
Relay: A relay is a nonlinear power amplifier which can provide large power
amplification inexpensively and is therefore deliberately introduced in control systems. J\
relay controlled system can be switched abruptly between several discrete states which
are usuaIlY.'lff, 'full forward and full reverse. Relay controlled systems find wide
applications in the c\lDtrolfield. The characteristic of an ideal relay is as shovn in figure.
In practice a relay has a definite amount of dead zone ns shown. This dead zone is caused
by the facts that relay coil requires a finite amount of current to actuate the relay. Further.
since a larger coil current is needed to close the relay than the current at which the relay
drops out, the characteristic alw.aysexhibits hysteresis.
Multivariable Nonlinearity: Some nonlinearities such as the torque-speed characteristics
of a servomotor, transistor characteristics etc., are functions of more than one variable.
Such nonlinearities are called multivariable nonlinearities.
_lion
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Dead zone: Some systems do not respond to very small input signals. For a particular
range of input, the output is zero. This is called dead zone existing in a system.' The
input-output curve is shown in figure.
.
Backlash: Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in physical systems is

hysteresis in mechanical transmission such as gear trains and linkages. This nonlinearity
is somewhat different from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash,
In servo systems, the gear backlash may cause sustained oscillations or chattering
phenomenon and the system may even turn unstable.foriarge backlash.
.
~...
.'
.'
59
60
Chapter 7
This equation may be written in the standard form
Phase Plane Analysis
7.1 Introduction
+ 2(<<.I"x + '''~x = 0
where; and (I). are the damping factor and undamped natural frequencyof the system.
..
Phase plane analysis is one of the earliest techniques developed for the study of second
order nonlinear system. It may be noted that in the state space formulation, the state
variableschosen are usually the output and its derivatives. The phase plane is thus a state
plane Where the two state variables X, and X2 are analysed which may be the output
variable y and its derivative y. The method was first introduced by Poincare, a French
ma!hemadcian. The method is used for obtaining graphically a solution of the following
two simultaneous equations of an autonomous system.
x, = f,(x,.x2)
Xz = 12(>'1':<2)
Where x, = h(x1,,,,) and x2 = f.(x"x2) are either linear or nonlinear functions of the
state variables Xl and X2 respectively. The state plane with coordinate axes Xl and X2 is
called the phase plain. In many cases, particularly in the phase variable representation of
systems, take the form
'
.
Xl = Xz
x, = f,(x"x,)
The plot of the state trajectoriesor phase trajectories of above said equation thus gives an
idea of the solution of the state as time t evolves without explicitly solving for the state. .'
The phase plane analysis is particularly suited to second order nonlinear systems with no
input or constant inputs. It can be extended to cover other inputs as well such as ramp
inputs, pulse inputs and impulse inputs.
'
7.2 Phase Portraits
Consider the homogenous second order system with differential equations

d2x
dx
M at' + f dt + kx =_o
Xl
X1
x = X2, we get the state equation in the state

=.'(2
= -2{WI:'~:2-Wf;Xl
These equations may then he solved for phase variables x, and '2. The time response
riots of x" X2 for various values of damping with initial conditions can be p!otted.. Wh~n
the differential equations describing the dynamics of the system arc nonli~ear, It IS In
general not possible to obtain a closed form solution of x" X2. For example, if the spnng
force is nonlinear say (kjx + k"x3)the state equation rakes the form
Xl = ~:z
X2
- _Lx
-~x
- !2x
M
M
-
fo."
Solving these equations by integration is no more an easy task. In such situations, a

graphical method kpown as the phase-plane method is found t? be very help~l. The
coordinate plane wiThaxes that correspond to the dependent vanable x, and X2 IS called
phase-plane. The curve described by rhe state point. (;;"X2) in the ph?se-plane with
respect to time is called a phase trajectory. A phase trajectory can be easily constructed
by graphical'techniques.
..
7.2.1 Isoclines Ml!thod:
Let the state equations for a nonlinear system be in the form
x, = flxvxll
From the fundamental theorem of uniqueness of solutions of the state equations or

differentialequations, it can be seen that the solution of the state equation starting from an
initial state in the state space is unique. This will be true if fJ(X"X2)
and h(x"x2) are'
analytic. For such a system, consider the points in the state space at which the derivatives
of all the state variables are zero. These points are called singular points. These are in
fact equilibrium points of the system, If the system is placed at such a point, it, will
continue to lie there if left undisturbed. A family of phase trajectories starting from
different initial stales is called a phase portrait. As time t Increases, the phase portrait
graphically shows how the system moves in the entire state plane from the initial states in
the different regions. Since the solutions from each of the initial conditions are unique,
!he phase trajectories do not cross one ano!her. If the system has nonlinear elen)ents
_which are piece-wise linear, the complete state space can be divided into different regions
and phase plane traJectoriesCOnstructedfor each ')f the regions separately.
7.3 Phase Plane M9thod
Defining the state variables as x = x and

_ variable form as
x: = f:_ (x1'x2)
Whereboth i,(X,~'t2)and [o(x,.x,) are analytic.
From the above equation, the slope of the trajectory is given by
.'
dx, ~ hex "x,)

d_~,
=M
f,(x"x,)
Therefore, the locus of constant slope of the trajectory is given by

f2(x"x2) = Mf,(x,,x2)
The above equarion gives the equation to the family of isoclines. For different values of
M, the slope of rhe trajectory, different isoclines call be drawn in the phase plane.
Kno",ing the value of M on a given isoclines, it is easy to draw line segments on each of
!hesejsocIiR<;S_,
,
.
Consider a simple linear system with state e_quatJOns
Dividing the above equations Weget the slope of the st<te trajectory in the X,-X2plalle as
.61
62
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Lecirn~ng
3. For typical values ofM, draw a large number of isoclines in x,-x2 plane
4, On each of the isoclines, draw small line segments with a slope M,
5, From an initial condition point, draw a trajectory following the line segments with
slopes M on each of the isoclines.
For a constant value of this slope say
M, we
get a set of equations
7.1: For the system having the transfer function
Example
and a relay with dead
.r.'~1)
zone as nonlinear element, draw the phase trajectory originating from the initial condition
(3,0).
-1
x2=(M+l)Xl
.'
which is a straight line in the XI-Xl plane. We can draw different lines in the XI-Xl plane
for different values of M; called isoclines. If draw sufficiently large number elf isoclines
to cover the complete state space as shown, we can see how the state tdjectories: are
moving in the state plane. Different trajectories can be drawn from different iIijtlal
conditions. A large number
such trajectories together form a phase portrait. A few
typical trajectories are shown in figare given below.
.
..r
The differential equation for the system is i:"
,< =
+ C = II where
u is given by
+1 ife> 1
0 ll- 1 < " <; 1
{-1 tfe<-1
Since the input is zero, e = r -e- c = -c and the differential equation in terms of error will be
e+';=-l1
Defining the state variables as x,
= e and X2 = ;, we get the state
equations as
Xl=X2
'{:2:-
-X2-U
The slope of the trajectory is given by
dxz = -xz-u = !vI

dX1
;'(2
Equation to the-isoclines is given by
-Xz-lt
.~?-
]I! _.~~~
We can identify three regions in the state plane depending on the values of e
Phase plot'
..
Figure 7.1
The Procedure for constructlon or the phase trajectories can be summarised' as
below:
I. For the given nonlinear differential
and obtain the state equations as
Region1:e=x.>
Here u = 1, so that the isoclines are given by
equation, define the-state variables as X, and Xl
x, = /"(X"X2)
dx,
X,
x:z=~
or
.x ..
=-
.:.
M-l
For different values of M, these are a number of straight lines parallel to the x-axis .
2; Determine tbe equation to the isoclines as
dx, = 1("1'x2) = M
= x"
Region2: e= -1 <x, < 1
63 ....
64
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Licirn'fng
Here u = 0, so that the isoclines are given by x2 = ~ or M = 1, which are parallel lines
having constant slope of 1. Trajectories are lines of constant slope .1.
.
Region 3: e = ", <-1
Here u
'.
"
= ~1so t hat on su bsutution
we get xt, = -~.+1
M
or
%2
==
1
M+i
These are also lines parallel to x - axis at a constant distance decided by the value of the
slope of the trajectory M.
.
The slope of the trajectory is given by
= -2x,- 5:<1+ 10 = M
dx!
dx!
X2
-r-Sx1' 10
:. .":z:::: M+""7. i' M + ?
When xj
-SX1
M+2
O,
+~
M.+2
=0
c>r Xi
=2
ie., all the isoclines will pass through the point x, = 2, X2 = 0.

WhenM",O,
-5'
10
"'=27"1+"2
s=o
WhenM =2,
1/3
1
3
-5
10
"2=4""1 +4'
WhenM=4,
,
-s
-3
-7/3
-2
-5
10
"'=5"1 +5"
WhenM = 8.
-5
10
"2
Figure 7.2: Phase portrait ofExarnpl" 1

Isoclines 4rawnfor all threbegioDs; are as shown in figure.' It l~ seen that :trajetOries
from either region I -or 2 approach 'the b"onnllazy between the regions and appro.!:]; the
origin along a line at-I slope: The state-"lIt)setlleatany value ofx, between-t and:+1 as
this beinga dead zone-and-no:(urther-movement-to the origin along the x,"axis
be
possible. This will result in a steady state error,.the maximum value of whieh-is.equal to
half the dead zone. However, the presence of dead zone ean reduce the oscillations and
result in a faster response. In order that the steady state error.in the output is !'Muced, it'is
better 10 bave as small a dead zone as possible.
_
-
will
Example 7.2: For the system having a closed loop transfer function _.. "
, plo; the
+21+5
:
phase trajectory originating from the initial condition H,0).
The differential equation for the system is given by
x+2X+Sx=
10
Let x = xtandi:::: x2
Then,
Xl = x2
X2 = -2r2
5x,
+ 10
=10.11+ 10
WhenM=2,
X2.
== 00
WhenM=4,
5
~'(2-
10
"2.:.tr; 2"
WhenM=~:
'5
x2
10'
="4%1:"4
WhenM=10.
5
10
x2=8""-8'
.. 65
66
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.....
(J)
Learning
Therefore, the slope equation over a short interval is given by
dx.
dx,
Xl
+15
=--;::-
With 1) known at any point P on the trajectory and assumed constant fora short interval,
~e can draw a short segment of the trajectory by using the trajectory slope dX2/dx, given
m the above equation. A simple geometrical construction given below can be used for
this purpose.
.
1. From the initial point, calculate the value of o.
2. Draw a short arc segment through the initial point with (-0, 0) as centre, thereby
determining a new point on the trajectory.
3. Repeat the process at the new point and continue.
.
Example 73: For the system described by the equation given below, construct tile ".
trajectory starting at the initial point (I, 0) using delta method.
:Y+x+x'
Let x=
Xl
Figure 7.3
The isoclines are drawn as shown in figure. The starting point of the trajectory is marked
at (-1,0). At (-1,0), the slope i~ 00, ie., the trajectory will start at an angle 90. From.the
next isoclines, the average slope is (8+4)/2 = 6, ie., a line segment with' a slope 6 is drawn
(at an angle 80.5").Thesame procedure is repeated and the complete phase trajectory will
b~ obtained as shown in figure.
7.3.2Deha Method:
The delta method of constructing phase trajectoriesis applied to systems of the form
=0
X1C1"dx
= x2 then
=X1
X, = -x"
-Xf
The above equation can be rearranged as
x, = -(x, +x, +x~ - x,)

SOthat 8 - x~ + xI - -.
At initial point 6 is calculated as 0 ~ 0+1-1 = O. Therefore, the initial arc is centred ai
point (0, 0). The mean value of the coordinates of the two ends of the arc is used [0
calculate the next value of 0 and [he procedure is continued. By constructing the small
arcs if!this way the complete trajectorywill be obtained as shown in figure.
x+f(x,i,t) "=0
Where f(x,x. t) may be linear or nonlinear and may even be time varying but must be
continuous and single valued.
With the help of this method, phase trajectory for any system with step or ramp or any
time varying input can be conveniently drawn. The method results in considerable time
saving when a single or a few phase trajectories are required rather than a completephase
portrait.
While applying the delta method, the above equation is first converted to the form
..
+ "',,[x + c5(x,.t,t)]=0
In general, c5(x,:i, t) depends upon the variables x, x and t, but for short
changesin these variables are negligible. Thus over a short interval, we have
x + "'n [x + 15] = 0, where IIis a constant.

Let us choose the state variables-as XI = X;
Xl
x.-
Xl..;,., then
= CUn%:
Xz -
-Wn(AI
+ .:)"
Figure 7.4
12
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.6.7
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7.4 Llmlt Cycles:
Limit cycles have a distinct geometric configuration in the phase plane portrait, namely,
that of an isolated closed path in the phase plane. A given system may have more than
one limit cycle. A limit cycle represents a steady state oscillation, to which 01' from
which all trajectories nearby will converge or diverge. In a nonlinear system, limit cycles
describesthe amplitude and period of a self sustained oscillation. It should be pointed out
that not all closed curves hi the phase plane are limit cycles. A phase-plane portrait of a
conservative system, in which there is no damping to dissipate energy, is a continuous
family of closed curves. Cased curves -ef 1J.i.lcind are Dotlimit cycles because none of
these curves are isolated from one another. Such trajectories always occur as a
continuous family, so that there are closed curves in any neighbourhood of any particular
closed CUrve. On the other band, limit cycles are periodic motions exhibited only by
nonlinear non conservative systems.
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oscillation with constant amplitude. This is shown in figure (i). The inside of the limit ...
cycle is an unstable region.in the sense that trajectories diverge to the limit cycle, and the
outside is a stable region in the sense that trajectories converge to the limit cycle.
A limit cycle is called an unstable one if trajectories near It diverge from this limit cycle.
In this case, an unstable region surrounds a stable region. If a trajectory starts within the
stable region, it converges to a singular point.within the limit cycle. If a trajectory starts
in the unstable region, it diverges with time to infinity as shown in figure (ii). The inside
of an unstable limit cycle is the stable region, and the outside the unstable region.
7.5 Analysis and Classification of Singular Points:
Singular points are points in the state plane where "', = "'~= o. At these points the slope
of the trajectory dx,ldx, is indeterminate. These points can also be the equilibriumpoints
of the nonlinear system depending whether the state trajectories can reach these or not.
Consider a linearised second order system represented by
As an example, let us consider the wen known Vander PoI's differential equation
d2"
dt' -P(l-x')dt
dx
+x=o
[~lJ
z, = [)"
0 AO][~']
z _,
which describes physical situations in many nonlinear systems.

In tenus of the state variables "1 -"
i'1 = %2
t!~]=.~ ~J[;~J
Using linear transformationx?7fft the equation can be transformedto caoonicalform
~.,..l"2 - i,we obtain
Where, A, and A, are the roots of the characteristic equation of the system.
:t, = If(l-xDx, -x,

The figure shows the.phase trajectoriesof the system for )l> 0 and )l < O. Incase of)l > 0
we observe that for large values of 11,(0), the system response is damped arid the
amplitude of X,(I) decreases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown by the
outer trajectory. On the other hand, ifInitially x,(O) is small, the damping is negative, and
hence the amplitude of lI,(t) increases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown
by the inner trajectory. When)l < 0, the trajectories.moves in the opposite directions as
shown in figure.
.
The transformation given simply transforms the coordinate axes from XI-X, planeto z,-z,
-- --plane-lfaving the same origin, bui- does not'affecCthe nature of the roots of the
characteristic equation. The phase trajectories obtained by using this transformed'state
equation still carry the same information except that the trajectories may be skewed 0:'
stretched along the coordina.e axes. In general, the new coordinate axes will not be
rectangular.
The solution to the state equation being given by
z,(t) = ei,.'z,(o;
z,(t) = e1,z,(U)
~2=Y
The slope'of the trajectoryin the z, - z, plane is given by
dz, _ A,Z, _ taue

dZ1
A.171
dz, _ (~)(dZl)
Z2
Unstable
limit
cycle
(i)
u>0
(ii) )l < 0
Figure 7.5
A limit cycle.Is called stable if trajectories near the limit cycle, originating from outside
or inside, converge 10 that limit cycle. In this case, the System exhibits a sustained
U1
.'. h.(z,) -
Zl)
G:)lltC"l)
(II" ", -
t"(Zl/'h.,
Based on the nature of these eigen values and the trajectory in z, - 2, plane, the singuiar
points are classified as follows.
Nodal POint:
'Considereigen values are real, distinct and negative as shown ill figure (a). For this ease
the equation of the phase trajectoryfollows as z, = c(z,)".
7.0
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Where, k, '" O..,iA,) ::: 0 so that the trajectories

become a set of parabola as shown in figure (b) and'
the equilibrium point is called a node. In the;
original system of coordinates, these trajectories"
appear to be skewed as shown in figure (c). .
r""'"
dy: _
dy: -
+ 0']'2 Yz + wy-; F Y, -
-Cd}'1
0')"
kYl
kyo
.If the eigen values are both positive, the nature of

the trajectories does not change, except that the ,
trajectories diverge out from the equilibrium point
as both z,(t) and Z2(t)are increasing exponentially.
The phase trajectories in the XrX2 plane
as
shown in figure (d). This type of singularity ill
identified as a node, but it is an unstable nod";as the
trajectories diverge from the equilibrium point.
We get,
Saddle Point:
This ~s ~!' eQuation for a.spiral in the polar coordinates, A plot of this equation for
negative values of real part is a family of equiangular spirals. The .origin which is a
are
,
Consider now a system with eigen values are real,

distinct one positive and one negative. Here, Oneof
the states corresponding to the negative eigerivalue
converges and the one corresponding to positive eigen value diverges so that She
trajectories are given by 'I., '" C(Z,ykor
c which is an equation to a rectahgulir.
hyperbola for positive values of k. The location of the eigen values, the phase portrait in
1., - l!:! plane 'and 1n the x, - x, plane are as shown in figure. The equilibriumpnlnt
around which the trajectories are of this type is called a saddle point.
.
(dI __
The slope
' ....
(z,tz,'"
Define
= tan",
{md ~
= tan 9
Ian 9 -k
ton 'II = 1 + k tan 9 nr bn( II - 'II} = k
singular point in this case is called a stable focus. When the eigen values are complex
conjugate with positive real pam, the phase portrait cohsists of expanding spirals as
shown in figure and the singular point is an unstablefocus. When transformed into the
x,-x, plane, the phase portrait in the above two cases is essentially spiralling in nature,
except that the spirals.are now somewhat twisted in shape.
y,
"
-a:Jfi)
'Ii'"
tj"
(a) Ei!cnvalues
(b) PhIa<!transec:IOfiu.stablcfacus
Phase tlajectories around hilb!e focus
u-jro
Figure 7.7
..
(b)Phaxlrajccloritsunllllble
Consider a system 'with complexconiugete eigen values. The canonical form of the state
equation can be written as
[~1]"=[" 0
+)I>}
%2
rocus
Phase trajectories around unstable focus
Focus Point:
o .: ] [~lJ
7-:)6)
42 ..
,Usinglinear transformation, the equation becomes
Figure 7.8
Centre or Vortex Point:
Consider now the case of complex conjugate eigen values with zero real parts,
ie., A,,:l.2= jro
.'
.'
72
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_
x2 - -Xl
y! +
Integrating the above equation. we get

yf = R2 which is an equation to a circle of
radius R. The radius. Rcan be.evaluated from the initial conditions. The trajectories are
thus conc:mtric circles in YI-Y2 plane and ellipses in the XI-X2 plane as shown in figure.
Such a singular points. around which the state trajectories are concentric circles or
ellipses. are called a centre Or vortex.
+ O.lx, -
So that the singular points
t.e.,x,(x,
i.e.,
Xl
The characteristic
11
X2 = -3x2
= x2 = 0
and
x, = -3x2
o.a +
2:<:,
=0
f j{3Jj9)
= O.S( 0.1
Ie-1,0) - [01 1 ]
0.1
equation will be
A_[O -2 -3
1]
A
-1 1
.1-1 A_ 0.1 -
0-
. I;'
IJJ - A I= 0
-1
1'
I.e, 2 A+3 =0
AI. A2
node.
= -2, -I.
Example
y-
Therefore A2- O.IA 1 = 0
AI. 1..2 = 1.0~ and -0.98. Since the roots are real and one negative and another positive. the
Or
Since the roots are real and negative. the type of singular point is
singular point is a saddle point.

Example
7:6:
Dder:mineih?_1tind
7.5: For the nonlinear system having differential equation:
(0.1 - ~
j.2)y + y + y'
The singular point is an unstable
around (-1.0)
I
The characteristic
equation is
=0
I =0
Therefore: the singular point is at (0.0)
The characteristic
X2
III-A I= 0
The eigen values are complex with positive real part.

focus.
Linearization
At singular points. X,
= 0 and
,,=~.ll-o
""AZ
= Y and x 2 = j.
state model is
2x,
equation is
i.e., A(AO.I)+I = 0 or A2-
x~
Xl::
around (0,0), i.e., substituting XI
/(0,0) = [~1 0.1

1
Phase tralectories around vortex or center
Determine the kind of singularity for the following differential equation.

y+3y+2y = 0
Let the state variables be ,T,
0.%1
D;;rl
plane
Figure 7.9
The corresponding
Ot. B"]
= [!h. !h.. = [-(1 +0 2x)
8:r
a~
1
7.4:
Example
Linearization
Xl
+ 1) = 0
about the singularities:
x,
(c) Center in A',-
- x~ = 0
The singularities are thus at (0,0) and (-1,0).
(b) Cen_ in 11- 12 plane
xi -
=0 or-1
The Jacobean matnx J
(a) Eigm values
"= ,,; -x, + 0.lx2

x2 = 0 and - x, - x1 = 0
At sU;gular points, :i:1 = x2 = 0 ctIld
Linearization
2
10.
X, - '3X2
= 0, find all singularities.
<lhingularity
for the following differential equation,
x +.o.~~+';Zx + x2 = 0.
Let the ~tate variables be ", = x and x2 = x
Defining the state variables as.v = X" Y = x2 the state equations are
The corresponding
Xl =X2
Xl =%2
state model is
X:z = -O.SX2 - 2r h- xi
'
..
.73
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x, = x.
At singular points,
= 0 and %. = -o.Sx, - 2X, -:rI
So thattbe singular points ". = 0 and -2x,

i.e.
-xi
i....,x,(x]
=0
Chapter
+ 2) = 0
STABILITY ANALYSIS
x,=O or-2
The singularities are thus at (0,0) and (-2,0).
8.1Introduction:
Linearization
For linear time invariant (LTI) systems, the concept of stability is simple and can be
formalised as per the following two notions:
abollt the singularities:
a) A system is stable with zero input and arbitrary initial-conditions if the resulting
trajectory tends towards the equilibrium state.
b) A system is stable if with bounded input, the system output is bounded.
around (0,0), Le., substituting XI = 0 and X, = 0
Linearization
The characteristic
I"
2
equation is
III-A I= 0
-1 =0
J.+OS
i.e., A()..+ 0.5) + 2= 0 or)..' + 0.5)..+ 2= 0

,1"..1. = (-V.2S 'f J1.119;
The eigen values are complex with negative real parts.
focus.
Linearization
The singular point is a
around (-2.0l
-~sl
I( -1.,0) = [~
The characteristic
In nonlinear systems, unfortunately, there is no definite correspondence between the two

notions.
Th~ Iinear autonomous systems have only one equilibrium state and their
behaviout aliout the equilibrium state completely determines the qualitative behaviour in
the entire statep)ane. In nonlinear systems, on the other hand, system behaviour for small
deviations about the' ~i1ibrium
point may be different from that for large deviations.
Therefore, locpl stability does not imply stability in the overall state plane and the two
concepts should be considered separately. Secondly, in anonlinear system with multiple
equilibrium states, the system trajectories may move away from one equilibrium point
and tend to other as time progresses.
Thus it appears that in case of nonlinear systems,
there is no point in talking about system stability. Morr meaningful will be to talk about
the stability of an equilibrium point. Stability in the region' close to the equilibrium point
or in the neighbourhood of equilibrium point is called stability in the small. For a larger
region around the equilibrium pomt, the stability may be referred to as stability in the
large. In the extreme case, we can talk about the stability of a trajectory starting from
i.~:,:y;;;'h~..:.
'~i~t~
..V...:An'lOp~~~'"
~~b~""~pa ....,"" t!l~i-.'~;l:r!; ,,",urn-J 5~ob41.~-i.d&ii.iiy,A ~ilJt}Jkphysical
illustration of different types of stability is shown in Fig. 8 1
equation will be
L~2 A ~~.51
=.0
Therefore)..2 + 0.5).. 2 = 0
"1,"2=
t..)9 and -1.69. Since the roots are real and one negative and another positive, the
singular point is a saddle point.
.
[c)
Fig. 8.1 Global and local stability
.".
.75
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...
Equilibrium State: In the system of equation

= f(""t), a state z, wherej{'i<,t) 1= 0 for
all 'I' is called an equilibrium state of the system, If the system is linear time invariant,
namely j{x,t) = Ax, then there exists only one equilibriwn stale if 'A' is non-singular and
there exist infinitely many equilibrium states if 'A' is singular. For nonlinear sjrstem~,
there may be one or more equilibrium states. Any isolated equilibrium state can be
shifted to the origin of the coordinates, or /(0.1) 0, by a translation or coordinates:
8.2 Stability Definitions:

The.
.~===.'.::..:.=!:.::'=.:::::.......
~"'..!,!~,
~:::::.-:.~;
~..:.:.
:.:~:-==!~.
=.!;;--=.
:!"..: =!'!'~--=~:
:j~~ of
stability. These are discussed below.
Stability: An equilibrium state x, of the system = lex, tj is said 10 be stable if f6r each
real number s c- 0 there is a real number o(e,to) > 0 such that OXo
:s; (; imp)i~s.
1I1P(t:xq,to) -",.11 :s; 6 for all t2: to The real nnrnber S depends on & and in general, also
depends on to If does nOI depend on to, the equilibrium state is said to be uniformly
stable.
-"'.11
x=
An equilibrium slate X, of the system of equation

f("" t) is said to be stable in the
sense of Uapunov if, cOJT~sponding to each S(s), there is an 5(0) such that trajectories
starting in 5(0) do not leave S(S) as t increases indefinitely.
.
x-
Asymptotie Stability: AD equilibrium state x, of the system

{(x,!) is said 10 be
asymptotically stable, if it is stable in the sense of Uapunov and every solutioli starting
within S(Ii) converges, withoul leaving S(s), to x, as 't' increases indefiuitely.
.
Asym;;>!ctlc Stability in the Large:

If asymptotic stability holds for all statee from
Which trajectories originate, the equilibrium state is said to be asymptotically stable in the
large. An equilibrium state x, of the system :it =!(""~)is said to be asymptotically
stable in the large, if it is stable and if every solution converges 10 x, as '1' increases
~-'::"'::"~~]':;:":",~,,,, '"---]
-'''~~~n :......-Ju.y:.....
;.:
...o~:.:..:~:;
~ :!'..:..
:~6 ....
!~~
~Ui.
there is only one equilibrium slate in the. whole stale space.

The above said definitions are re~resented graphicallyin
/::--~'>'t::(;s
Fig. 8.2
.oil
Russian mathematician A.M. Liapunov has proposed a few theorem. for the study of
stability of the system. The most popular among this is called the "Second Method of
Liapunov" 'or "Direct Method of Liapunov".
This method is very general in its
formulation and can be used to study of stability of linear or nonlinear systems. The
method is .called 'direct' method as it does not involve the solution of the system
differential equations and-stability information is available without solving the equations
which \s definitely an advantage for nonlinear systems.
The stability information
obtained by this method is precise and involved no approximation.
First Method of Liapunov:
The first method of Liapuoov, though rarely talked about, is ,IW
essentially a theorem stating the conditions under which system stability information can
be inferred by examining the simplified equations obtained through local linearization.
This theorem is applicabi unly to aUtUnOHWUS systems.
8.4 Sign Definiteness

,
"
Let
Xn) be a scalar function of the state variables Xl, X2, X3........

Xn.
Then the following definitions arc useful 'or the discussion of l.iapunov's second method.
V'(Xh X2,'X.3
8.4.1 Scalar Functions:

A scalar function Vex) is said to be positive definite in a region fl if Vex) > G-for all
nonzero srales x in the region nand V(O) ~ O.
A scalar function Vex) is said to be negative definite in a region
nonzero states x in the region nand V(O)
= o.
1I.(t~I<
Ill(ojll;'6
Vex) < 0 for all
A scalar ful!ction Vex) is said 10 be positive semi-definite in a region n if it is positive for

all states in the region n and except at Ihe origin and al ce!'.ain Other stales. where it is
zero.
A scalar function Vex) is said to be negative semi-definite in a region n if it is negative
for all stales in the region n and except at the origin and at certain other states, where it is
A scalar function Vex) is said to be indefinite if in the re~jon n it

and negalive values, n~ matter how small the region fl is. -
aSS1.1rnt"~
hOlh n, ...;th,~
Examples:
)((~ )
Vex) -
x: +-'i!
- Positit?e definite.
+ xz}"
= -(xi + xi)
Vex) = (Xl
- Pasi!;;"esemi definite.
Vex)
- Negative definite.
Vex) = -xf-
(3:1:,
Vex) = -:x,
+ x,)'
+ 2x.)'
(b)
Fig. 8.2' Uapunov's
n if
zero.
I ?;::/ y~II<~
\~
~.~
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8.3 StabiJ.ity by the Method of Liapunov
Stability
instability: An equilibrium state x, is said 10 be unslable, if for flVrne real nwnbei 6 ,. 0

and any real number Ii > b, no matter how small, there is always a .taIC ... ;". ::;(~ ,,,.!.
thaI the trajeclory starting al this 8tale leaves S(6).
:
- Indefinite.
.'
8.4.2 Sylvester'fI
- Negative definite.
- Negative semi definite .
Criteria
for Definiteness:
A necessary and sufftcient condition in order that Ihe quadratic form xTAr, where A is an
0)," real sym'l'etric
mR!rix, be positive definite is that the determinant of A be positive
and Ihe successive principal minors of the delemlinant of A be pO.,ilive.
.. 1.7
_'
78
i.e.,
Example 8.2:--xi - 3x~ + xi + .J.x,x,
A necessary and sufficient condition in order that the quadratic fonnxTAr, where A is an
nxn real symmetric matrix. be negative definite is that the determinant of A be positive if
n is even and negative if n is odd. and the successive principal minors of even order be
positive and the successiveprincipal minors of odd order be negative.
i.e.,
au <
c,
r-
"13
a2Z a:, < 0...

au a"
IAI > 0 :f n Is ."en
and IAI < 0 If
IIis
all
::::
la nl~1
ll
0, a.,
(J
laa"u
1\
v,
au
au
a",
a"
4:3 ~
au,
an
0....._,
r"
ai
"21'
::
a!.
anI
".2

-1 < 0,
a11 :So 0,JaQll
2>
a"
2:
a12
,,>, a", a" S
0131
aOl
l1 a:rz a..
12: V.
r"
at2
...
u.... ..... au:
Qi!:2
...
On,
all2
...
The second method of Liapunov is based on a generalization of the idea that if the system
,~ .:.:: '':::Y=";::':~:;:.!~)':::.!;!: ":""'l_':!:~~::';:-''Z::~~;:.. :!-.:::: :.~;: ::~:::-:~ :::::-0:" :: ~!:.:.,.-.~-.-:~displaced within the domain of attraction decays with increasing time until it finally
assumes it', minimum value at the equilibrium stale, The second method of Liapunov
consists of determination of a fictitious energy function called a Liapunov function. The
idea of the Liapunov function is more general than that of energy and is more widely
applicable, Liapunov functions are functions of Ail 1\.2. A3 , .. An. and t. \V(. ~":"ii\Jt.:,
Liapunov functions Vex,.
X3
xn t) or V(X.I)or Vex) if functions do not include
t explicitly. In the second method of Liapunov the sign behaviours of V(X.I)and its time
derivative b( x, r) give information on stability. asymptotic stability or instability of the
equilibrium state under consideration at the origin of the state space.
ann
x,.
ainl
a=;",
=U
Theorem I: Suppose that a system is described by x = f(x.t). wheref(O.I) = 0 for all t.

If there exists a scalar function V(x.t) having continuous first partial derivatives and
Rnn
Example 8.1: Using Sylvester's criteria. determine the sign definiteness of the following
quadraticforms
10xi + xi
...A=[~!
L V(X.I) is positive definite
+ 4x;+ 4x,x, + 6.~,x,+ 2X2X,
~J
I.e.
2. V(x.t) is negative denllite

.,.
Then the equilibrium state at the origin is uniformly asymptoticallystable. Ifin addition
V(..,.t) ... 00 as IIxll ... cc then the eqUilibrium state at the origin is uniformly
IAI > 0
3 1 4
Successiveprincipal minors are
10> O'
1210 21>
1
Hence.the given quadraticform is positive definite.
8.5 Second Method of Liapunov
1R
A necessary and sufficient condition in order that the quadratic form xTAr, where A is an
nxn real symmetric matrix. be negative semi-definite is that the determinant of A be
singular and all the principal minors of even order be nonnegative and those of odd orders
be nOD positive.
i.e.,
1-11 -311-"
Hence the quadratic form is negative definite,
...
... a
'1n =0
...
-11
-- l-~-2 ':1-11
odd.
A necessary and sufficient condition in order that the quadratic.formxTAr, where A is an

nxn real symmetric matrix, be positive semi-definite is that the determinant of A be
singular and the successive principal minors of the determinant of A be nonnegative.
i.e.,
Hence, the given quadratic form is indefinite
tau
>0
au a.:1
"22
aiz
u
all
S1
Q
I~J<:
1> 0;
+ 8x,x,
"
A visuai analogy may be obtained by conSideringthe surface i' = ~x~ + ~kxi. 111isis a
cup shaped surface as shown. The constant V loci are ellipses on the surface of the cup.
Let (rf. :r:) be th" initial condition. If one plots trajectory on the surface slJown.thc
representative point X(I) crosses the constant V curves and moves towards the lowest
poinl of \.he cup which is the equiiibrium poim.
"
80
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I ;.:..:...:to'Ioc;>.......,
'.,.~~~.u
; n. '~
Example 8.4: Determine the stability of following system using Liapunov's method.
x1=-x -x:z
J
and
Xl=Xl-X~
+x~
Let us choose Vex) = xi
+ 2x,(x'
Then V(x) = 2x,"I +. 2x,x, = 2x,( -x, - x,)
= -2Y7
,,,.
x~)
- '2:x.x~ + 2x.x .. - 2x~:;:; -2xt
- 2:r~
This is ~e~a.tivedefinite. Hence the system is asymptoticallystahle.
Example 8.5:' Determine the stability of following system using Liapnnov's method.
x.=.t .. cm-.d:i-,,=~x.-.,
+ xi
Let us choose Vex) = xi

Then vex)
..
= 2x,x, + 2",*, = 2x,", + 2xi -x,-
x,)
= -2x~
r-"''''-:o!'UP co!",",!,Apfin,tp fnnrtion. Tf V{Xl is '0 he' vanish identicallv for t ~ tr. ~h~!l
x~';"~~;be'z-;;rofor all!;:: to. ...
O. Ther.
-x, - .t, 0 i.e.x,must be Z lO.
'Th;r 'co.,
x, =
x, =
This means that Vex) vanishes identically only at the origin. Hence the equilibrium state
at the origin is asymptoticallystable in the large.
Example 8.6: Determine the stability of following system using Liapunov's method.
Xi = Xi. and
Fig. 8.3 Energy function and movement of states
~
yl''''
;...
J .-_
, .."
_._.}\
.. ,
_: .. ~.
O.. If there exists a scalar function V(x,t) having continuous first partial derivatives and
satisfyingthefollowing conditions.
x~= -X2 -
x:
Let us choose V(~)
= xr + x;
Then VCx) = 2x,x,
+ 2x,x,
= 2x,x,
+ 2x2: -x, -xD
= 2x,x, - 2xi' - 2,,:x,
This is an indefinite funr.tio~

Let us choose another Vex) = xi
..
+ 2x?
I. V(x,/) is positive definite
-;-.r~...:::~ :..;,~~Z.:.:.:==:~:!:~::!~.:3. V(0( t; xo,to),t) does not vanish identically in t 2: 10 for any 10and any Xo 'f 0,
where 0(t: x.,to) denotes the trajectory or solution starting from Xo at Ij).
..
Then the equilibrium state at the origin of the system is uniformly asymptotically stable in
the lar~e.
If however, there exists a positive definite scalar function V(x,t) such that ll(x,t) is
identically zero, then the system can remain in a limit cycle. The equilibrium state at the
origin, in this case, is said to be stable in the sense of Liapunov.
Th~I),!"d!L30'<;lI!'pn.<e
that a system is nescrihed hy .r=:f(-;:r. t) where.n:O.t);: O.forall t>
to. If there exists a scalar function W(x,t)-bavingcontinuous first partial derivatives and
satisfying the following conditions
I. W(x,t)is positive definite in some region about the origin.
.J ,~
,\ ~_.~
~_
J.~
,'. " .- r-"_'- -_
origin is unstable.
. '.
!.. d .
ou
__
'_
.-0"'- ~.-. ~_ ..'1--_
.1..
,',,,.,'
4l i..il~Vligill is 4~)'mv\ui.t\;cUJy~idUIt;ill Ult ii1I~~.
Example 8.7: Consider a nc.nlinearsystem governed by tlle state eqllations
Let us choose Vex) ~ xi
." ,..~._
+ xi
Then VCx) = ::lx,x1+ 2",x, = 2x,(
-X, + 2xix,) + 2,.,( -x,)
= -2x; + 4x~x:!i.e. Vlx)
_,.
"".:..:.~
.:'.a'_
This is negative semi definite function. If Vex) is to be vanish identicallyfor t;:: to.then
X2must be zero for all t 210. :. X, = O. Then ;(.,= -x, -,rJ == 0 i.e'''lntltstbe zero.
__ This means liIat 1'(,,) ,.nishes identieltlly-elliy-at-th~rigin. Hence the equilibrium state
IS
lIegatil'e dellnlte il ll- 2x,x,1
2;t~
= -2xr( 1- 2X1X2)-
>0
2x~
... 81
82
Le'orn7ng-
..
for th~ asymptotic stability of the system of

= Ax, it is sufficient that Q be
definite. Instead of first specifying a positive definite matrix P and examining
or not Q is positive definite, it is convenient to specify a positive definite matrix
and t?en examine whether or not P determined from A' P
PA = -Q 'is also
posrtive definite. Note that P being positive definite is a necessary condition.
Therefore, for asymptotic stability we require that the above condition is satisfied. The
region of state space where this condition is not satisfied is possibly the region of
instability,
Let us concentrate on the region of state space where this condition is
satisfied. The limiting condition for such a region is (1- 2X,X2) > O. The dividing
lines lie in the first and third quadrants and are rectangular hyperbolas as shown in
Figure, 8.4. In the second and fourth quadrants, the inequality is satisfied for all values of
XI and X2. Figure 8.4 shows the region of stability and possible instability.
Since the
choice of Liapunov function is not unique, it may be possible to choose another Liapunov
function for the system under consideration which yields a larger region of stabiliiy.
He~~e,
posmve
whether
Q ~~st
Note:
I. If Vex) = -x'Qx
does not vanish identically along any trajectory, then Q may be

chosen to be positive semi definite.
2. In determining! whether or not there exists a positive definite Hermitian or real
symmetric matrix P, it is convenient to choose Q = I, where I is the identity matrix.
Then the elements of P are determined from A'P + PA
and the matrix P is
tested for positive definiteness.
= -/
Stable quadrant
8.8: Determine the stability of the system described by
Example
[!;J = L~.: ~;]

Stable QUAdrant
Assume a Uapunov function Vex)
= x'rx
ATp+PA=-T
-'~] [1'P"11 p",?

1'12J.L~11
p"J [0 1] [-1
[ 01 -1
Lp." p,; -1 -1 = 0
I
Conclusions:
PH -.p"
.~~~:.::;::!~~~~=
~~:~
?~~~~~~~~~~~~!'::'~
~, .-:~~'~.J"~M;"'''
n.
state, 01 'V function .~

..i:h t!':.e~.:..;~l~':'~
8.6 Stability Analysis of Linear Systems

The equilibrium
~,('~.,JJ.'J
.l'tDhlP ;~ _,rI -onh ...:H"._m"".." """ . "nco;'f:.1P' "A,..:f;l";"""J.J....,..,.,,;t;~n .,,~~:.,.
= ......p\.
is
() lor
1.5 > 0 and det(P) > O. Therefore, I' is positive define.

origin is asymptotically stable in the large.
..
= (Ax),Px +x'PAx = x'A'Px +x'PAx = x'(A'P

where Q = -(A'P
+ PA) IspositlL'e
Hence, the equilibrium state at
The Liapunov function Vex) = xTpx
'~(1''\
t.e. V(x) = -x'Qx.
P" = 0.5;
0.5]
1.0
:. p= [~~
x ~ Ax
slate x = 0 of the system given by equation
positive definite real symmetric ;"atrlx), there exists a positive definite Hermitian matrix.
P (or positive definite TeIIJ symmetric matrix) such that A'P +PA = -Q. ~ scalar
function :x' p" is a Liapunov function for the system.
Vex) = x'Px+x'Px
P" = 1
P22 0
., 2Pri";2P12F-l
PH =' 1.5;
Theorem:
and
PH-P,,;
stable equilibrium
-2P12=-1
a particular V function may prove that the equilibrium stati;' und';'

consideration is stable or asymptotically stable in the region n, which includes this
equilibrium state, it does not necessarily mean that the motions are unstable outside'
..,. Per a st~b!.: ~: ~j'~y:otic:ill)'

properties always exists.
= [-1
....,."t\"J.iJ.;ta_,. '
2. Although
the region
-i'''J
2P" - 2P12
I. Failnre in finding a 'V' function to show stability or asymptotic stability or in~tability
Vex) = [x,
+ PA)"
= 0.S(3x;
definite .
x,]
!~;~!]l:~]
+ 2x,-", + 2xD
+ 2xi-x,-
Vex) = 0.5 [6x,x,
,
L.__
.'
"
x,)
+ ax,x, + 4x,(
-x, - x,)]
.83
84
~~~~.-------
VTU~
LearnTng
=-(xy+xi)
23 > 0 and det(p) > O. 'Therefore,P is positive define. Hence, the equilibrium state at
origin is asymptoticallystable in the large.
Example 8.9: Determine the stability of the equilibrium state of the following system,
Example 8.11: Determine the stability range for the gain K of the system given be~ow.
-1-fl [X']
-3 J x2
:i'] =
~;
~
A'P+PA=-/
-2
[-1+J
'1",
-_1+11
W11 Pl1l
+ [Pu
P.,
p..
-2+j
p,:] [
P., -1
J lP21
-1-fl=[-1 0]
-3 J
0-1
(I + j)PII + 5P'2 + (I +j)Pn" 0
[ttl
[000]
a positive semi definite real symmetric matrix
Vex) = _rT Qx = -xi

P" = - (I + j)/S;
~2
1
This choice is permissible since Vex) = _xT Qx cannot be identically equal to zero
except at the Origin. To verify this, uore that
(I - j)Pd + (I + j)P21 + 6P22 '" I
0.375
Let us choose Q =
(1- j)PII + 5P" + (I - j)1>22

'" 0
... P = [...0.125 jO.125
.0 -'2
=k
In determining the stability range of k, we assume u = O.
4PIl + (1 - j)P'2 + (1+j)P'1 = I
P" = 3/8;
[0 01 -10]["'.. ]+ ~)~
PJ:i'" - (I -j)/S;
P22'" 114
-0.125 - }0.125"]
0.25
J
P is positive definite. Hence the origin of the system is asymptotically stable.
Vex) being identically zero implies that k3 is identically zero. If X, is identically zero,
then X, must be must be zero since we have 0 = - kx, - O. If X, is identically zero, then x,
must also be identically zero since () = .,. Thus vex) is identically ..ero only at the
origin. Hence we may use the Q matrix defined by a psd matrix.
Let us so! VC, ATp+PA =-/
oj Ell
p".
a
Example 8.10: Determine the stability of the system described by
~.]_ [-1
-2' [X'J
[x~
1 -4. z
-1
P") + E"
Pl~
-kl
-2
P2~ P23
p" P3~
PIZ.
PZl
P22
:11
Pn
P"][
p"
p"
1J
r
0
01
0 -2
0
=
-k
0 -1
0 0
Assume a Uapunov function Vex)= XTpX

A7p +PA =-/
-1
[-2
r- [P'.'
P"]
-4. P,., P"
+ fP11
lP.,
i'p..1Z][-11 -2'
= [-1 OJ
-4..
0-1
=-
1 [23 -7J
11
:,P=;SO--7
=0
-k P33+ PI2 - PJ3 = 0

PI2 - 2P22+ PI2 - 2P'2
=0
r + pl, =ps
= -J
Solving the above equations, we get

1

P" = -7/60;
-kP23 + PlI -2pn
P23-
5P12 + P" = 0 .
-4P" - SP22 I
PII = 23/60;
=0
-kpl3-kpl3
PIJ-2P23 + P22- P2' = 0
-2Pu + 2P" =-1

-2PII
i.e.,
and
Pn
= 11160
p=--12-2k
[k 2 + 12k
6~
6k
3k
k
0]
k
6
For P to be Positive definite, it is necessary and sufficient that 1: - 2k > 0 and k > 0 or
o < k <6. Thus for 0 < k <6, the system is stable; that is, the origin is asymptotically
stable i~ the large.
"..
'
.85.
"
86
VTU)C
VTU~
LearnTng
..
8.7 Stability Analysis of Nonlinear SysteJJl'l

In a linear free dynamic system if the equilibrium state is locally asymptotically stable,
then it is asymptoticallystable in the large. In a nonlinear free dynamic system. however.
an equilibrium state can be locally asymptotically stable without being asymptotically
stable in the large. Hence implications of asymptotic stability of equilibrium states of
linear systems and those of nonlinear systems are quite different:
If we are to examine asymptotic stability of equilibrium states of non linear systems,
stability analysis of linearised models of nonlinear systems is completely inadequate. :We
must investigate nonlinear systems without linearization. Several methods based on:the
second method of Liapunov are available for this purpose. They include Krasovskii's
method for testing sufficient conditions for asymptotic stability of nonlinear systems.
Schultz- Gibson's variable gradient method for generating Liapunov functions etc. .
KrasoyskU's Method:
Consider the system defined by x = f(x). where x is an n-dimensional vector. Assume
that f(O)'" 0 and that f(x) is differentiable with respect to Xl where, I '" 1.2,3,.....n. The
Jacobian matrix F(x) for the system is
oh ah
ah
aX2
ax.
8f2
0/.
FCr) = I)x1 I)X2
I)xn
a;;
Ok
LearnTng
If f~x) is negative definite. we see that Vex) is negative definite. Hence V(x)is a
Liapunov function. 'Therefore, the origin is asymptotically stahle. If Vex} = [,(x)f(x:'
tends to infinity as 11;< II _, "". then the equilibrium state is asymptotically stable in the
large.
El'ample 8.12: Using Krasovsleii's theorem, examine the stability of the equilibrium state
x = 0 of the system given by Xi = -Xi and X, = x, - X, - x~
The Jacobian matrix is given by
lex) =
F' ex)
!!b.
af.
:x..
iJx.,
AX ..
Define F(x) = rex) + F(x), wherer:x) is the conjugate transpose of F(x). If:the
Hermitian matrix P(x) is negative definite, then the equilibrium state x = o is
asymptotically stable. A Liapunov function for this system is vex; - f(x)f(x).
ff in
addition /,(x)f(x)
... 00 as Bxll ... 00, then the equilibrium state is asymptotically stable
in the large.
fnlllf;
If F(x)is negative definitefor all x f. O. the determinant of P is nonzero everywhere
except at x = O. There is no other equilibrium state than x = 0 in the entire state space,
Since f(O)= 0, f(xl f. 0 for X f. 0, and Vex) = f'(x}i(x), is positive definite. Note ihat
/(x) = F(x)x = F(x)f(x) .
.
jI
.'
[-12 -2 ~ 6xd
This is a negative definite matrix and hence the equilibrium state is asymptoticallystable.
fT:x)f(x)
0/.
+ F(x)
'fr
'
t (Xl'
x:
"D'
,00
a.II~1I , <G. Therefore the equilibrium state is
asymptoticallystable in the large.

Example 8.13: Using Krasovskii's theorem, exarnine the stability of the equilibrium state
x=Oofthe system given by
F(x)
rex) -
[-;_J
F'(x)
-1~
.r1 = -3x,
+', ami i:, = x,- x, - xi
3x~1
I P(x)
w~can obtain V as
[-6
Vex) - /,(x)[(",) + /,(;0;)/(;0;)
= [F(:r)f(x)J'f(x) + f'(x)F(x)f(x)
= {'(x) [F'C<)+ F(x)Jf(x)
2]
--:2-6x?'
= 2
This is a negative definite matrix and hence the equilibrium state is asymp.'oti~allystable.
= f'(x)P(x)((x)
-------_._._--.
__ ._--
"
"
'>
.
"
:
"leiS ';'n!,qmn~
',,~x- 'x_ = '~pu" 'x
"I{IJO ,u!l!quis
"UfW8l<~'="I{I
= 'f
f xix - '''-] ,.,

'1'
(;:)1
Aq UIlA!8=ISAs ~IIIJoO =x
S,!p[sAOSlU){SU!SO :"1'8 ;ldwBl<:!l
'~IIJe( "I{IO! "(qBls A((1r.I!10IdUlAnS! "11118wnllqmnlr.l

'00 ...
IIXIISI;
OCI ...
,(;1' - 'x - TX)
+.F"+ 'x_)
= (x)j(x;./.I
.:
"leis wn!'4!l!n~
"I{I :UOp.t;l'U,
'00 ...
UXls" 00 ...
'"IIJe( "III D!"Cquls AnUQ!lOIdw.{ses!

("X;" _. '1'_) + .(~x) -= (x)j(X;./.1
"(qels.A((lr.l!10Idw.{SB S! ~Iels WDflqmDOO"Ill QQU"I{pue XfJlew "lfO!l"P ""fleliIlD e Sf S!I!,L
.oIiI'
. [IXZ-
'x1XZ-j =
'x'XZ[{:"- z:~!XZ:J
T-]
TJ = .
+ [fX-
'x'X1.-t-
(x).:/
+ (x) .:/
= (x)1/
. J

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