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How Biotechnological Advances Have Redefined Forensic Science

Samantha G. Rice
Oklahoma State University

Keywords: Biotechnology, DNA fingerprinting, DNA profiling, DNA, forensic science, crime
scene investigations.

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Abstract
Biotechnology has revolutionized forensic investigations as DNA analysis has assisted in the
conviction of criminals, identification of victims related to crimes, exonerations of the
wrongfully accused, and aided in the collaboration to help illustrate and recreate crime scenes.
Through biotechnological advances, DNA has played an intricate role from the analysis of a
persons actual fingerprints to the analysis of a persons genetic fingerprints. The discovery of
DNA fingerprinting has provided investigators with a powerful tool used by forensic scientist, to
match biological evidence from a crime scene to suspects in a crime.

As biotechnology

continues to be the forefront of todays technologies, this technology will continue to shape
forensic science and create new measures to help solve crime scene investigations throughout the
world.

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Criminology, victimology and the biotechnological advances such as DNA fingerprinting

will be identified and evaluated to show how technology has changed the way crime scenes are
being investigated. There is a large amount of crime that is prevalent in the world today. In the
United States alone there is an estimated number of 22 million victims that are involved with
crime related violence that include personal crimes and crimes of property.

Victimology

Theories and Applications, by Burgess, Regehr, and Roberts define criminology as the scientific
study of non-legal aspects of crime, arose in the 18 th century out of concerns about the use of
what was perceived to be cruel and arbitrary means of justice. (Burgess et, al., 2013). However,
to understand criminology, one must also understand the definition of victimology.
Victimology is the study of the victim, including the offender and society. (Burgess, 2013).
Biotechnological advances such as, DNA fingerprinting has revolutionized forensic
investigations to help convict criminals, identify victims of crime, disasters, wars, and exonerate
the wrongfully accused (Roewer, 2013).
Biotechnology is one of the fastest growing technologies in the world, with the
capabilities to apply laboratory techniques in a diverse set of practices; from pharmaceuticals,
agriculture, industrial, medical, and forensic science. According to Biotechnology Science for
the New Millennium, by Ellyn Daugherty biotechnology can be defined as the study and
manipulation of living things or their component molecules, cells, tissues, or organs.
Biotechnology is an expansive field that includes many modern techniques that involve
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), such as recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology (cutting and
recombining DNA molecules), polymerase chain reaction (copying short pieces of DNA, and
cloning (producing identical organisms). (Daugherty, 2012). Although, biotechnology practices

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have been in use for thousands of years, the term of biotechnology has only been in use and the
studied since 1970.
Forensic science technology has developed a number of techniques that are continually
being improved upon, but one tool has revolutionized criminal investigations and how
perpetrators are identified at the crime scenes. This process is through DNA fingerprinting.
DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, DNA typing, or genetic fingerprinting is
defined by GeneEd Genetics, Education, Discovery, developed and maintained by the National
Library of Medicine (NLM), the National Human Genome Institute (NHGRI), and National
Institute of Health (NIH), as a laboratory technique used to established a link between
biological evidence and a suspect in a criminal investigation. A DNA sample is compared with a
DNA sample from a suspect. If the two DNA profiles are a match, then the evidence came from
that suspect. Conversely, if the two DNA profiles do not match, then the evidence cannot have
come from the suspect. (GeneEd, 2012). The discovery of DNA fingerprinting has been revered
as one of the great discoveries of the late 20th Century (Roewer, 2013).
In a crime investigation, evidence is collected in the form of hair, skin, blood, semen
samples, etc. The investigators follow strict guidelines and training to gather evidence from a
crime scene or from a victim. Investigators take extra precaution in the order to preserve DNA
samples and not to contaminate the crime scene. DNA can be found in every cell in the human
body and DNA is a unique characteristic for each individual, with the exception of identical
twins who share the same DNA sequences. According to Forensic Biotechnology A Resource
Guide for Biotechnology Club Sponsors, created by Lone Star College Montgomery, Although
human DNA is 99% to 99.9% identical from one individual to the next, DNA identification
methods use the unique DNA to generate a unique pattern for every individual.

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(ForensicBiotech, n.p, 2016). The unique patterns consist of short tandem repeats (STRs),
lineage markers such as the Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA. The DNA also needed to
be a code that was able to be generated from a single nucleated cell and that could also be
replicated from rapidly degraded DNA. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP),
were implemented for analysis due to its short, restriction fragments that consisted of different
lengths and due to the differences in genetic code for the same gene individuals possess. DNA
fingerprinting in forensic: past, present, future, by Roewer explains that The probability that
two individuals will have identical markers at each of 13 different STR loci within their DNA
exceeds one out of a billion. (Roewer, 2013). This allowed the establishment of a governmentcontrolled investigation DNA database that could serve as a data base that is available around the
world.
DNA fingerprinting was first discovered by Alec Jefferys in September of 1984; a
geneticist from the University of Leicester in Great Britain who was working on hereditary
diseases in families with the main focus on paternity and genetic linkages. Dr. Jefferys was able
to find markers that would identify a person with their genetic identity. Jeffery used Restriction
Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) to analyze Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), known as
Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) (DNA Forensics, 2016). Through this finding,
Dr. Jefferys identified that VNTRs were unique in characteristics. The VNTRs were present in
all humans, but they had lengths that were different for each person. Thus, creating a technique,
that opened up a new area in science technology. Not only does DNA fingerprinting aid in
forensic science, but also applies to many other biological applications; including diversity and
conservation studies with species and in clinical and anthropological studies.

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The first forensic case of DNA fingerprinting was in March of 1985 that also served as an
immigration case as well. DNA fingerprinting was used to save a young boy from deportation.
Then, in 1987 genetic fingerprinting was collected from semen obtain from a man of suspect in
the crime of two teenage girls who were raped and murdered in nearby English villages. The
crimes were committed on different occasions and consisted three years apart from one another;
one in 1983 and the other in 1986. The case was spectacular because it surprisingly excluded a
suspected man, Richard Buckland, and matched another man, Collin Pitchfork, who attempted to
evade the DNA dragnet by persuading a friend to give a sample on his behalf. (Rower, 2013).
After, the DNA profile matched the suspect, the perpetrator confessed to the crime.

Around

1987 when companies such as Cellmark, the academic medico-legal institutions around the
world, the national police, and law enforcement agencies and so on started to evaluate, improve
upon, and employ the new tool. (Roewer, 2013). DNA analysis became a standard investigation
method for court use and has continued to help with the conviction of criminals, the exoneration
of the wrongfully accused, and aid in helping victims to identify their perpetrators. However,
victim identification and the identification of human remains in mass disasters is also away DNA
profiling has been viewed as a success.

Successful DNA typing of mass disasters from

hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, accidental automotive accidents, and terrorist attacks have the
great potential to be reliant and has the ability to collect DNA samples for preservation
(Sorensen, et al., 2016). In addition to the above, forensic dentistry is another way to identify
individuals from mass disasters. According to DNA Profiling and forensic dentistry A review
of the recent concepts and trends, by Manjuanth, Chandrashekar, Reader, Mehesh, and Rani
they state Matching of the DNA extracted from the teeth of an unidentified individual with
DNA isolated from known ante mortem samples such as stored blood, tooth brush, hair brush,

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clothing, cervical smear, biopsy, to a parent or sibling is the usual procedure in DNA analysis.
(Manjuanth, et, al. 2011). However, when these conventional methods are not available, teeth
can be a source of DNA that is used for identification purposes. Due to the sturdiness of a
tooths structure in comparison to parts of the body that are more delicate and prone to
degradation, the DNA from a tooth can provide information that can be used in the forensic
investigation. In fact, due to teeth being an excellent source of DNA material, this may be a
better source to extract the DNA.
Biotechnological advances have continued to evolve and techniques have been designed
to help with more various aspects of a crime scene. One of the tools that have been designed is
the LABRADOR.

How Technology Has Shaped Forensic Science, by Forensic Science

Degree n.p. describes the LABRADOR as The cleverly named LABRADOR (Light-weight
Analyzer for Buried Remains and Decomposition Oder Recognition) is a device used to sniff
out various chemicals that are released by decaying bodies. Highly useful with missing persons
reports. (Forensics n.p., 2016). There is a vast amount of technology that will continue to help
change the way crime scene investigation is conducted. The impact of forensic science research
and development, by Dutton, McLeod-Henning, Nguyen, and Scott state Just as medical
research is crucial for advancing public health, sustained progress in the research underlying
forensic science is critical for advancing public safety and the administration of justice. (Dalton,
2015). With the strengthening of science to improve justice, scientist and technicians have the
capabilities to arm themselves with sophisticated technologies that can aid in helping bring
criminals to justice and prevent the innocent from going to prison. Forensic science in R&D in
the 1980s laid the groundwork for advances in the 1990s and early 2000s that had a profound
impact on crime laboratories. Although the scientific advances, particularly the growth of DNA

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testing, provided more effective tools for analyzing evidence and identifying perpetrators, they
also led to a dramatic increase in the demand for lab services. (Dalton, 2015). Today, scientist
and technicians are in the process on working research funded by the National Institute of Justice
(NIJ). Some of these projects are a high-tech robotic workstations have been created to process
large numbers of DNA. This allows for a larger turnover and more efficient work being
conducted in the crime lab.

Also, adding a high-tech workstation allows for lower costs

associated with DNA sequencing. Another method is the identification of body fluids using a
stain that does not have any effect on destroying the stained material. This method would help
the preservation of the bodily fluids and provide investigators with alternate information that
could compliment DNA. Scientists are also looking for ways to help confirm the accuracy of
bloodstain patterns. Crime scenes can present a variety of bloodstain patterns that can be found
on a number of surfaces.

Currently, over seven hundred patterns are being analyzed and

reviewed by scientists in hopes to determine what happened at the crime scene. Since, rates vary
by the pattern types; some of the patterns have shown more reliability than others. Researchers
are trying to understand how the interaction of blood with different surfaces influences the
observed patterns. NIJ has ongoing investments in fluid dynamics research with the goal of
providing examiners with objective computational tools to assist in their analyses. (Dalton,
2015). There is a vast amount of research being conducted currently: the identification of drugs
in the field by a hand held fluorometer and a smartphone, the validation of accuracy of firearms,
standardizing broken glass analysis, examining human factors in fingerprint analysis, etc.
Through its funding of forensic science R&, NIJ will continue to improve the speed, accuracy
and scope of crime lab evidence analysis and ultimately strengthen the administration of justice.
(Dalton, 2015).

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In conclusion, biotechnological advances and DNA profiling have played key roles in
helping to identify criminals and victims. As biotechnology and forensic science continue to
work together to find the tools for better understanding of crime scenes, the continuation and
progress will continue to bring forth a revolution in this industry. Forensic DNA technology has
affected millions of lives and will continue to affect people throughout our world. As Roewer
states in his article, Alfred Nobel used his fortune to institute a prize work in ideal direction.
(Roewer, 2013). Without this discovery, many crimes scenes may still be lurking for the answers
and unsolved crimes would be waiting to be solved. With DNA, a new era of investigation is
now available, and for the greater good in solving the most difficult cases around the world.

References:

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10

Roewer, L. 2013. DNA fingerprinting in forensics: past, present, future. Roewer

Investigative Genetics 4: 1-22.
Chandrashekar, B., Mahesh, M., Manjunath, B., Rani, V., Reader, M. DNA Profiling and
foresnsic dentistry A review of the recent concepts and trends. Journal of Forensic and Legal
Medicine 18:191-197.
Canela, C., Gangitano, D., Hughes-Stamm, S., Rahman, E., Sorensen, A. Preservation
and rapid purification of DNA from decomposing human tissue samples. Forensic Science
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Burgess, A., Regehr, C., Roberts, A. 2013. Victimology Theories and Applications. Jones
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Daugherty, E. 2012. Biotechnology Science for the New Millennium. Paradigm
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n.d. Forensic Biotechnology A Resource Guide for Biotechnology Club Sponsors.
Lone Star College Montgomery Biotechnology Department. Web
n.p. GeneEd- Genetics, Education, Discovery. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Web.
Prickrell, J. 2006. Introduction: Forensic Science. New Scientist Web.
Pilant, L. 2000. Forensic Science: Bringing New Technology Into the Crime Lab.
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Ciocan, V., Dumache, R., Enache, A., Muresan, C. 2016. Molecular DNA Analysis in
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n.p. Forensic Science History New York State Department. Crime Laboratory System:
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