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Joseph Brutico
Carla Hass
Biology 433
3 May 2016
The Emperor Penguin and Weddell Seal
Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar features and characteristics in species of
different lineages. That is, differing species adopt similar structures or forms in order to coup
with a similar environment. Convergent evolution is seen in many different species throughout
the world. Two species that have adapted similarly to their environments are Aptenodytes
forsteri, the emperor penguin, and Letonychotes weddellii, the Weddell seal.
Both the emperor penguin and the Weddell seal have adapted to life as semiaquatic,
Antarctic divers. Both organisms are placed in the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata. The
emperor penguin is part of the class Aves. It is also part of the clade Archosauria, which contains
both extinct and extant crocodilians, dinosaurs, and birds. In contrast, the Weddell seal is part of
the class Mammalia. It is also part of the clade Synapsida, which, unlike Archosauria, only
contains extinct and extant mammals.
Both the emperor penguin and Weddell seal have identical ranges. Both of these species
have a circumpolar distribution around the continent of Antarctica1, 2. However, their migration
habits differ. The emperor penguin is a flightless bird. Unlike many other species of birds, the
emperor penguin does not migrate to warmer locations during the winter months. The same
cannot be said of the Weddell seal. It is speculated that Weddell seals frequently migrate during
the winter months due to the low frequency of sightings 2. Weddell seals have been spotted as far

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as Uruguay, Australia, and New Zealand2. Their ultimate migration locations, however, are
unknown.
Aforementioned, the emperor penguin and Weddell seal are examples of convergent
evolution. These organisms most likely evolved similar features due to their similar ecologies.
Both organisms are adapted to living as semiaquatic, Antarctic divers. Both species live on land,
as well as in water, depending on the situation. Emperor penguins and Weddell seals give birth
on land; both species hunt and feed in the water1,2. The Emperor penguin differs from the
Weddell seal in its Antarctic niche. During fasting cycles, emperor penguins travel far inland.
During feeding cycles, the emperor penguin must stay close to the ocean-sea boundary, as it has
no means of burrowing through the sea ice in order to access the ocean. Weddell seals, however,
do not succumb to this limitation. The seals usually associate with fast ice (large sheets of ice
associated with land masses) and pack ice (large masses of freely floating ice)2. The seals use
their canine teeth to chisel away the sea ice in order to create and maintain holes for breathing
and entry into the ocean2.
The emperor penguin and Weddell seal show very similar characteristics. The emperor
penguin, however, is much smaller than the Weddell seal. An individual penguin has a mass
between 20 40 kilograms1. The differing masses of the emperor penguin are due to its feeding
lifestyle. The penguins undergo periods of fasting (in which their mass will be closer to 20
kilograms) and feeding (in which their mass will be closer to 40 kilograms). The emperor
penguin has varying heights as well. An individual penguin can range from 2.5 4 feet tall1. The
height varies based on the position of the birds head. The penguin has a neck that can be
elongated or tucked close to its body1. The Weddell seal, on the other hand, is much larger than
the emperor penguin. The mass of the Weddell seal ranges from 400 450 kilograms, with males

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being smaller than the females2. The height of the Weddell seal also varies. The seals height, or
length, ranges between 8 12 feet, again, with males being smaller than the females2.
Although the mass and size of the emperor penguin and Weddell seal differ, their
anatomies show very similar characteristics. Both organisms have large bodies and small
appendages. This type of body structure reduces the surface area to volume ratio of the
organism1,2. A low surface area to volume ratio is very advantageous in cold environments such
as Antarctica. A small surface area reduces the organisms exposure to the frigid environment. As
a result, the emperor penguin and Weddell seal do not lose heat as readily to their surroundings.
Both the emperor penguin and Weddell seal are also equipped with similar structures to
maintain a stable and warm body temperature. The emperor penguin has dense feathers
surrounding its body, except for the area known as the brood pouch1. The Weddell seal, being a
mammal, does not have feathers, but rather a thin layer of fur surrounding its body2. Both
organisms have a thick layer of blubber which functions not only as insulation, but also as a
place for storage for fats and lipids1,2.
The emperor penguin and Weddell seal also have similar structures to aide in their
underwater lifestyle. The emperor penguin is an aquatic rather than an aerial bird. Its forelimbs
are modified to act as flippers rather than wings. When underwater, the emperor penguin uses its
flipper-like forelimbs for propulsion3. The penguin rapidly flaps its wings, an action taken by
aerial birds, in order to move through the water3. While the wings are the main form of
propulsion, the penguin also uses its webbed feet for movement as well. When diving, the
penguin rapidly kicks its feet in unison3. The penguin can also flatten its feet to a standing
position, which allows for underwater breaking3.

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The Weddell seal has similar forelimbs and hind limbs compared to the emperor penguin.
Its limbs resemble flippers rather than the hands or feet seen in terrestrial mammals. However, it
is evident that these are modified appendages as the forelimbs and hind limbs contain finger-like
ridges connected by skin. The appendages are not uniform and smooth as seen in the fins and
tails of other aquatic vertebrates.
The Weddell seal uses a motion similar to the emperor penguin to propel itself through
the water. The seal flaps its flipper-like forelimbs for thrust4. However, this motion is not as rapid
as the motion seen in the emperor penguin. Also, this is not the Weddell seals primary form of
movement. The seal also uses carangiform locomotion. Much of the thrust propelling the seal
through the water comes from the side-to-side movement of the seals hind limb, flipper-like
region4.
These organisms not only have flipper-like appendages to aid in diving, but also have
large aerobic capacities. The oxygen capacity of human beings is 20.2 mL O2 / 100 mL blood5.
The oxygen capacity of the emperor penguin is 23.0 mL O2 / 100 mL blood, whereas the Weddell
seals oxygen capacity is 34.7 mL O2 / 100 ml blood5. Both organisms have the ability to store
more oxygen per milliliter of blood than humans.
The Weddell seal stores its oxygen in its muscles and blood5. This storage site is very
advantageous for the Weddell seal. With the seals large diving range, nitrogenous gas can enter
into the blood stream of the organism6. If the seal emerges rapidly from the water to breath, it can
suffer from nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness6. To avoid this problem, the seal has
evolved collapsible lungs6. Upon reaching depths of about 30 meters, the seals gas absorbing
alveolar sacs collapse, shutting off gas exchange6. As a result of this mechanism, the seal
minimizes nitrogen gas absorbance and eliminates the possibility of nitrogen narcosis and

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decompression sickness6. The Weddell seal also has a greater amount of hemoglobin and
myoglobin compared to humans5. This allows the seal to take up more oxygen from the lungs as
well as store more oxygen in its tissues.
The emperor penguin, in contrast to the Weddell seal, stores its oxygen supply in its large,
non-gas exchanging air sacs7. Since the penguin stores its oxygen in the lung region, it is
susceptible to nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness7. However, the emperor penguins
short and relatively shallow diving strategy diminishes the occurrence of these two potentially
fatal outcomes7. The emperor penguin also shows unique adaptations for oxygen uptake
compared to other birds. In the presence of low oxygen, the bird can suffer from hypoxia8. The
emperor penguin, in contrast to most other bird species, has high affinity hemoglobin similar to
that of mammals8. The hemoglobin of the emperor penguin becomes saturated at lower pressures
of oxygen8. When birds with low affinity hemoglobin become depleted of oxygen, their
hemoglobin doesnt efficiently bind to oxygen, resulting in hypoxia or anoxia8. However, the
hemoglobin of the emperor penguin binds efficiently in the presence of low oxygen pressure,
resulting in more oxygen distributed throughout the body8. This is obviously advantageous
during diving when the oxygen stores of the emperor penguin can become heavily depleted.
Both the Weddell seal and emperor penguin conserve oxygen during diving through
metabolic means as well. The organisms slow their metabolism via bradycardia slowing of the
heart rate3,5. The organs that tolerate to hypoxic conditions switch to anaerobic metabolism3,5.
Organs that are not tolerant to the absence of oxygen, such as the heart and brain, receive a
constant supply of oxygenated blood3,5. The redistribution of oxygenated blood to only vital,
oxygen-requiring organs allows the Weddell seal and emperor penguin to stay submerged for
longer periods of time3,5.

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With their large aerobic capacities, the emperor penguin and Weddell seal are capable of
staying underwater for long increments of time. The emperor penguins diving strategy is short
and shallow. The average dive duration is six minutes in length. The diving depth of the emperor
penguin, on average, is 20 40 meters deep. In extreme cases, the emperor penguin is capable of
diving for up to 16 minutes and as deep as 500 meters.3
The Weddell seals diving strategy is longer and deeper than the emperor penguins. With
a larger aerobic capacity, the Weddell seal dives for approximately 10.5 minutes on average. The
mean depth that the seal reaches on these shorter dives is 120 meters. In extreme cases, the
Weddell seal is capable of being submerged for up to 80 minutes. During these longer
underwater dives, the seal is capable of reaching depths of up to 600 meters.4
The ability to dive for a longer duration and to larger depths compared to other
semiaquatic organisms is very important during the feeding cycles of the emperor penguin and
Weddell seal. This ability allows these organisms to hunt large areas for long periods of time.
Feeding is a huge part of both of these vertebrates lives. Feeding supplies these organisms with
energy and nutrients. Excess nutrients are stored as layer of blubber underneath the skin. An
inability to feed for longs periods of time could result in not only starvation, but also in eventual
hypothermia.
The diets of the emperor penguin and Weddell seal are identical. The adult emperor
penguin feeds at various times throughout the day. Its main diet consists of a variety of
crustaceans, cephalopods, and fish1. As with most bird species, the emperor penguin has a highly
developed sense of vision3. The penguins eyes are directed downward, possibly to help find and
locate prey underneath the bird as it swims near the surface of the water3. The downward

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direction of the eyes also allows for binocular vision3. This type of vision allows the penguin to
judge depths and distance more accurately3.
Juvenile Weddell Seals, shortly after the weaning stage, feed mainly on crustaceans,
before moving to their adult diet2. The adult Weddell seal feeds on cephalopods and fish2. Both
the adult and juvenile seals hunt primarily at night2. The Weddell seal has shown adaptations for
their feeding timing. Being a mammal, the seal does not have a lateral line system or the ability
to use its sense of smell underwater. As a result, the Weddell seal relies heavily on its sense of
vision to feed.
The eye of the Weddell seal is adapted for underwater vision. The refractive ability of the
cornea has been lost and the ciliary muscles are poorly developed. As a result, the lens of the seal
is spherically shaped and cannot be adjusted as necessary. The seal therefore suffers from
myopia. Visual acuity is minimal in air, especially when the seal is exposed to bright lights.
When underwater, the eye does not suffer from the same symptoms. The seal has maximum
visual acuity, specifically in low light conditions.9
The rod cells in the eyes of the Weddell seal are also highly adapted for underwater
vision. The seal has a large proportion of rod cells that converge to one ganglion cell10. The
abundance of rod cells excites the ganglion cell, amplifying the nerve impulse in the eye10. As a
result, the seal can perceive minimal light levels when underwater10. The seal also has a structure
known as the tapetum lucidum10. The structure essentially reflects light back through the retina,
increasing the light available to the photoreceptors. Lastly, the rod cells absorb maximum light in
the range of about 500 nanometers10. This wavelength corresponds to green light. The photic
environment of the polar waters is green, rather than blue10. This adaptation allows the Weddell
seal to absorb the most abundant light in the water in which it resides10.

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While the emperor penguin and Weddell seal show similar adaptations, their differing
modes of reproduction show their differing evolutionary history. As previously stated, the
emperor penguin is part of the class Aves. One of the characteristics of this class is that members
lay eggs. Between the ages of four to six, females become sexually mature1. During early April,
both the males and females trek up to 120 kilometers to their mating grounds11. The penguins
have ultraviolet reflecting spots on the beak and possibly even on the feathers12. The males use
these reflective patches as a form of display to attract a female12. Once mates have been chosen,
the couples establish a call to identify one another. It is speculated that emperor penguins have
no visual means of identifying one another13. Therefore, males and females use a two-voice
system for recognition13. Each penguin uses a unique low and high frequency sound pattern to
identify itself13. Once the courtship has taken place, couples copulate on land1.
In May, the adult female lays a single egg1. In contrast to many other bird species,
emperor penguins do not make a nest1. The egg, once laid by the female, is quickly transferred to
the male. The male holds the egg between his feet and brood pouch1. This featherless portion of
the penguins body functions to keep the egg warm. The male emperor penguin will incubate the
egg for a period of 65 days1. Once the female passes the egg to the male, she treks back to ocean
to feed, as she has already been fasting for almost 50 days11.
After the incubation phase ends, usually in the middle of July, the egg hatches. Newly
hatched chicks are equipped with a dense feathery coat known as down for insulation1. However,
the chick still remains atop the feet and under the stomach of the adult. The adult emperor
penguin must keep the chick warm because the chick does not yet have the ability to regulate its
own temperature1.

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Without the ability to thermoregulate, the chick cannot enter the ocean to feed. Instead, if
born before the female has returned, the male penguin feeds the chick with an esophageal
secretion11. Once the female returns and finds her mate and chick via the established call, the
female takes over the parental care, with the male returning to the water to feed1. By this time,
the male has been fasting from April to July, a period of about 110 days. The female, after
feeding in the ocean for over two months, regurgitates food from within its stomach to feed the
chick11.
From this point onward, the male and female undergo alternating periods of parental care
and feeding1. The parental care stage requires the adult to undergo a period of fasting. Again,
without the ability to thermoregulate, the adult must not abandon the chick until the chick molts.
Around January, the chick will undergo a molting stage in which it acquires its adult feathers1. It
is at this point that the chick becomes fully independent1.
Weddell seals reproductive strategy is vastly different from the emperor penguins
reproductive strategy. Weddell seals are placental mammals that reach sexually maturity by three
years of age. The seals copulate underwater between November and December. Implantation is
delayed until January to mid-February.2
Unlike emperor penguins, female Weddell seals give birth directly onto the sea ice2.
Females give birth to one pup per year between September and November2. The pups are
equipped with a thick layer of fur known as lanugo and a layer of blubber14. The newborn pups
also have a different physiology compared to adults to deal with the harsh environment. Pups
have more aerobic Type I fibers, mitochondria, and aerobic enzymes compared to adults15.
However, the aerobic enzymes do not function to provide the pup with higher levels of oxygen.
Instead, they function to uncouple aerobic intake and energy production15. By doing this, energy

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production is reduced, but heat production is increased15. The process of metabolic uncoupling in
favor of heat production is known as non-shivering thermogenesis15.
While the newborns have higher aerobic capacities compared to adults, they do not feed
in the water. Non-shivering thermogenesis provides the pup with heat, but it does not allow the
seal to efficiently coup with the frigid Antarctic waters. Instead, the pup relies on its mother for
nourishment and care. For the first six weeks of life, females feed the pups via lactation2. The
milk from the mother provides the pup with nourishment, as well as antibodies needed for
survival.
The long period of development as well as the location of reproduction functions to
isolate the pup from its dangerous environment. By feeding the pups, the pups remain outside of
the water and away from aquatic predators. The location of reproduction protects the pups as
well. Mothers give birth on fast ice, rather than pack ice. The location prohibits the pup from
accidently falling into or actively entering the water. 14
While not as extensive as the emperor penguin, the female Weddell seal does show
parental care. The emperor penguins parental care stage essentially begins in May and ends the
following January, a period of eight months. Female Weddell seals, as mentioned previously,
feed their pups for a period of six weeks2. After the lactation period, the pup is weaned. The
weaning phase lasts about 10 days2. During this time period, the mother will teach the pup not
only how to swim, but also how to enter and exit the water2.
In conclusion, the emperor penguin and Weddell seal are adapted to life as semiaquatic,
Antarctic vertebrates. Both organisms have similar characteristics to aid them in swimming as
well as surviving the harsh environment. The penguin and seal both have flipper-like
appendages, streamlined bodies, and well-developed vision for feeding underwater. Both

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organisms also have blubber for insulation. While the emperor penguin has feathers for warmth,
the Weddell seal has fur. Both organisms also have large bodies with small appendages. This
body structure reduces the surface area to volume ratio of the organism, limiting the organisms
exposure to the harsh environment. Other differing adaptations, such as the high affinity
hemoglobin seen in the emperor penguin, non-shivering thermogenesis seen in the Weddell seal,
differing oxygen storage locations, as well as differing reproductive strategies, show their
separate evolutionary histories.

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Work Cited
1. Le Maho, Yvon. The Emperor Penguin: A Strategy to Live and Breed in the Cold:
Morphology, Physiology, Ecology, and Behavior Distinguish the Polar Emperor Penguin
from Other Penguin Species, Particularly from Its Close Relative, the King Penguin.
American Scientist 65.6 (1977): 680693. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.
2. Stirling, Ian. "Ecology of the Weddell Seal in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica." Ecology 50.4
(1969): 573-86. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.
3. Kooyman, G. L. et al.. Diving Behavior of the Emperor Penguin, Aptenodytes Forsteri. The
Auk 88.4 (1971): 775795. Web. 22. Apr. 2016
4. Littlepage, Jack L. "Diving Behavior of a Weddell Seal Wintering in McMurdo Sound,
Antarctica." Ecology 44.4 (1963): 775-77. JSTOR. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.
5. Butler, P.J., and D.R. Jones. "Physiology of Diving of Birds and Mammals." Physiological
Reviews 77.3 (1997): 837-99. American Physiological Society. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.
6. Falke, K., R. Hill, J. Qvist, R. Schneider, M. Guppy, G. Liggins, P. Hochachka, R. Elliott, and
W. Zapol. "Seal Lungs Collapse during Free Diving: Evidence from Arterial Nitrogen
Tensions." Science 229.4713 (1985): 556-58. JSTOR. Web. 1 May 2016.
7. Kooyman, G.L., J.P. Schroeder, D.G. Greene, and V.A. Smith. "Gas Exchange in Penguins
During Simulated Dives to 30 and 60 M." American Journal of Physiology 6th ser. 225.3
(1973): 1467-471. American Physiological Society. Web. 1 May 2016.
8. Meir, J. U., and P. J. Ponganis. "High-affinity Hemoglobin and Blood Oxygen Saturation in
Diving Emperor Penguins." Journal of Experimental Biology 212.20 (2009): 3330-338.
JSTOR. Web. 1 May 2016.
9. Welsch, Ulrich, Sven Ramdohr, Bernd Riedelsheimer, Rudolf Hebel, Regina Eisert, and
Joachim Pltz. "Microscopic Anatomy of the Eye of the Deep-diving Antarctic Weddell
Seal (Leptonychotes Weddellii)." Journal of Morphology 248.2 (2001): 165-74. JSTOR.
Web. 1 May 2016.
10. Lavigne, D.m., and K. Ronald. "Pinniped Visual Pigments." Comparative Biochemistry and
Physiology Part B: Comparative Biochemistry 52.2 (1975): 325-29. JSTOR. Web. 1 May
2016.
11. Pinshow, B., M.A. Fedak, D.R. Battles, and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. "Energy Expenditure for
Thermoregulation and Locomotion in Emperor Penguins." American Journal of
Physiology 231 (1976): 903-12. American Physiological Society. Web. 1 May 2016.
12. Pierre Jouventin, Paul M. Nolan, Jonas rnborg, and F. Stephen Dobson (2005) Ultraviolet
Beak Spots in the King and Emperor Penguins. The Condor: 107.1 (2005): 144-150.
JSTOR. Web. 1 May 2016.

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13. Aubin, T., P. Jouventin, and C. Hildebrand. "Penguins Use the Two-voice System to
Recognize Each Other." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
267.1448 (2000): 1081-087. JSTOR. Web. 1 May 2016.
14. Smith, Thomas G., Michael O. Hammill, and Geir Taugbl. "A Review of the
Developmental, Behavioural and Physiological Adaptations of the Ringed Seal, Phoca
Hispida, to Life in the Arctic Winter." Arctic 44.2 (1991): 124-31. JSTOR. Web. 1 May
2016.
15. Kanatous, S. B., T. J. Hawke, S. J. Trumble, L. E. Pearson, R. R. Watson, D. J. Garry, T. M.
Williams, and R. W. Davis. "The Ontogeny of Aerobic and Diving Capacity in the
Skeletal Muscles of Weddell Seals." Journal of Experimental Biology 211.16 (2008):
2559-565. Journal of Experimental Biology. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.