THECONSTITUTION

CommonlyInvokedSections
ArticleI,Section8EnumeratedPowers
o Clause1:Taxing&SpendingPower
o Clause3:CommerceClause
o Clause18:NecessaryandProperClause
Article6,Section2SupremacyClause
Article6,Section3TheOathClause
BillofRightsFocusesonrelationshipbetweengovernmentandindividual(later!reverseincorporation)
Amendment4Bansunreasonablesearchesandseizures(invokedforrightorprivacy)
Amendment5Dueprocess(invokedforsubstantivedueprocess&reverseincorporationforEP)
Amendment10Powersnotdelegatedtothefederalgovernmentisreservedtothestates
Amendment14,Section1Nostateshall;protectsallpersonsintheUS
o Amendment14,Section5Congresscanmakelawstoenforcethisamendment
NotableSections
Article3,Section1Makesjudgeslesssupreme&allpowerful
Article4,GuaranteeClause:TheUSshallguaranteetoeverystatearepublicformofgovernment(dead)
Article4,Section1PrivilegesandImmunitiesprotectallcitizens(andonlycitizens)
Article1,Section10limitsStatePowers
Article1,Section10,Clause1ContractsClause(dead)
Article1,Sec7,Clause2&3PresentmentClause/VetoPower
Article2,Sec1,Clause8PresidentsOathClause
Article2,Sec3TakeCareClause
KeyThemesoftheConstitution
Popularsovereignty(Wethepeople;representativeselectedbythepeople)
Federalism(Statesoperatewithinanationalpolity;Tensionsinthebalancingofpower)
SeparationofPowers(ArticlesI,II,andIII)
HigherLaw(ConstitutionandlawsmadeinpursuancetoitareSupreme)
RepublicanDemocracy(Electedofficialrepresentthepeople)
Itsthinness(itisnotalongdocument)
Certainprovisionsplayagreaterrole
CongressionalSupremacy(ArticleIisverylong)
Compromises
Slaverypervades

TYPOLOGIESOFCONSTITUTIONALINTERPRETATION

Text(textualist)
History(historical)
o FoundingEra(orignalism)
OriginalIntentOriginalExpectations(legislativehistory)
OriginalUnderstandingPublicMeaning;whatframersthoughttheirwordsmeant
o Overtimepracticebased
Structure(structuralist)
Prudence/Consequences(prudential)
o Workability
Doctrine/Precedent(doctrinal)
Ethoscharacterofsociety

SCOTUSINTERPETATIVEDEVELOPMENTS

MarshallCourtAggrandizedpoweroftheCourtandtheFederalgovernment
TaneyCourtMuchmoresympathetictostatepower&infamousDredScott
ReconstructionCourt
o ProgressiveErabroadensfederalpower
o LochnerEraAndthenconstrainsit.FavorsLaissezFaire
NewDealEraFavorsfederalpower.UsedCommerceClausetoregulatemarket
WarrenCourtCivilRightsEra
Berger/RhenquistCourtmoreconservative.Favorsstatepower
RobertsCourt

FEDERALJUDICIALPOWER
JUDICIALREVIEWTHESUPREMECOURTSPOWERTOSTRIKEDOWNLEGISLATIVEAND
EXECUTIVEACTIONS

MARBURYV.MADISONTheSupremeCourthasthepower,impliedfromArticleVI2ofthe
constitution,toreviewactsofCongressanddeclarethemvoidiftheyarefoundrepugnanttothe
constitution.

TypesofJudicialReview
O 1)wherejudicialpoweristheonlypowerimplicated
O 2)clearlyunconstitutionallaws
O 3)justwithrespecttothecaseathand
weakformnostrikingdownofstatutesbutgivesadefaultwintoa
sideb/cthelawisntapplicable
O 4)strongformcourtistheultimatearbiterofconstitutionality

LIMITSONFEDERALJUDICIALPOWER

InMarbury,Marshallsaidforeveryrightthereisaremedy.Buttherearetwoexceptions.
O PoliticalQuestions(Bakerv.Carr)
1.Commitmenttoanotherbranch
2.Lackofjudiciallydiscoverableormanageablestandardsforresolving
theissue
3.Theimpossibilityofdecidingtheissuewithoutaninitialpolicy
determination
4.Theinabilitytoresolveanissuewithoutexpressingdisrespectfora
coordinatebranch
5.Respectforotherbranchesanunusualneedtodefertoapriorpolitical
decisions
6.Asituationwheregovernmentmustspeakwithonevoice(toavoid
embarrassmentabroad)
O DiscretionaryActs
OtherLimits
O 1)jurisdictionstripping(Art.IIIgivesCongressthepowertoshapethejudiciary)
O 2)justiciability
standing:
1)actualandimminentinjuryinfact
2)causation
3)redressability
O 3)ripeness
O 4)mootness

CRITICISMSOFJUDICIALREVIEW

Countermajoritariandifficulty
Deadhandproblem

ANTEBELLUMFEDERALISM
WhatisthebalanceofFederalpowerandStatePower?
BREAD&BUTTERofNecessaryandProperClauseAnalysis(McCulloch)

MeansEndRationality
o Means=Bank;Ends=EnumeratedPower
o Theremustbesomelogicalconnectionbetweenthemeansandtheends
WhatsNEVERAppropriate/Allowed
o ProhibitedmeasuresThingsexplicitlyprohibitedinConstitution
o PretextAlaworargumentbasedinpretextisbasedinbadfaith.Cannotpretendthe
Constitutionissayingsomethingitsnot.Pretextisusedtoconcealtruepurposeandtruerationale
behindactions
RememberCongressisinthedriversseat,buttheCourthasthefinalsay
o Apurelylegalquestionshouldbedeferredtothelegislature.Apurelylegalquestionisoneof
legislativefact
o ItisnotthejoboftheCourttodetermineifthelawisnecessary,butifitisallowedor
prohibited

McCullochv.Maryland
o DoesCongresshavethepowertoincorporateabank?YESCongresshas
impliedpowers,whichareenlargedbytheNecessaryandProperClause.N&P
ClauseISNOTalimit.
Meanswhichareappropriateandadaptedtoanendlegitimatelygranted
bytheConstitution,whicharenotprohibitedandarewithinthespiritof
theConstitutionareconstitutional.
o CanMarylandtaxthebankwithoutviolatingtheconstitution?NOsovereignty
ofstatesissubordinatetotheConstitution/theUnion.
Thefederalgovernmentisgovernmentofthepeople,notthestates.People
ofthestatesarealsopeopleoftheunionandthosepeopleratifiedthe
Constitution,notthepeopleofMD.Peopleofasinglestatecannotconger
asovereigntyoverthecitizensofallstates
10thAmendmentpreservesonlypowersnotdelegatedtofederal
government

LEGISLATIVEPOWER
FRAMEWORKFORANSWERINGTHEQUESTION:DOESCONGRESSHAVETHEPOWERTODOTHIS?

ANSWERING A LEGISLATIVE POWER QUESTION

1. Does it fall under an enumerated power?
Sources of power: Commerce, taxing, spending,
necessary and proper
2. Does the power commandeer/infringe on the state police
power?
3. Does this law violate the 5th/14th amendment protected
rights?
4. Does it violate a right protected by substantive due
process?

COMMERCE CLAUSE CHECKLIST

Is Congress supporting state law (Champion v. Ames) or state desires
(Morrison)?
1. Does it fall under CC? (Apply Lopez factors CTs will not defer to
Congress in making this determination)
a. Court is most likely to uphold regulation that is 1)
ECONOMIC on its face and 2) regulates ACTIVITY rather
than inactivity and does not compel individuals to do what
they dont want (unclear if this is law or dicta, but if it is
law then it is dispositive Sebelius)
b. Lopez Factors
i. Channels?
ii. Instrumentalities?
iii. Substantially affect? (none of the factors is
dispositive)
1. Economic/commercial activity
2. Larger regulatory scheme
3. Traditionally ST domain?
4. Findings?
5. Jurisdictional hook?

COMMERCECLAUSEI:FROMTHEMARSHALLCOURTTOTHE20THCENTURY
CommerceIncludesBROAD:
IntraStateCommerce(ISC)CommerceinbetweenSTs
Navigation,traffic,commercialintercourse(anyformandanyshape),forpayment
NOTVSPECIFIC
Among(mayenterintotheinteriorofST)NotjustintheoutlinesoftheSTs.
SeeminglyintrastateactivitiesaslongasyoucandeterminethattheyaffectISC
STpowersinclude:
PolicePowersHealth,safety,&welfare.Inspectionandtaxinglaws.
Anythingentirelyinternal
CongresspowertoregulatecommerceisbroadtoprescribetherulesofISC

DormantCommerceClause:
Evenwnofedstatuteatissue,doesthecommerceclausepreventSTfrompassinganylawthatimpedesFedpower?
Nostatutoryconflict.Noneedtoinvoke.
1.Isthereafedlaw?Isitpreemptive?Ifnotfollowdoctrine.
2.Isitnationalorlocalinnature?1800s
3.Direct(forbidden)v.Indirect(allowed)Whatisdirectvwhatisindirectinthe1800s?
4.Balancingofinterests(NewDeal)BurdenonISCcomparedtoSTinterestinthematter.
5.ModernPeriodLocalprotection
StoplawsthatdiscriminateagainstorburdenoutofSTcompetitors(protectv.protectionism).
o A.FaciallydiscriminatorydifferentonerousruleforOOSactors
Ex.1978NJNimbyLawTrashnotallowedfromoutofST
o B.FaciallyNeutralAppliesequallytointer&intrastatepartiesbutwhosepurposeistotarget
andaffectOOSactorsmorenegativelyDiscriminatoryintentissufficient
o C.RareifwhatyouaredoingburdensISCsomuchinthenameofaSTinterest

Cases

Gibbonsv.Ogden,1824:NYLawgrantsmonopolytorunboatsinNYbutGibbonshas
federalpermit.Fedlawwinsout
Hammerv.Dagenhart,1918:lawregulatingchildlaborbybanningshipmentofgoods
producedwithchildlaborinISCviolatesconstitutionb/cviolatesstatesrightstoregulat
childlabor
Championv.Ames,1903:lotteryticketsregulatingcommerceincludesprohibiting
lotteryticketstheseareevilproductsCongresscanregulate

COMMERCECLAUSEII:THENEWDEALANDCIVILRIGHTS
PRENEWDEALERA
CASES:
NLRBv.JonesandLaughlin,1937:NLRBisconstitutionalbecausecommerceclause
includesmanufacturingaspartofthestreamofcommerce
O FirsttimeSCOTUSlookstocloseandsubstantialrelationshiptocommerce
USv.Darby,1941:statesmustcomplywithminimumwagerequirements.Overrules
Hammer,aggregationprincipleusedtojustifythechange
Wickardv.Fillburn,1942:mostexpansivecommerceclausecase
O Congresshastherighttoimposethefineonasinglefarmerforadditionalwhat
productionbecauseoftheaggregationprincipleandthepotentialforoverhangs
HeartofAtlantaMotelv.US,1946:upholdsCivilRightsActasappliedtohotelb/cthe
businessisapublicaccommodationandisclosetoflowofcommerce.Didnotuse
aggregationprinciple
Katzenbachv.McClung,1964:commerceclauseallowsforCivilRightsActtoapplytoa
familyownedBBQrestaurantdiduseaggregationprinciple
EracanbeunderstoodasareactiontowhathappenedintheLochnereraWRTcommerce.
MeansEndsRationale:Appropriatemeanstoachievetheregulationofcommerce,evenifitisnotdirectly
commerceSLIPPERYSLOPE
Overinclussiveness:RegulatetoomuchOk.Congressgetstodecideitsmeansaslongastheyhavesome
relationshiptotheendsregulatecommerce
Underinclusiveness:RegulatestoolittleandbadthingsarestillallowedtohappenOktoo.
SHIFTINQUESTIONisthiscommerce?Doesthisaffectcommerceatall?

Purposeoflaw/congressdoesntmatter
10thAmenconcernsdonotmatterasmuch(losejuice)

COMMERCECLAUSEIII:THEREHNQUISTCOURT
RehnquistCourtRevolution:Lopez,Morrison,andRaich
Limitscommerceclauseandreconstructionpowers
FederalisminfavorofSTpower
USv.Lopez,1995:struckdownGunFreeSchoolZoneAct
USv.Morrison,2000:ViolenceAgainstWomenActstruckdownb/cnota
commercial/interestsactivityandtypicallyarealeftforstatestoregulate
Raichv.Gonzales,2005:ControlledSubstancesActclashingwithCAIntrastateMedical
MarijuanaStatute.Federallawupheldundercommerceclauseb/cpartofalarger
regulatoryscheme,quintessentialeconomicactivity

TheLopezTest
Isthisoneofthe3categoriesofactivitiesCongresscanregulate?
**notclearwhereinternetfallswithinthesefactors**
1.ChannelsofISC:Highways,waterways(ask:arepeoplemovinginISC?)
o Darby(upholdsshipmentinISCofgoodsproducedforICbyemployeeswhose
wages/hoursdontconformw/thelaw)
o HeartofAtlanta(upholdslawprohibitingdiscriminationinplacesofpublic
accommodation)

o Sincethecivilrightsera,courtsneedtousethecommercepowertotargetprivate
actionlessfrequently
2.InstrumentalitiesofISC:PersonsorthingsinvolvedinISC.Vehicles,goods,persons
driving
3.ActivitiesthatsubstantiallyaffectISC:Wickard,Darby,NLRB
Ifitisnotachannelorinstrumentality5FactorTesttoDetermineifithasSubstantial
Effects:
o 1.IsthisanEconomic/CommercialActivityrelatedtoeconomicenterprise?
Aggregationprinciple:courtshouldntfocusontrivialeffectofthe
individualscontributionbutonthecumulativeimpactofthatactivityif
expanded(Wickard)
Onlyappliestoactivityanticipatedtohavecertaineffects,not
prophesiedfutureactivity(Sebelius)
Raich(medicalmarijuanaposesleakageandimproperprescription
problemsthatwillservecommercialends)
THOMASwantstodoawaywiththis
Keycases:Darby,Katezenbach,HeartofAtlanta,Wickard,Raich
Hardtomeettestforpermissibleregulationofcomm.clausefornon
economicactivities
Noteconomicactivity:Lopez,Morrison
AfterMorrison,hardtoprovesubstantialeffectswhenactivityisnon
economic
Courtmaygiveslightlymoredeferenceinthisareaifprovidedwith
substantialfindingsRaichfoundthatifCongressoffersarational
basisforfindingthattherearesubstantialeffects,courtmaydeferto
Cong.
Lopezsuggeststhateducationisnotreallyabletofallunderthis
category.Butthelinkwasfairlyattenuatedthereinamoredirect
educationsituation,maybeabletoshowaconnectiontothelabor
force.
o 2.Isthispartofalargerregulatoryschemetoregulateeconomicactivity?
Note:combiningComm.ClauseandN&PClauseallowsCongresstoregulate
noneconomiclocalactivitysothatitispartofamoregeneralregulationof
ISC,solongasitisreasonablyadoptedtoalegitimateendunderComm.
Clause
SCALIAconcurrenceinRaichsaysdonotevenneedaggregation;
youcangettononeconomicactivitiesaslongaspartofmeansto
regulatethelargerscheme
OCONNORinRaichifhavingaregulationthatotherwisewouldnt
bepermissibleunderthecommerceclausebutideathattheywould
setupalargerschemetoreachareasthattheycouldntotherwiseget
toaslongastheschememeetstheN&Prequirementsperverse
incentives

BUTmustbeproperunderSebeliuscannotcreateapowerandthen
saythatsomethingisnecessarytoattainit
o TosaythatcompulsionofindividualsisN&Piswrongb/cthat
wouldbeausurpationnotnarrow,notincidentalto
commerce,butareachbeyondthenaturallimitofauthority
o RemotechainofinferencesNOTvalidmustbein
conjunctionwithinterstateregulationofcongress/not
prohibitedbyConst.
Morrisonno
Sebeliushealthcare;yes,butnotdispositive.
SCALIAN&Pdoesnotapplyb/cthisis
inactivity
Ex.CRA
Congresshasbroaderleewaywhenanecessarypartoffederalregulation(like
fixingstatecollectiveactionproblem,supplementingstateefforts.Butsee
Morrison)
Congressisreignedinwhenitisapowerusuallyreservedtothestates
Raichsaysthereisalargerreg.
o 3.IsthisadomainoftraditionalSTpower?
Ex.Familylaw,policepowers,education,criminallaw
Lopeznotakeyareaoffederalcontrol;criminallawistypicallyanarea
controlledbystates
KENNEDYcourtsneedtobalanceb/wstatesandfederalpowerin
ordertoholdgov.accountablestatesaslaboratoriesfor
experimentation
AlsoPOLITICALACCOUNTABILITYcourtistostepinwhere
fed.Govusurpspowertraditionallygivestostates(cf.
commandeeringcases)Congressisnotideallyseatedtoprotectthis
issuealone
Morrisonschools/criminallaw,soyes.
o 4.ArethereanyfindingsshowingalinkbetweenactivitybeingregulatedandISC?
DarbyupholdsprohibitionofshipmentofgoodsproducedofISCby
employeeswhosehoursdontconform
LopezoverturnsGunFreeSchoolZoneActwithoutanymentionthatgun
moves/affectsISC
HeartofAtlantausescongressionalfindingstosupportideathat
discriminationinplacesofpublicaccommodationhaveanadverseaffecton
theabilityofAfricanAmericanstotravelfreely
MorrisonLOTSoffindingsabouttheeffectsoftheviolenceagainstwomen
butnotdispositive
Raichitsokthattherearenofindings
***thisfactorisnotdispositive***
o 5.Isthereajurisdictionalelement/hook?

Morrisonoverturnscreationofafederalcivilcauseofactionforgender
motivatedviolencewithoutajurisdictionalelement
LopezeditedlawaftertosaygunsmovedinISCbutafterwardsthelawwas
stillstruckdown
Raichyes,jurisdictionalhookisthatitisanationalmarkettoohardto
isolate
Ex.InLopez,nothingsaidthatthegunhadtohavemovedinISCCongamendedstatuteafter
thecasetoaddthishook.ThroughinactiontheSCOTUShasgivencongagreenlightonthisbc
theyhaventstruckthenewlawdown.

Lopez Test
1. Channels of Interstate Commerce
2. Instrumentalities of Interstate Commerce
3. Substantial Effects on Interstate Commerce
a) economic/commercial activity related to economic enterprise
b) part of a larger regulatory scheme
c) in the domain of traditional state power
d) congressional findings
e) jurisdictional element/hook

COMMERCECLAUSEIV:THEROBERTSCOURT
Twokeycases:ComstockandSebelius
Comstock:courtupholdsfederalcivilcommitmentstatute.Noenumeratedpowergranting
Congresstherighttodothisperse,butBREYERinvokesenumeratedpower+necessaryand
properlyclauseformulation,arguingthatthisallowsgovernmenttopunishandimprisonpeople
forcrimesthatdisruptcommerce.

Dissent:Concernsaboutfederalism(thisisatraditionalareaofstatepowercriminallawandprisons).
THOMASsaysiffederalgovernmentrelievesburdenofhousingtheseprisoners,thentheitmakesstates
moreincapableoftakingontheresponsibilityinthefuture.

Alotofenumeratedpowersthatmightleadtothis(Congresspowertoenactthecivilcommitmentstatute)
butnowthequestionisaboutcommitmentpastthesentencingdate(itisN&P,inthesenseofuseful,to
allowthistohappenwhenyouconsiderallofthepotentialenumeratedpowersthatwouldjustifytheinitial
action).
Itisnecessaryandpropertothefunctioningofaneffectiveprisonsystem,whichisbasedonamassof
enumeratedpowersalladdedup.

Sebelius:Keygovernmentargumentsundercommerceclause:
Substantialeffectsprongraisesthecoststothosewhohaveinsurance,hospitalsand
taxpayers
Unpredictableandunavoidableserviceeveryonewillneedhealthcareatsomepointso
youareactiverightnow.Uninsuredpeoplewillseekandgethealthcareanywaybut
mandatesimplyindicatesandregulateshowitsgoingtobecovered.
Activity/inactivitydistinctionyouneedtohaveanactivitytoregulatecompelling
anindividualnotengagingincommercetoengageincommerceandtopurchasea
productgoestoofar
Timingbecomesimportantnotactiverightnow
Dissent:rationalbasisshouldapplyHCmarketishuge
Necessary&ProperClause(has5votes)
o YoucannotapplytheN&Pclauseforexerciseofanew,great,andindependent
power.Powertoregulateinactivitynotenumeratedorallowedthisisnot
proper

NECESSARYANDPROPERCLAUSE

ArticleI,8,cl.18
Keycases
o McCulloch
CongressmaychooseanymeansnotprohibitedbytheConstitutionto
carryoutitsauthority
iftheendbelegitimateandwithinthescopeoftheconstitution,allthe
meanswhichareappropriatewhichareplainlyadaptedtothatendand
whicharenotprohibitedmayconstitutionallybeemployedtocarryitinto
effectimpliedpowers
maybeconvenient,usefulexception
exampleofwhatwouldnotbelegitimate=pretext.Butcourt
doesntreallydopretextanalysisanymore
BUTMadisonsaysN&Pshouldrestrictnoenlarge,suchalargepower
wouldnothavebeenleftout.Thisgoesagainstideaofenumeration
o Comstock
means/endrationalitytest:N&PClauseauthorizesfederalpowersthat
arerationallyrelatedtotheimplementationofaconstitutionally
enumeratedpower,notlimitedtoonestepremoved

evidenceofrationality
consistentw/pastpracticesoffederalgovernment
respectfulofstateauthority(theycandecideiftheydontwantus
toreleaseviolentprisoners)federalism
donothavetostayonestepawayfromenumeratedpower
o Raichnoteveryaspectofthelawhastoberelatedtotheenumeratedpower,just
havetoshowthatlawisnecessaryforthelargerregulatoryscheme
Ifitsnotpartofaregulatoryschemeandthereisnoenumeratedpower
thatisnecessaryandpropertoitthenitsnotok
Butifitispartofalargerregulatoryschemeandevenifthereisno
enumeratedpowerthatwouldallowitthenitmaystillbeokifthe
regulatoryschemeitselfisjustifiedasnecessaryandproper
o Sebelius
Twocompetingviews:
ROBERTS:N&PClauseisrestrictedtoexercisesofauthority
derivativeof,andinserviceto,agrantedpower(Comstock)
mustbepropertoobroad,creatinganewpower,notok
GINSBURG:N&PClauseonlyrequiresthatthechallenged
provisionisanintegralpartoftheregulatorysystem(shereliedon
Raichtosaythatitisnotnecessarytoshowthateveryaspectofthe
lawisrelatedtoanenumeratedpower;justneedtoshowthatthe
entireregulatoryschemewas)

THETAXINGPOWER
InGeneral:

ThetaxingpowerallowsfortaxingcommercialANDnonCommercialactivity
PurposesandTypesofTaxes:
o 1.Raisefunds
o 2.InfluenceandregulatebehaviorEx.Alcohol,cigarettesPigouvianTaxes
o 3.Nottobepunitivemasqueradingasatax
QuestionisWHATISATAX?

TAXES V. PENALTIES (Sebelius)

1.
2.

3.
4.

BurdenThemoreburdensomethemorelikelyitisapenalty
ScienterRequirementwithascienterrequirement,moresuggestiveof
criminallawifthereisascienterrequirement(i.e.arequirementthat
youknowyoureviolatingit),thenitismoreofapenaltythanatax
EnforcementMethodIRS=lookslikeatax
Apersonsubjecttothetaxisnotconsideredtohaveviolatedthelaw
(i.e.lawbreakingdoesnottriggerit,orelseitwouldbeapenalty)

Overallthemelookslikeachoice.NOTE:inactivitycanbetaxedcant
taxsomeone$500tobuycigarettes

TaxingPowerinSebelius
individualmandateisachoice,notacommand
activity/inactivityandcommercial/noncommercialactivityDOESNTMATTERyou
CANtaxinactivity
o thisiswithinlimitstaxingpowerdoesnotgiveCongresspowertocontrol
individualbehavior
o underCommercePower,themeasurecanbeapenalty
idearesidualfromLochnererathatthereisapointwhereataxbecomestooregulatory,
soatthatpointitsapenaltyandthatisanunconstitutionalexerciseofthetaxingpower

THESPENDINGPOWER
InGeneral:

ConditionalSpendingisamodernpillarofthemodernadministrativeST
Wewillgiveyou$,ifyoudoX

LimitsonSpendingPowerTheDoleCoercionFactors(Dolewas5%):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PursuitofGeneralWelfare:Virtuallyanythingfitsthis.SCOTUSneversaidthisisnot
coveredinaCongstatute.Alwayssatisfied(LOWBAR)
ClearStatement:Unambiguouscleartermsofthedeal(SatisfiedinDole)
Relatedness/Germainess:Whetherthefundingbeingconditionedisrelatedtothe
requirementCongisdemandingfromtheSTConnection
OtherConstitutionalProvisionCannotbeViolated
CoercionLevel:WhentheconditionisSOcoercivethattheSThasnochoicebutto
accept.
a. NotexactlypresentinDole,Hintedatandsuggestedbutnotapplied
b. NFIBisthefirsttimeCourtfoundthestatutetobecoercive

3FactorsonSpendingClauseFromSebelius:

All3arenecessaryforcoerciontomakeaconditionalspendingprogramunconstitutional
1. Howentrenchedistheprogram?LackofNoticeChangingtermsofanentrenched
program
2. Howlargeisthesumofmoneyatstake?Huge$
3. Isitaseparateandindependentprogram?Tyingtogetherseparateprograminto
packagedealw/newprogram(forcingthestatetoadoptanewprogrambyattachingitto
apreexistingone)

AdditionalNotesonSpendingPower
Sebeliusemphasizes:
o Coercionv.persuasionincentivesareok,butcongresscannotcompel
o Politicalaccountabilityofstatelegislators
Sebeliusdissent:
o Fedgovcanspendtheirmoneyhowtheywant
o Congressmakeschangestoentrenchedprogramsallthetime;noticedoesnt
matter
o Slipperyslopestatescannowthreatentosuewhentheyareinapositionto
bargain

LIMITSONFEDERALLEGISLATIVEPOWEROVERTHESTATES
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS: 10th Amendment, IV.3. III.2, IV.2, V, IV.4
UNDERLYING CONCERNS: protecting federalism

ExternalDoctrineprotectsfederalism,butconstitutionaldoctrine:
Oregonv.Mitchell,1970:Congresscantjusttellstateshowtoruntheirstateelections
PlainStatementTest(Gregoryv.Ashcroft):whereCongressenterstherealmofstate
power,itmustclearlystatethatitisdoingso
NewYorkv.UnitedStates,1992:Congresscannotcommandeerthestatesbyforcing
themtotakepossessionoftheradioactivewaste
o COMMANDEERINGTESTCongresscannotcompelwithastatelegislatureto
enactandenforceafederalregulation
Printz:locallawenforcementconductingbackgroundchecksforgunbuyersis
consideredcommandeeringthestatespoliticalaccountabilityproblem
Ways Congress Can Regulate the States
1. Laws of general applicability
2. Conditional spending: you can get money if you do this
3. Conditional preemption: if you dont do it, I will
4. Direct regulation: Congress will do it

THEEXECUTIVEPOWERANDTHESEPARATIONOFPOWERS
BasicExecutivePowers:
ExecutiveOrder
VetoPower
TakeCareClause
SeparationofPowers
SingingStatements

WarPower
RelationshipofPresidentsPowertoCongressionalBackground

PRAGMATISMPRACTICALITYTEST:3EbbsofExecutivePower
Remember:CongressionalSupremacyThemomentCongressspeakstheyhavewinandhavesupremacy.
TRANSSUBSTANTIVEFRAMEWORK:notonlyforwarpowers
Category1:PresidentisactingwithcongresssblessingMostpowerHighestEbb
o Lotsofpower
o Cannotviolateindividualrights
o Cannotviolateotherprovisions
Category2:WhenCongressissilentZoneofTwilightMiddlePowerMiddleEbb
o Takeitcasebycase
o Look@considerationAssessmentofneedsofthesituation.RealmofContestation.
Category3:WhenPresidentactsAGAINSTCongresswillLowestPowerLowestEbb(Caseof
Youngstown)
o WhenCongressandPresidenthaveopposingviewsCongresstakespriorityandwins
WhenandonlywhenPresidenthasaconclusiveandpreclusivepowerPresidentcanwinevenif
CongressdisagreesBeyondthecontrolofCongress
o Ex.PardonsCongressdoesnthavecomparablepoweranditcannotbetakenawayfromthe
President
ALSOIMPORTANT(FRANKFURTERCONCURRENCE):historicalglossb/cwedonthavealot
ofconstitutionaltextrelatingtoexecutivepower,pastpracticecanconstituteaglossandbecomesofour
understandingofthepresidentialpower.3conditions:
o 1.Continuous
o 2.KnowntoCongress
o 3.AcceptedbyCongress

TheVetoPowerAndTheDutyToExecuteTheLaws
JacksonVetoMessage:
o Everybranchcaninterprettheconstitutionhowtheywant
o OathClauseandTakeCareClauserequirePresidenttopreservetheconstitution
andtakecarethatlawsbefaithfullyexecuted

o Judicialdecisionsaremerelysuggestive,notbindingeverybranchand
individuallyinterprettheconstitution(departmentalism)
o JacksonsapproachtonotapplyingSCOTUSdecisionshasnotbeenextendedto
morerecentpresidentsorcongresses
DellingerMemo:
o TakeCareClauseisapplicablewhenpresidentfindspartoflawtobe
unconstitutionalb/c:
1.Presidentshavedoneitbeforesupportsabilitytodeclinetoenforce.If
formerpresidentsignedthelawheisinabetterpositiontosayIthinkits
unconstitutional
2.TakeCareClause&OathClause
3.JudicialApproval
INSv.Chadha:Congressmaynotpromulgateastatutegrantingitselfalegislativeveto
overactionsoftheexecutivebranch,whichisinconsistentw/thebicameralism&
presentmentprinciples
o Thisisanexampleofexecutivethinkingsomething(thelineitemveto)is
unconstitutional,butgoingthroughthecourtstodeterminetheissue
DHSOPINIONS
o Factorstodeterminewhennonenforcementofpoliciesgoestoofar:
1.Ifitdoesntreflectfactorswhicharewithintheagencysexpertise
2.Ifexecutiveisrewritingthelaws(mustbeconsonantw/current
congressionalpolicy)
3.Cannotabdicatestatutoryresponsibilities
4.Mustexamineonacasebycasebasis
POLICY:nonenforcementisoftenatoolofderegulation,socertainpartiescanuseit
gutcivilrights/environmentallaws

THEWARPOWERGENERALPRINCIPLES
CongressionalConstitutionalWarPowers
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

DeclareWar(Article1,Section8,Clause11)
Minority:Onlypowertodeclareexistenceofwar
Majority:Powertocommenceawar,enterawar
LettersofMark&Reprisal(A1,Section8,Clause11)
ReprisalMeantforprivateerswhenwedidnthavean
armyornavy
CapturesClause(Article1,Section8,Clause11)
Minority:Regulatehowpeopleandpropertyare
capturedinwar
Majority:Regulateonlyhowpropertyiscapturedinwar
RaiseandSupportanArmy(A1,Section8,Clause12)
ProvideandMaintainaNavy(A1,Section8,Clause13)
Makerules(Article1,Section8,Clause14)
Militia
TaxandCollect(Article1,Section8,Clause16)
Necessary&ProperClause(A1,Section8,Clause18)
Doanythingnecessaryandusefulforanyrecommended
purposes

PresidentialConstitutionalWarPowers
1.

CommanderInChief(Article2,Section2)

MAYBE:
2. VestingClause(Article2,Section2)
3. TakeCareClause(Article2,Section3)
4. Ambassadors?STRETCH

MAINSTREAM VIEW: Congress is supposed to have the power to declare war

SHIFT: Korean War (1950s allows president to have declare war Power)

WARPOWERSRESOLUTION
***courtshavetostayoutofthisnoonehasstandingtobringWPRcasetoSCOTUS***
Elements
o Presidenthas48HRStoissueareporttoCongressregardingmilitaryaction
whenthetroopsare:
1.Inhostilities(orsituationswhereimminentinvolvementinhostilitiesis
clearlyindicated)
2.Intoterritory,airspace,orwatersofaforeignnation,whileequipped
forcombat

3.InnumberswhichsubstantiallyenlargeUSarmedforcesequipped
forcombatalreadylocatedinaforeignnation
o Butpresidentsdonthavetosaywhichcategorytheyarereportingunder.
o After48hourwindow,start60dayclocktogetapproval.Ifnoapproval,must
pulloutafter60days.Presidentcanextendif
1.Congressapproves
2.30dayextensionisgranted
3.Congressisphysicallyunabletomeet
POLICY:Critiques
o Unconstitutional?Poorlywritten
o Exs:Kosovocanfilemultiple48hourreportstorestarttheclock.Structurally
weakensCongresspositionvisvisthepresident

WPRCasesLIBYA
o Timelineinoutline
o Justifiedbysayingnothostilities
o OLCsaysPresidentcouldgoinunder2conditions(buthestillhastoreport)
1.Importantnationalinterestserved
2.Cantbeawar
o Factorsjustifiedthrough
A)historicalgloss(Libya1986,Haiti,Somalia)
B)WPR(hecandoanythingwithin60dayswithoutapproval)
C)prudential(necessityofactingquickly)
o POLICY:
Tensionbetweenpolicyandconstitutionalinterpretationconstitutional
lawyersthinkthisisunconstitutionalbutliketheoutcome
Criticisms:Lacksdoctrinal,textual,structuralandearlyhistoryarguments
YoungstowncreatesperverseincentivesifPresidentgoestoCongress
andsaysheneedsauthorizationanddoesntgetit,revealsheisinzone3
(betternottoaskthantobedenied)
GlennononOLCMemo
1.Concernedw/historicalgloss
2.UnclearwhetherCongressapprovedornot
o theydonthavetheirshittogether
3.Judgesstayoutofthisexecwontgetcalledoutonself
servinginterpretationsoftheconstitution

WPRCasesSYRIA
o DecidestoletCongressbeapartofitfordemocracy

ESSENTIAL NOTES ON WAR POWERS: Founders vision has been displaced by a new
order where President has all the war powers and very little checks. Debate between
living originalism and textualist originalism

RIGHTS
TIERS OF SCRUTINY OVERVIEW
WEAKSCRUTINYEASYTOSURVIVE
1.

RationalBasisReview/RationalityReview(Williamson)
a. MostdeferentialtoCongress
b. Rationallyrelatedtoalegitimategovernmentpurpose
c. Presumptionofconstitutionality
d. AfterTheFactjustificationscanbetrueandgoodEvenhypothetical!
e.

RationalBasis+Bite:(Moreno&Cleburne)
i. BaredesiretodiscriminateorharmanunpopulargroupisNOTacceptable.

HEIGHTENEDSCRUTINYTOUGHTOSURVIVE
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.

IntermediateScrutiny
a. Sexdiscrimination
ANSWERING AN EQUAL PROTECTION QUESTION
StrictScrutiny(Lovingfatalinfact)
a. state
1.Acompellinggovernmentinterestintheclassification
Is this
action?
b.
2.Narrowlytailored
Is this a protected
class?
nd
i. ifthereisalessburdensomewaytoachievegoal,gov.hastousethem2

What kind of law

is it?
guessthelegislature
a. FaciallydiscriminatorylawStrictScrutiny(Strauder,Loving)
c. Governmentbearstheburden,notthechallenger
LEGISLATUREisdoingthediscriminating
b.

Faciallyneutrallawadministeredinraciallydependentorraciallydiscriminatory
wayStrictScrutiny(Hernandez)EXECdoingthediscriminating

c.

FaciallyneutrallawpassedwithdiscriminatorypurposebehinditStrict
Scrutiny
RARE:Focusonpretext
CounterExample:KennedyinParentsInvolvedWouldntapplyineducational
contextwhenithasabenigneducationalpurpose.Ifitisafaciallyneutrallaw
w/abenignpurposeofpromotingdiversity

d.

Faciallyneutrallawwithnodiscriminatorypurpose/intentbutthathasaDisp
ImpactRationalBasisReview(Griggs,Feeney,Washingtonv.Davis,
ArlingtonHeights)

WHAT IS A SUSPECT CLASSIFICATION?

***a classification canbefoundevenifpeoplearenotsimilarlysituatedaclassificationjustmeansthatthe
FACTORS SUGGESTING
A SUSPECT CLASSIFICATION
lawtreatsdifferentlypeopleonthatbasis***

*Note: this is not a 4-part test, these are just factors that have shown up in various decisions
Doesthelawcreateasuspect(StrictscrutinyFundamentalrightsinDueProcess)or
1. Historyofdiscrimination
quasisuspect(IntermediateScrutiny)class?(Classreferstolegislativeclassifications
2. Obvious,immutableordistinguishablecharacteristicthatdefinesthemintheeyesofothersas
ofindividualsonthebasisof_____)
membersofthegroup
a. StrictScrutiny:
3. Classificationhaslittlerelationshiptoanylegitimate(nonbiasedorbigoted)politicalgoal
i. Race
4. AminorityorpoliticallypowerlessNOTbasedonsheernumbers(Ex.Sex)
ii. NationalOrigin
iii. Alienage(Stateorconditionofbeinganalien)
1. OnlyappliedtoSTlaw&notFedLawAND
2. Nottolawsrelatedtocoregov.functionslikepolice.Ex:aliens
wouldntbeabletobepoliceofficers
b. IntermediateScrutiny:
i. Sex
ii. Illegitimacy(Lastoneeverrecognized1977DOORCLOSED)
c. RationalBasis/RationalityReview:EVERYTHINGELSE
i. SocioeconomicclassCourtsaidno
ii. AlienagewrespecttoFedLaw
iii. Age
iv. Disability
v. SexualOrientation
vi. Also,rationalbasiswithbite(Moreno,Lyng,Romer)

DOCTRINETODAY:YouneedDISPARATEIMPACT+DISCRIMINATORYINTENT
toinvalidatethelaw.
YoucanstillmakeaprimafaciecaseforintentIFthedisparateimpactisSO
MASSIVE
CourtshaveheldthatyouneedtoACTIVELYseekoutthedisparateeffect.
IntenthastobeCONSCIOUSPURPOSE(AkintoMalice)forequalprotectionto
apply
CanstillmakeacasefordiscriminatoryintentifdisparateimpactisSOMassive
(StevensconcurrenceinWashingtonv.Davis)

TIERS OF SCRUTINY POLICY CONSIDERATIONS:

StrangelyRigid:Doesntaffectfluiditytoorigidandtooformalistic.Rulescanturn
antitheticaltotheirpurposes
NoDistinctionforBenignClassifications:StrictScrutinymightcomebackandbiteyou
intheassiflawsthatactivelyPROMOTEtheneedsofagrouponthebasisofoneofthe
abovewillbestruckdown.Ifthelawbecomesfriendly,thiscouldaffectyounegatively.
Oftentimesweneednottofocusonthegroupsthatarevisibleandcanorganizetodemand
strictscrutiny,butmaybeweshouldworryabouttheonesthatcannot.WhatIfyouarea
groupthatyouCANNOTsatisfythe4factorsevenifyouhavealegitimateclaimagainst
discrimination?
THEORIESABOUTDISCRIMINATORYLAWS

AntiClassification:Lawsshouldnotfaciallyclassifyonthebasisofforbiddencategories(strict
scrutiny)
Antisubordination:Lawsshouldnotperpetuatesubordination
Foreseeingdiversity(ParentsInvolved),AntiStigma&Dignity,AntiRacialConflictandAnti
Balkanization

POLICYProblemswithRequiringIntent:
EvidentiaryDragnet:Peoplearemorehiddenabouttheirracismverydifficulttoshow
intentnowadaysevenifthere
Ifthepurposeistoendsegregationandgetatpastracismandinjustices
ExpressiveorReflectivevalueofdisparateimpactviewForcelawmakerstothinkabout
howtheirlawsaffectpeopleShowpeopletheproblemswthesearguments
Incentivizespeopletohidetheirrealintentions
ImplicitBiasLotofresearchshowsbiasisimplicit&subconsciousSTILLEXISTS

TheReconstructionAmendments
13banonslavery
14thAmendmentequalprotection/SDP,congresscanenforce
15thAmendmentrighttovote
InterpretingtheReconstructionAmendments
SlaughterhouseCase:tellsuswhatprivilegesorimmunitiesarecoveredbythe14th
amendment(freeaccesstoseaports,habeascorpus,etc.),butverynarrowthecase
essentiallygutsthepowerofthePrivilegesorImmunitiesclauseandallsuchclaims
arenowfiledunderEPC&DPC(thesetwoclausespickuptheslack)
3ViewsofPorIClause:
o FundamentalRights:
Corfieldstatecitizenshipprivilegesorimmunitiesincludealotof
fundamentalrights
Corfield+BillofRights
CivilRightsBillof1866
o Incorporation(statesfollowfederallaw)
o SlaughterhouseRuling

EQUALPROTECTIONECONOMICREGULATION&RATIONAL
BASIS

***a classification canbefoundevenifpeoplearenotsimilarlysituatedaclassificationjustmeansthatthe

lawtreatsdifferentlypeopleonthatbasis***

Textofthe14thAmendmentEPC:
Negativedemandshallnotdeny
NotequalityamongpeopleEqualityofthelaws
NospecificgrouportypeofpeopleUnlike15thAmenAllpersonsarecovered
AddressedtoSTsNOTaddressedtoFedGov5thAmenisforFedGov
BillofRightsappliedtothestates

RationalBasisReview/RationalityReview:

ClassificationonlyneedstoberationalAslongasitisconceivably/plausiblyrational
AppliestoEconomic/CommercialClassifications(Williamson,Fritz)
o Williamson:lawclassifyingreadytoweareyeglassmakersnotanEPCviolation

Fritz:lawdeprivingonesetofunretiredworkersofdualbenefitswhilecontinuingtogivedual
benefitstothosewhosatisfiedcertaincriteriadoesnotviolateequalprotection(inordertoprevent
RRretirementsystemfromfallingintobankruptcy)
PolicyArgument:Youneedsomeprinciple/theorytobar/ground=protectionanalysisorelseeverylawin
theworldwouldbesubjectto=protection.
Empiricalassumptionthatunfairdiscriminationnotbasedonsuspectclausesmotivatedbyantipathywill
correctthemselvesw/ojudicialinvolvement(unlikeMoreno)
o Canwereallyhavesuchfaithindemprocess?Money,power,accessTOUGHQUESTION
APPLIESTOEVERYTHINGTHATISNOTEQUALPROTORSUBSTANTIVEDUEPROCESS
o

RationalBasisReview+BITE(Moreno,Cleburne)Veryrareanddoesnothappenoften
Moreno:foodstampsundertraditionalequalprotectionanalysis,alegislative
classificationcannotbeupheldifitiscreatedwithabaredesiretoharm
Cleburne:townlawprohibitingmentallydisabledindividualsfrombuildingaliving
centerinthetownisnotanEPCviolationb/ctheyarenotasuspectclass,butitis
discriminationbasedonanirrationalfearsoitfailsrationalbasisreview
Analysisismadetougherb/cforiftheconstitutionalconceptionofequalprotectionof
thelawsmeansanything,itmustattheveryleastmeanthatbarecongressionaldesireto
harmapoliticallyunpopulargroupcannotconstitutealegitimategovernmentinterest
Whendoweknowifthereisabaredesiretoharm?(animus?)(thiscanbeevidence)
o 1.Poorfit
o 2.Smokinggun(Ihatehippies)
BUTLyng:lawprohibitingstrikingindividualsfromreceivingfoodstampsisupheld
(gov.interest=avoidingonesidedsupportofunionsintheemployerunioncontracts)
o Animositytowardsstrikesisnotenoughtofindanimusneedmorethana
hatredbasedoneconomichistory
o Courtisgenerallyhesitanttofindabaredesiretoharmb/cthereareusually
mixedmotives
Romerbroadbanisunconstitutionalunderequalprotection;SCOTUSsaysmotivated
bybaredesiretoharm
th
Applicationof14AmendmenttoRaceDiscrimination
Strauder,1880:14thamendmentguaranteesrighttoexemptionfromunfriendly
legislationagainstthemdistinctivelyascolored
PostStrauder:
o Noexplicit/dejure;invidious/unfriendly,racialdiscriminationtargetingAfrican
AmericansconcerningJURIES
o Ofthesortthatstigmatizeandbreedfurtherprejudice
o BUTReconstructionbeginstofailandJimCrowlawsenacted
CivilRightsCases:CivilRightsActinappropriatelygoesafterprivatediscriminationand
isnotdraftedtocorrectspecificviolationsessentiallyestablishthestateaction
doctrine

ModernDaySTATEACTIONDOCTRINE:

whensomeactionisauthorized,required,orsanctioned/significantlyencouragedby
governmentalbody,itcanbestateaction
nostateactionrequirementunder13thamendment(badgesofslaverycanbereached)

RACE&SEGREGATION
Sweattv.Painter,1950:blacklawschoolisnotequaltotheotherschoolb/cof
intangibles
McLaurin,1950:studentforcedtositindifferentpartsoftheclassroomviolatesEPC
Brownv.Board,1954:schoolintegration
o InterpretationsofBrown:
Bickel14thAmendmentwasnotmeanttoapplytoschoolsegregation
McConnellshouldlooktolegislativedebatesafterthepassageofthe
amendmenttounderstandwhattheframersthough
Borksubjectiveintentofmembersisnotasimportantaswhattheactual
wordsmeantatthetimeofpassing
Bollingv.Sharpe,1954:integrationofDCpublicschoolsbasedon5thAmendmentDPC
o Courtfindsthatthissegregationprogramfailsrationalbasisreview
unthinkablethattheConstitutionwouldimposealesserdutyonthefederal
governmentPOLICY
ReverseIncorporation:5thAmendueclauseallowsfor14thAmenequalprotectionclausetoapplytothefed
gov.

VisvisIncorporation:14thAmenusedtoimposebillofrightsonSTs

RACE&DESEGREGATION
BrownII:alldeliberatespeedvague.Unclearifschoolshavetodesegregatedejureor
defact
Greene,1968:freedomofwheretoattendschoolisnotenough,needtotakeaffirmative
stepstowardsreintegration
Griffinv.PrinceEdwardCounty:orderedschoolsystemtobereopenedafterclosedto
duetodesegregation
Swann:allowedforbusingandredrawingattendantzonestoincreaseintegration
Keyesv.SchoolDistrict#1:upholdsrequiringdesegregationofinnercity,basically
sayingtheNorthalsoneedstodesegregatehighwatermarkofboldremediesto
segregation
Milliken:courtcannotordermultidistrictbusingplanremedyhastomatchthebreach
andtherewasnointerdistrictviolation
ParentsInvolved:schoolboardsystemtoassignchildrenbasedonseveralfactors(oneof
whichisrace)forthepurposeofintegrationdoesnotsurvivestrictscrutinyunderthe14th
amendment

RACE&STRICTSCRUTINY
BirthofStrictScrutiny
Hernandezv.Texas:exclusionofclassofpersonsbasedonnationaloriginfromjury
serviceisa14thamendmentEPCviolation
o Birthofstrictscrutiny
Korematsu:civilianexclusionorderbasedonnationalorigin/ancestryisnotaviolationof
theEPC
o Appliesstrictscrutinybutsaysthatpressingpublicnecessity(nationalsecurity)
justifiesthelaw
o Thisisnotusuallyhowstrictscrutinyworksthiswouldbestruckdownunder
DPCandEPCtoday
o Today,citetoLovingforstrictscrutiny
McLaughlin:FLlawcriminalizingcohabitationofmixedracesisstruckdown
Lovingv.VA:miscegenationlawsviolatethe14thAmendmentEPC.StrictScrutinyrises
o Racialdiscriminationdoesnotrequirerationalbasis,itrequiresSS
o Marriageasafundamentalrightsubstitutesadenialofdueprocessoflaw

RationalBasis:Anypurpose/hypodreamedupbyjustices,Evenifnottheintentionoflegislatureatthetimeof
passingthelaw

v.
HeightenedScrutiny:Purposehastobeactualinterestofferedasbasisbygov,thepurposeoflegislatureto
discriminate

MORERECENTCASES:
Washingtonv.Davis:testforpoliceofficersthathaddisparateimpactsonblackpolice
officersisuphelddisparateimpactisnotenoughtoreceivestrictscrutiny
VillageofArlingtonHeights:discriminatoryintentmustbethemotivatingfactorforthe
action
NarrowingofDoctrine:
DisparateImpact(Griggs)Intent(WashingtonDavis)SpecificPurpose(Arlington
Heights)
ALSO,NarrowinginScope:
SystemicSpecificDiscrimination

Specialtopic:affirmativeaction
o Bakkerejectsremedyingpastsocietaldiscriminationasacompellinggovernment
interest.Diversityistheonlycompellinggovernmentinterestandhefocusesonte
classroomandacademic
o NOQUOTAS!Racecanonlybeaplusfactor
o Grutter&Gratz
o Grutterisupheld(lawschool)Michigansonlydefenseofprograminboth
casesisdiversityb/citisrecognizedasacompellinggovernmentinterest.Cant
usepercentagesb/cthatsracialbalancingandracialbalancingisnotOK
Narrowtailoringdoesntrequireexhaustionofallpossibleoption
doesntrequirealteringofessentialcharacter**butthisisonlyreallytrue
foraffirmativeactioncases
o Gratzstruckdownb/clessindividualization;racemoreexplicitlyandcrudely
considered.Souterdissentsayswearerewardingopacity
o Narrowlytailoredaffirmativeactionplanshouldhave:
Individualizedreview
Serious,goodfaithconsiderationsofraceneutralalternatives,butneed
notcompromisetheessentialcharacter(i.e.selectivity)oftheinstitution

GENDER

Noundueharm,i.e.,cantsetasideseatsforminoritystudentsofgive
hugeadvantage(b/citadvancesracialtensions)
Limitedintimeandsubjecttoperiodicreview(maybe)

GENDER AND INTERMEDIATE SCRUTINY

1.Doesthelawclassifyfaciallyonthebasisofsex?
Ifyes,applyintermediatescrutiny.
Istherealegitimatejustificationfortheclassification?(likerealdifferences/benign/anti
subordinationclassification)
o Somecouldarguethatclassificationisnotjustrealdifferences(i.e.itsaysitisbutits
actuallyjustperpetuatingracialstereotypes)
Ifyes,meansmustbesubstantiallyrelatedtotheinterest
2.Ifitdoesnotclassifyfaciallyonthebasisofsex,wasitovertlyorcovertlydesignedtopreferone
sex(Feeney)?Oristheclassificationapretextforsexdiscrimination(Geduldig)?
IntermediateScrutinyTougherthanrationalbasisreview,lesstoughthanstrictscrutiny
1. Importantgovernmentinterest(ORRBGsexceedinglycompellinggovernmentinterest)
2. Meanssubstantiallyrelatedtointerest
IntermediateScrutinyREQUIRES:
1. Facialclassificationonthebasisofsex(youcanstillarguethatdisparateimpactisevidence
ofdiscriminationNEEDsomethingmoreintent)
2. Discriminatorypurposeindrafting,intentionorapplication
NOHEIGHTENEDSCRUTINYifjustdisparateimpact(Feeney)Limitationsaresimilartorace
NOHEIGHTENEDSCRUTINYunlessdifferenceliesinsex(Geduldig)Notsimilartorace
Alsoaffectsanalysisofsubstance(Nguyen)
Realdifferencesprinciplecanalsolimitdoctrine
canaffectsubstantiveanalysis(MichaelM,Nguyen)andevenclassificationforheighted
scrutiny(Geduldig)
Similarlysituated/realdifferencesisessentiallythoughtofasthesameforpurposesofthedoctrine?
Realdifferenceslogicisawaytodenysimilarsituatedness,whichisjustusedasawaytodenygrantingofheightened

DoctrinalDevelopment
Bradwell:barswomenfrompracticinglaw
Hoytv.FL,1961:barredwomenfromjuryserviceunlesstheyoptedin
EqualPayAct(1963)
CRATitleVII(1964)
Reedv.Reed:usingrationalbasis,courtstrikesdownlawpreferencingmenasestate
administratorsforbeingarbitrary
ERAFAILS
Craigv.Boren:nearbeerlaw;courtadoptsintermediatescrutinyforsexdiscrimination
andlawisstruckdown
USv.VA:VMImustacceptwomenRBGusesintermediatescrutinybutuseslanguage
ofexceedinglypersuasiveclassification
MichaelM:statutoryrapelawmakingonlymenliableupheldunderstateinterestof
preventingteenpregnancystatuteissufficientlyrelatedtothegoal
o POLICY:perpetuatesstereotypeofwomenasvictims;leapfromstatutoryrape
toteenpregnancy
Nguyenv.INS:lawmakingiteasierforchildrenofAmericanmothersasopposedto
Americanfathersisupheldunderintermediatescrutiny
o POLICY:reminderofthelimitsofsexequalitylegislationdetractsfromVMIs
ideaofsubvertinggenderstereotypes
Feeney:noEPCviolationforhiringpreferencingforveteranswhen98%ofveteransare
men
Geduldig:CAschemefordisabilityinsurancethatdidnotcoverpregnantwomendoes
notviolateequalprotection
o

Courtasunwillingtotakesignificantdisparateimpactasproofofdiscriminatoryintent.Argument
inFeeneyandGeduldigisthatonlywaytounderstandthedisparateimpactisthatitistohelpmen
overwomenbutitstillwasntenougheventhough98%+ofthesituationshelpedmenover
women
ifitcouldbeshownthatgov.decisionmakerswereactuallyouttoharmacertaingroupofpersons
likeHispanicpersonsoranothergroupthenthiscangetyouheightenedscrutiny

DUEPROCESS
BASICS:14thand5thAmendments//SubstantiveDP,NOTprocedural
SubstantiveDPasks:canapersonbetreatedthiswayatall?Impermissiveofcertain
substantialoutcomesnomatterhowmuchprocess

POLICY:
HugeDebatesonSDP:notjusthowtoapply,butwhetheritevenexistsatall
1.Nosuchthing!greenpastelredness(JohnHartEly)
o theDPCisaboutprocedures,notsubstantiverights.Notpossiblefromreadingthe
test.SomeargueP&Iclausesarebeingcrammedintothis
o isthismadeupsojudgescanimposetheirpreferencesonsociety?
2.SomearguedframersDIDhavethisinmind
3.Unclearwhattheythought,butwhocares?Wehaveapplieditinthiswayforeverand
itiswellacceptedasamatterofdoctrinenow.(mostpopularview)

DevelopmentofDoctrine
Lochner:lawlimitingnumberofhoursbakercanworkisstruckdownundertheideaof
economicsubstantivedueprocess
o RejectsNYpolicepowerconnectiontootenuousb/wmeansandend
o Diminishespowerofthecontractsclause
WestCoastHotel:minimumwagelawenforcedlegitimategovernmentinterest;
essentiallyoverrulesLochner
CaroleneProducts:rationalbasisforordinaryeconomiclegislation(cf.Williamson)

CAROLENEPRODUCTSFRAMEWORKcourtwillbelessdeferentialtoCongresswhen:
legislationappearsonitsfacetoviolatespecificprohibitionintheBOR
legislationdealswithrighttovote,politicalorganizations,righttodisseminate
informationlawsthatinterferew/thepoliticalprocess
legislationdirectedatreligions,nationalities,andracialminoritiesdiscreteaninsular
minorities
POLICYcriticisms:
o Sometimessmallminoritygrouporganizebetterthanlarge,diffusegroups

o Ely:constitutionisfundamentallyaboutprocessandprotectingproceduralvalues,
notsubstantivevalues.Judgesshouldonlyweighinwhentherehasbeena
breakdownofpoliticalprocess(buthowdoweknow?)
o Judgesimposingtheirownvalues

BeginningsofSubstantiveDueProcess:
Meyers,Pierce:courtrecognizeslibertyinterestthatisnotrelatedtoeconomicrightsof
parentstocontroltheirkidseducation
Buckv.Bell:upheldforcedsterilizationofmentallyill
Skinner:forcedsterilizationforcriminalsconvictedof3ormorecrimesofmoral
turpitudefoundunconstitutionalunderEPCb/carbitrarilyexcludescertaincrimes
o Appliesstrictscrutiny
o Understoodsterilizationandsexualfreedomasunderminingmarriage
Griswold:prohibitiononcontraceptionformarriedcouplesunconstitutionalb/cviolates
dueprocessoflaw
o Privacyright
o Penumbras
o DoctrinalbackgroundMeyer,Pierce
Eisenstadt:lawbanningcontraceptivesifyourenotmarriedisstruckdown
o Dueprocessandequalprotectionareintertwinedcourtconfused
o Recognizesindividualrighttocontrolandmanageprocreation
o Setsthestageforrightsgoingfarbeyondmarriage
MichaelH.:anadulterous,naturalfather
SubstantiveDueProcess:Abortion
Roe:lawbanningabortionisunconstitutional.Therightischaracterizedasacombination
ofliberty,privacy,andautonomy
InbetweenRoeandCasey,hugenationalabortiondebate
o POLICYbacklashthesis:backlashcausedbyRoemadeabortionthehotbutton
politicalissuethatitis.CONTRA:debatewasalreadyragingb/csomestate
legislatorswereliberalizingandRepublicanpartywasmakingapoliticalissue
Casey:reaffirmsRoesessentialholdingfundamentalrightoabortionbeforeviability
refinesRoeframework
o EstablishesundueburdenSTcanregulatepreviabilitysolongasitdoesnot
placeanundueburdeninthewayofthemother
o RightcharacterizedaslibertyNOTprivacy
o Invokesgenderequality,autonomy,dignity

Carhart:lawbanningpartialbirthabortionisupheld
o Concernsaboutcoarseningsociety
o Womenprotectivearguments

WHATISLEFTOFROEAFTERCASEY?
Notclearbutbasicallynofundamentalrighttoabortion
HaslargelyshrunksinceRoewasdecided
SomepeoplepassionatelywanttooverturnRoe,butitmaynotevenbenecessaryatthispoint
Precarioussituationcurrentlyforproabortionadvocates

SHRINKINGOFSUBSTANTIVEDUEPROCESS
FirsttrimesterOK
Strictscrutinyundueburdenfor2ndand3rdtrimester(usedtobenormalstrictscrutinyunderRoe)[BUTformality
oftrimesterframeworkisgone;focusmoreonprepostviability]
Privacy(Roe)liberty(Casey)
Doctorpatientrelationshipwomensrights

SUBSTANTIVEDUEPROCESS:SEXUALORIENTATION
DevelopmentofDoctrine:
Bowers:upholdsGAlawbanningsodomyforbothheteroandhomosexualcouplesnot
constitutionalrighttosodomy
o Courtisnarrowingtheconstructionoftheright
o rationalbasisisappliedmajoritarianmoralityisenoughofacompellingST
interest
Romer:broadbanisunconstitutionalunderequalprotection
o failsrationalbasiswithbiteKENNEDYsaysitismotivatedbyabaredesire
toharm
Lawrence:TXsodomylawstruckdownfailssubstantivedueprocess
o Respect,stigmaneverclearontheconstitutionalrightthatisbeingprotected
itssomethinglikeprivacy+liberty+dignitycoy
o StrictscrutinyisappliedmoralityisNOTENOUGH
o SCALIAsaysmoralityisenough
Howtodistinguishbetweensodomy&samesexmarriage
Privateright(Lawrence)v.publicright(marriage)marriageisapublicright

Marriageisapositivebenefitthatthestategivesyouwhereassodomyisaboutthecriminalizationofa
privateactivity/controllingwhatyoudoinyourhome.Seenasadeprivationofright
Governmentmayhavereasonsforjustifyingabanonsamesexmarriageascomparedtotraditional
marriage
o Contra:prohibitionsonSSMoffendthesamevaluesthatLawrenceispurportingtoprotect
Scaliasaysthiswillclearlyleadtosamesexmarriage,Kennedysaysnoitwont

DevelopmentofDoctrine:SameSexMarriage
Hollingsworthv.Perrycourtpuntstheissue
HolderLetter:shouldberecognizedasasuspectclassification
USv.Windsor:DOMA3isunconstitutional
o Federalism
o Fundamentalright:stigma/dignity;stillunclear

ANSWERINGANEQUALPROTECTIONQUESTION
Requires states to refrain from making classifications that are based
upon factors that the Constitution forbids

CAROLENEPRODUCTSFRAMEWORKwhenacourtwillapplystrictscrutiny/deals
withwhethertograntsuspectclassstatusalso
legislationappearsonitsfacetoviolatespecificprohibitionintheBOR
legislationdealswithrighttovote,politicalorganizations,righttodisseminate
informationlawsthatinterferew/thepoliticalprocess
legislationdirectedatreligions,nationalities,andracialminoritiesdiscreteaninsular
minorities
**theseareareaswherecourtisespeciallyconcerned
Whatlevelofscrutinyshouldapply?
Rationalbasis
o Statutesurvivesifendsarelegitimateandmeansarerationallyrelated
Rationalbasiswithbite
o Sexualorientation,disabilities,age
Ex:Romer:reasonswasnotsufficientasthelawstemmedfromanimus
withnolegitimategovernmentinterest
IntermediateScrutiny

o Statutesurvivesifendsareimportant(meaning,morethanjustlegitimate)and
themeansaresubstantiallyrelated
BUT,RBGinVMI:needstobeanexceedinglypersuasiveclassification
StrictScrutiny
o Statutesurviveifendsarecompelling(vital)andthemeansarenarrowly
tailored(therecanbenootherwaytoachievetheendshastobetheleast
discriminatorywaypossible)
Ifclassifiesonthebasisofrace/nationalorigin/alienage(forbothfederal
andstateactions)

1. Stateaction?(TheCivilRightsCases,reaffirmedinMorrison)
a. Ifyes,continueanalysis
b. Ifno,lawisnotcoveredbythe14thAmendment
i. Privateactioncannotbecoveredby145,whichiswheytheyusedthe
CommerceClausetotargetprivateactionincaseslikeHeartofAtlanta
andKatzenbach
2. Whattypesoflaw?
a. Faciallydiscriminatory?
i. Ifyes,strictscrutiny(Strauder,Loving)
ii. iffaciallyneutralisitadministeredinadiscriminatoryway?(Brown)
1. ifyes,strictscrutiny(Hernandez)
b. iffaciallyneutralpassedwithdiscriminatorypurpose?
i. Ifyes,strictscrutiny(hardtoshow)
1. UseArlingtonHeightsfactorstoshowdiscriminatoryintent
a. Impactofofficialaction(ifclearpattern,unexplainableon
groundsotherthanrace,emerges)
b. Thehistoricalbackgroundofthedecision(particularlyifit
revealsaseriesofofficialactionstakenforinvidious
purposes
c. Thespecificsequenceofeventsleadinguptothe
challengeddecision
d. Departuresfromthenormalproceduralsequence
e. Substantivedeparturesfromwherethefactorsusually
consideredimportantbthedecisionmakerstronglyfavora
decisioncontrarytotheonereach
f. Thelegislativeoradministrativehistory
ii. Ifstateactorcanshowtheywouldhavetakentheactionanyway,nostrict
scrutiny(butonceyouveshowntherewasdiscriminatoryintent,itshard
toovercome)
iii. ButseeKENNEDYinParentsInvolvedmightbeOKforschoolsfor
diversityandotherpurposestodothiswitharaceconsciouspurpose.TX
10%admissionslawisalsookunderthislogic

c. Iffaciallyraceneutral,nodiscriminatoryintent,butdisparateimpact
rationalbasis
i. GriggsTitleVIIdisparateimpactisenough
ii. Feeneybecauseof,notinspiteof
iii. Washingtonv.Davisdisparateimpactisnotenoughneedintentto
getSS
d. Iflawdoesnottargetasuspect/quasisuspectclass,wasitmadewithANIMUS?
i. Ifyes,rationalbasiswithbite(Moreno,Cleburne,Romer,Windsor)
e. POLICY:reasonstoadoptSSbasedondisparateimpact
i. Hardforplaintiffstoshowevidentiaryintent
ii. EPCshouldbeconcernedwithresultsofgovernmentactions,notjust
underlyingmotivations
iii. DisparateimpactitselfmightbeatargetoftheEPC
iv. Expressivevaluemakessocietyexaminestructuresandpractices
v. Implicitbiasalotcanbeoccurringbutpeopledontrealizeit/willnever
admittowhattheyaredoingitisshownintheeffectofpolicies,though
vi. Today,mustshowactualintent&implicitbiasisnotenough
CivilRightsActof1991codifiesprohibitionondisparateimpact
Policyorpracticewithdisparateimpactonminoritiesisonlyjustifiedif(1)employers
showbusinessnecessity(relatedtojobrequirements/performance)and(2)thereisno
lessdiscriminatoryalternative
Factorstoconsidertodetermineifaclassissuspect
1. Historyofdiscrimination
a. ScaliauseshistoryagainstgivingwomenEPCprotection
2. Immutability
a. Raceisimmutable,asisgender
b. BUT,issexualorientation?Debate
3. Arbitrarinesscourtmakespointwithregardtoraceisthatraceisrarelyrelevantfor
policyclassifications
4. Benignclassifications
a. Womansaytheclassificationsarentbenigneveniftheyaremeanttohelp
women(i.e.MichaelH.,MichaelM.)
5. Realdifferencesreasonforallowingsexbasedclassificationdespiteheightened
scrutiny(Geduldig)
a. Realbiologicaldifferencesbetweenwomenandmenthatcanjustifycertainforms
ofclassificationsinthelaw
Isthegovernmentinterestcompelling?
Compellinggov.interestsinclude

o Securityinterestsagainstspying(Korematsu)
o Diversityofstudentbody(Grutter,Gratz,Bakke)
Maybealsoincreasingnumberofpracticingminorityphysiciansserving
certaincommunities(butitwasnotnarrowlytailored/programdidnothing
totrytoachievethatend)
o Reducingdrunkdriving(Craigv.Boren)
o Diversityinofferingsofeducation(VMI)
o Providingbenefits/incentivestoveterans(Feeney)
o Healthofthemother(Roe)
o Potentialityofhumanlife(Roe)
Notcompellinginterests
o Racialpurity(Loving)
o Counteringeffectsofpastdiscrimination(Bakke)
Butcounteringidentifieddiscriminationlinkedtospecificconstitutional
violationwouldbelegitimate
o Racialbalancing(Grutter)
o Efficient/administrativeeaseneverenough(Frontiero)

ANSWERINGASUBSTANTIVEDUEPROCESSQUESTION
To state a claim under this doctrine, must show that FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT has been infringed
upon

CAROLENEPRODUCTSFRAMEWORKwhenacourtwillapplystrictscrutiny/deals
withwhethertograntsuspectclassstatusalso
1.legislationappearsonitsfacetoviolatespecificprohibitionintheBOR
2.legislationdealswithrighttovote,politicalorganizations,righttodisseminate
informationlawsthatinterferew/thepoliticalprocess
3.legislationdirectedatreligions,nationalities,andracialminoritiesdiscretean
insularminorities
**theseareareaswherecourtisespeciallyconcerned
1. Howistryingtodefinetheright?(MichaelH.whatlevelofgenerality?)

a. PlaintiffshouldclaimthatXlawviolatesSDPrighttoY
i. Counterargument:therightsheisarguingforistoobroadandwhatsheis
actuallyseekingisanSDPrighttodoZ,shewouldunlikelybeableto
findprotectionofsucharight
b. Couldmaybegetcourttoconsiderrightonabroadlevel(seeBRENNANin
MichaelH.)
2. Isitdeeplyrootedinhistoryandtradition?
a. Righttomarry(Skinner,Loving)
b. Righttocontrolupbringingofachild(Meyer,SocietyofSisters,Pierce)
c. Righttoprocreate(Skinner,Roe,Casey)
d. Righttoprivacyinintimateaffairs(Griswold,Eisenstadt)
i. rightofindividualmarriedorsingletobefreefromunwarranted
intrusionintomatterssofundamentallyaffectingapersonastothe
decisionwhethertobearorbegetachildEisenstadt,maybeabortion
cases
ii. butalsogayrightscasesLawrencecanbeseenbysomeasprotectingthe
righttoprivacyinyourhome?
e. righttoabortion(Roe,Casey)
i. earlyantiabortion:beforequickeningwasalwaysallowed
f. righttozoneofprivacybody,whetherornotprocreate
g. righttosexualautonomy(Lawrence)
i. Lawrencedignity,autonomy,equality,andaddingrespectandstigma
1. OCONNORthisshouldntgetstrictscrutinyandshouldfail
rationalbasiswithbite
ii. righttodecidehowtoconductonesprivatelifeinmatterspertainingto
sex(alsoGriswold&Eisenstadt)
iii. adultsconsentingsexualbehavior
iv. moralitydoesnotpassrationalbasisreviewinRomer
government/majorityviewingapracticeasimmoralisnotasufficient
reasontoprohibitthepractice
1. moralityisneveracompellinggovernmentinterest
2. whenitcomestogaybehavior,traditionandmoralityarenot
enoughtosurviverationalbasis
3. KENNEDYwouldsaythatthisappliestosexualbehavior
4. SCALIAsaysnolimitingprinciple:thiseffectivelydecreesthe
endofallmoralslegislation
3. ifNOTfundamental,rationalbasis
a. ifitinvolvesanimus,rationalbasiswithbite
4. iffundamental,strictscrutiny
a. ifyoudecidethatitisfundamental,whenapplyingSShavetoengageitandshow
howthestateinterferedwithyourrighthastobestateaction
b. BUTfirstask,howmuchisthisinterferingonmyright?

i. ifyouremakingacasethatthestateisNOTinterferingwiththeright,
wanttodistinguishitfromcaseslikeLawrence,Griswold,andEisenstadt
wherestateisdirectlyregulatingpeoplesbehavior
ii. ex:inpracticetest,thestatewasnotdirectlyregulatingchoicetohave
childrensonotassevereasthoseothercases
c. havetoshowthatitwasNOTnarrowlytailoredtothecompelling
governmentinterest
5. Iftherightrelatestopregnancy
a. Doesthestatuteviolationequalprotection?
i. PregnancyprovisionlikelytofailanEPclaim(Geduldig);classifiesonly
onbasisofpregnancy,notwomanhood.Therefore,underGeduldig,thisis
NOTasuspectclassification;itappliestoeveryone,despitehaving
disparateimpactonwomen
ii. CouldthiscasebeusedasatesttooverturnGeduldig?Perhaps,butunder
currentprecedent,notanEPviolation(realdifference)
iii. Importantgovernmentinterestthatissubstantiallyrelated?
1. Willnotacceptarchaicandoverbroadgeneralizationbasedon
outmodedstereotypesthatpresumehusband/fatherisbreadwinner
whilewife/motheriscaretakerthisgoestohowimportantthe
governmentinterestis
2. Ex:importantgovernmentinterestinensuringthatmilitaryfitness
standardsaresatisfiedandifyoudidntdistinguishonthebasisof
sexthenyouwouldntbeabletohaveaneffectivestandard
a. necessarytodistinguishonrealdifferenceshereb/cor
elsethisimportantgovernmentinterestcantbesatisfied
b. Ginsburgsaystwopotentiallegitimategovernmentinterest
WRTgender:benign/remedialpurposesandreal
differences
3. Accountingforrealdifferencesisalegitimategovernmentinterest
ORthestateisperpetuatingastereotype
b. Doesitviolatesubstantivedueprocess?
i. Ispregnancyafundamentalright?Fitsintotheprivacylineofcasesunder
14thAmendmentfundamentalrighttodecide
1. Skinnerrighttoprocreate
2. Roe,Casey
ii. Isthislawundulyburdensome?UnderCasey,statecanimpose
regulationsaffectingpregnancy,butonlyiftheyimposeNOUNDUE
BURDENonthemother
1. Validstateinterestsinclude:healthofthemother,integrityof
medicalprofession,lifeofthefetus