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(The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum, or alloys to provide stable and
predictable characteristics)
The typical fuse consists of an element which is surrounded by a filler and enclosed by the fuse body.
The element is welded or soldered to the fuse contacts (blades or ferrules).
the applied current will heat the element faster and cause the fuse to open sooner. Thus fuses have an
inverse time current characteristic, i.e. the greater the overcurrent the less time required for the fuse to
open the circuit.
This characteristic is desirable because it parallels the characteristics of conductors, motors, transformers
and other electrical apparatus. These components can carry low level overloads for relatively long times
without damage. However, under high current conditions damage can occur quickly. Because of its
inverse time current characteristic, a properly applied fuse can provide effective protection over a broad
current range, from low level overloads to high level short circuits.
Figure 1. Possible arrangements for semiconductor fuses in a converter bridge (a1 and b1) and for an
This is known as a phase or AC side fuse. This has the advantage that fewer fuses are needed and that
the switching voltage that occurs when the fuse element melts does not put any load onto the
semiconductor components.
For high current loads on thyristors or rectifier diodes, as may be the case in systems with forced cooling,
and high operating voltage at the same time, it may well be difficult to find a fuse with sufficient rated
current (effective current in the phase 2 times higher than in each of the two arms) and with an
operating it, on the other hand, that is lower than that of each of the two semiconductor components.
In this case, each bridge arm must be allocated its own fuse (Figure 1a). In AC controllers, a common
fuse normally suffices (Figure 1b2).
If rectifier diodes or thyristors are connected in parallel for high power densities, each semiconductor
component is equipped with a fuse. The advantage of this is that if one component or fuse suddenly fails,
the device will remain fully functional with less power, accordingly. The internal resistances of the fuses
will also compensate somewhat for the differences in the characteristics of the semiconductor
components, meaning the current distribution will be more homogenous. For short-circuit protection
using blow-out fuses, short circuits are assumed to seldom occur. There are, however, applications where
load short-circuit happens more frequently. In this case, a DC side high-speed circuit breaker, a power
circuit breaker, or another device to block the driver pulses of the thyristor (driver signal blocking) is
needed on the load side. This has to be used in addition to the fuses to cater for the other possibilities of
short circuiting.
Solid state devices have progressed through several generations of sophistication since their introduction
in the 1940s. Fuse designs have changed to match solid state protection demands. The protection task
seems simple - choose a fuse of correct voltage and ampere rating which will protect a solid state device
(diode, silicon-controlled rectifier, triac, etc.) through a wide range of overcurrents, yet carry normal
rated loads without deterioration through a long life.
Cooling methods can be classified according to the mechanism or medium used to transfer the heat
during the cooling process. A commonly used method of cooling power semiconductors is air cooling,
which includes natural air cooling and forced air cooling. Another type of cooling is liquid cooling. Liquid
cooling is often accomplished by use of water or a water/glycol mixture to perform thermosyphon cooling
or forced cooling. Other agents can also be used for liquid cooling such as oil and several other inert
fluids. Cooling can also be achieved by taking advantage of the heat transfer that occurs when materials
experience phase transitions.
Air Cooling
Air is not an outstanding thermal conductor (air has a thermal conductivity of 0.026 W/mK). There are
however advantages in using air as a cooling agent which include its universal availability, its ability to
insulate, as well as its non-corrosive nature.
Liquid Cooling
A more effective method of cooling than air cooling is liquid cooling, which normally involves water or a
water/glycol mixture as the heat transfering medium.
Thermosyphon Cooling
In thermosyphon cooling, the transfer of heat is accomplished by the natural convection of water due to
gravity. This results from the fact that heated water is less dense than the cooler water and therefore
rises to the top of the cooling system causing natural circulation of the cooling liquid.
Pool Boiling
In pool boiling, the cooling medium evaporates at the heat source, gas bubbles rise and condense on the
cooler upper surface.
Heat pipes
A very useful method of transfering heat away from semiconductor devices is the use of heat pipes. Heat
pipes also rely on natural forces to transfer heat. Heat pipes are made of hermetically sealed copper filled
up with a small amount of fluid under low pressure. The inner part of the heat pipe is lined with a
capillary-structured wick.
Increasing the surface of the inner wall (grooved tube) - very weak capillary action
Screen mesh - most often used .
Different heat transfer media can be used within the heat pipes. The choice of medium depends on the
application, in particular the required temperature range. Water, for instance, cannot be used below 0C.
Acetone or alcohol are commonly used.
Advantages of using heat pipes include:
Extremely high heat transfer ability (100 to 1000 times higher than copper at small temperature
gradients
No parts need be moved mechanically, hence requires no maintenance
Heat pipes offer enough flexibility to be produced in all forms and sizes
Spray Cooling
Spray cooling and jet impingement cooling can be carried out either from the bottom or top or from both
sides of the heat source. The cooling fluid vaporises upon coming into contact with the semiconductor
chips and condenses when it reaches the cooler areas. Fluids used for spray cooling are mostly inert
fluids such as fluorinert or other fluorinated hydrocarbons which cover a wide boiling point range.
Conductive water can only be used when spraying on the bottom side of the module.
Comparison
Latent heat of vaporisation
Heat capacity
Water
2250 kJ/kg
4.18 kJ/kg.K
Another disadvantage of spray cooling is high technical complexity. An large amount of equipment
including pumps, spray pipes, condensors, storing tanks, microfilters, and a closed pressure system are
required in order to carry out spray cooling. The process also requires very high pressures ranging from 3
bar to 15 bar. Wire bonds on the chip are also always in the way of the sprayed fluid, hindering optimum
cooling of the chip. Also, due to their small diameter, there is always a chance that the spray pipes might
become clogged. Cavitation of the pressure pump is also quite likely to occur.
Thermal-Acoustic Cooling
Thermal-Acoustic cooling is based on the principle of a Stirling machine that uses a loud speaker as a
drive. The working medium is usually an environmental friendly rare gas such as Helium or Argon. This
heat pump is powered by very high acoustic pressure caused by resonant vibrations of the gas in the
inner and outer board. Two cooling circuits (hot and cold) for heat transfer are required to complete the
system. The advantage of using thermal-acoustic cooling is that there are no moving parts. Thermalacoustic cooling however has lower than desirable effectiveness.
No noise is produced while cooling using the Peltier effect and the equipment used in this method
requires no maintenance. Cooling using the Peltier effect, however, has very low cooling effect.
In conclusion, adequate cooling plays an important role in the reliability of power semiconductors and
their lifetime. Choice of material as well as the structure of semiconductors determines the level of
thermal resistance of any given semiconductor device. A wide range of processes with very different
levels of effectiveness can be used for heat transfer in semiconductors.