EUROPEAN TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRICAL POWER

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

Published online 28 May 2009 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/etep.350

Magnetic forces and moving body induced voltages: applications to velocity

sensing and DCAC conversion
J. A. Brandao Faria*,y
Center for Innovation in Electrical and Energy Engineering, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Technical University of Lisbon,
Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal

SUMMARY
This research and tutorial paper illustrates two interlinked phenomena of the greatest importance for power and energy systems engineers, i.e.,
magnetic forces and moving body induced voltages. A two-solenoid system with driving and sensing parts is analyzed taking into account that a
moving ferromagnetic core can freely move along the system axial coordinate. At first-order approximation the frequency of the oscillating core
movement is shown to be linearly controllable by the direct-current intensity injected in the driving solenoid. On the other hand the induced voltage
on the sensing solenoid is shown to be a sinusoidal voltage with a frequency twice the one of the moving core. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd.
key words:

DC-AC converters; electromagnetics; induction law; induction sensing devices; moving body electrodynamics; magnetic forces

1. INTRODUCTION
This work is meant to illustrate not only the theory but also the applications of two key topics of interest to power engineers. These
topicsmagnetic forces and moving body induced voltagesare ordinarily a source of some confusion because the subject
matters are not approached using fundamental principles rooted in Maxwell equations, [1,2].
This contribution is hoped to provide readers with a new insight into both topics.
The present paper is organized into six sections, the first of which is introductory. In Section 2 a description of the two-solenoid
system is given. The analysis of magnetic forces and motion equations is developed in Section 3. Entirely dedicated to application
examples, Sections 4 and 5, deal with velocity sensing, and DCAC conversion problems. At last, Section 6 is devoted to
conclusions and future work.

2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Consider the system of two coaxial intertwined solenoids of total length 2l shown in Figure 1. The two solenoids are identical, with
the same turns-number. The soft ferromagnetic moving core, of mass mc and length 2s, has a symmetrical shape.
The ferromagnetic core, bonded to a solid axis of mass ma, is free to move longitudinally in the range xc s
l to xc l
s,
where xc denotes the middle point position of the core. The solid axis of the core is provided with two external bearings through
which it can slide frictionless.
While the active solenoid (terminals A and B) is driven by a direct-current I1, the sensing solenoid (terminals C and D) is left open,
i.e., i2 0. The generated voltage measured between C and D, which is a function of time, is denoted by u2 t.
*Correspondence to: J. A. Brandao Faria, Center for Innovation in Electrical and Energy Engineering, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Technical University of Lisbon,
Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal.
y
E-mail: brandao.faria@ieee.org

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

724

J. A. B. FARIA

Figure 1. Two-solenoid system with a moving ferromagnetic core. The shaded turns identify the excitation solenoid.
(a) Longitudinal section: (b) Equivalent circuit.

Given the systems configuration a practically perfect magnetic coupling between solenoids is achieved. Different geometries
(e.g., two coaxially placed solenoids with different radius) could of course be used, however, the configuration in Figure 1 is the one
that better suits our goals, yielding the stronger interaction between the active and sensing solenoids.
For the targeted case of maximum magnetic coupling, the entries of the inductance matrix of the system, which depend on the
core position, are such that
L11 L22  LM Lxc

(1)

where, for symmetry reasons, Lxc is an even function of the cores position. For the range xc 2 s
l; l
s the inductance Lxc
can be written in the form of a Taylor series expansion, that is
Lxc Lmax
ax2c
bx4c
  

(2a)

The third term in the right hand side of Equation (2a) is ordinarily negligible for small core displacements. Moreover, even for
non-small core displacements, the b coefficient in Equation (2a) may be made to practically vanish by properly tailoring the shape of
the symmetrical core. In that case (which we will adhere to throughout this paper) the derivative of L is given by the very simple
equation
dLxc

2xc a
dx

(2b)

Taking b 0, and bearing in mind that the function L(xc) monotonously decreases from a maximum to a minimum value as xc is
made to increase from 0 to l
s,


L Lmax for xc 0
L Lmin for xc l
s
the a coefficient in Equation (2) can be evaluated through
a

DL
l
s2

; DL Lmax
Lmin

(3)

For illustration purposes the function L(xc) is depicted in Figure 2.

As a parenthetical note we wish to underline that the introduction of the L(x) function, independent of the driving current, is
tantamount to assuming a linear behavior of the magnetically coupled solenoid system. This assumption is a realistic one since the
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

DOI: 10.1002/etep

MAGNETIC FORCES AND MOVING BODY INDUCED VOLTAGES

725

Figure 2. Inductance function plotted against xc.

internal medium of the solenoid system is essentially made of air; the soft ferromagnetic core being operated in its linear zone, away
from saturation.

3. MAGNETIC FORCE AND MOTION EQUATION

The x-directed magnetic force F F~
ex acting upon the core is determined through the partial derivative of the systems magnetic
energy with respect to the variable coordinate xc, [1,2],




@Wm
@Wm
F

@xc cconst:
@xc I1 const:
from where we get,


d 1
1 dLxc
2
L11 I1 I12
F

a xc I12
dxc 2
2
dxc

(4)

Note that the magnetic force acts so as to bring the ferromagnetic core to its central position inside the two-solenoid system,
irrespective of the algebraic sign of the injected current I1. In fact, if xc > 0 one will get F < 0, conversely if xc < 0 one gets F > 0.
By considering the mechanical equation
dv
F mc ma
|{z} dt
m

where v vt ~
ex ; v dxc =dt, we obtain from Equation (4),
d 2 xc
v2 xc 0; where v I1
dt2

r
a
m

(5)

For v 6 0, the solution of the constant-coefficients second-order homogeneous differential equation shown in Equation (5) is an
oscillatory movement, [1], described through

xc t X cosvt u
vt
vX sinvt u

(6)

where it should be strongly emphasized that the oscillation frequency v can be directly controlled by the intensity of the excitation
current I1. The oscillations amplitude X and phase u are determined from the particular initial conditions of the problem.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

DOI: 10.1002/etep

726

J. A. B. FARIA

The consideration of small friction phenomena at the axis supporting bearings (see Figure 1) which is proportional to the
instantaneous velocitywould transform Equation (5) into the canonical equation
d 2 xc
dxc
v 2 xc 0
2b
dt2
dt
therefore leading to the inclusion of a damping factor b into the solution of xc t in Equation (6), which would then be modified to:
xc t X e
bt cosv0 t u
where v0 v2
b2 1=2 . For small friction effects, b << v, one will have v0  v.

4. VELOCITY SENSING
Next we analyze the behavior of the device in Figure 1, from the viewpoint of its application as a velocity sensor.
Assume that at t 0 an x-directed energy pulse is transmitted topthe
ferromagnetic
core assembly (core + axis), which acquires an

initial kinetic energy Wk. Hence, the initial core velocity is v0 2Wk =m. In addition, consider that the initial rest position of the
core is xc 0 (centered position).
The above initial conditions being applied onto Equation (6) readily yield: u
p=2 and X v0 =v.
Therefore, for the cores motion we find


xc t vv0 sinvt
(7)
vt v0 cosvt

!
By making use of the generalized MaxwellFaraday induction law, [1,2], to the closed path CDC passing inside the sensing
solenoid
Z
dc
(8a)
E  ds
2
dt
S2
we obtain, noting that i2 0,
d
dLxc dxc
LM I1
I1
dt
dxc dt

(8b)

u2 t 2aI1 xc tvt U2 sin2vt

(9)

u2

from where we find

where
U2

aI1 v20 p 2
am v0
v

(10)

Hence, the unknown velocity v0 can be determined by just measuring the magnitude of the induced voltage at the CD terminals of
the sensing solenoid,
s s
U2
U2 l
s
p
v0 p
(11)
am
m DL
where the result for a in Equation (3) has been accounted for.
Before ending this section a necessary comment is in order. From Equation (10) you can see that voltage U2 does not depend on
the excitation current intensity I1. This may lead you to wonder what would then happen if I1 0, (since in this case no induction
phenomena would take place) and u2 would necessarily be zero.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

DOI: 10.1002/etep

MAGNETIC FORCES AND MOVING BODY INDUCED VOLTAGES

727

The catch is that for I1 0 you will have v 0, and the solution in Equation (6) no longer applies. In that case you would have to
substitute


xc t v0 t
vt v0
for the oscillatory solution in Equation (7). However, note that, from Equation (9) with v 0, we will have u2 t 0.
In short: The results in Equation (10) and Equation (11) are only valid for I1 6 0.
At this point a necessary remark, concerning the minimum intensity of the driving current I1, is in order. By taking into account
the configuration depicted in Figure 1, we see that the cores movement given by Equation (7), xc X sinvt, with X v0 =v, is
upper bounded at X l
s (otherwise the moving core would fly out of the solenoid system inner region).
In order to ensure that X  l
s the angular frequency of the oscillatory motion cannot be less than vmin v0 =l
s.
Therefore, from Equation (5) and Equation (3), we see that the driving current should at least exceed the following limit
value
r
r
m
m
I1 min vmin
v0
a
DL
for a given value of the velocity v0 being measured. The higher the velocity the higher the driving current required.

5. DC CURRENT TO AC VOLTAGE CONVERSION

Here we analyze a second application of the device shown in Figure 1.
Assume that at t 0 the core is flushed to the left border of the two-solenoid system, that is xc 0 s
l. The core is initially at
rest, v0 0, and then it is released free.
The above initial conditions being applied to Equation (6) readily yield: u 0 and X s
l.
Therefore we find for the cores motion


xc t s
l cosvt
(11)
vt vl
s sinvt
By re-applying the generalized induction law, in Equation (8), to solenoid #2, we now get
u2 t U2 sin2vt p

(12)

U2 aI1 vl
s2

(13)

where

From Equation (5) we learnt that v / I1 ; therefore we see that the magnitude of the voltage generated at the terminals CD of
solenoid #2 is proportional to the square of the excitation current I1.
r
DL
DL
2
(13b)
U2 kI1 ; with k
l
s m
This application example illustrates the conversion of a DC current into an AC voltage.
The result in Equation (12) was obtained considering the absence of friction phenomena, which (if considered) would lead to a
slightly damped voltage u2(t), going to zero as time elapsed. This latter effect can be fought back by employing a feedback loop
see, for example, Figure 3.
At first order approximation, once a decrease in U2 is detected, U2 kI12
DU, the feedback control unit provides an
incremental rise of the excitation current, DI1 DU=2kI1 , aimed at keeping the amplitude of the AC voltage stable.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

DOI: 10.1002/etep

728

J. A. B. FARIA

Figure 3. Feedback loop aimed at the stabilization of the output sinusoidal voltage.

6. CONCLUSION
This research and tutorial paper dealt with the evaluation of magnetic forces and moving body induced voltages, topics of the
greatest importance for power engineer students and practitioners. A two-solenoid system with a moving ferromagnetic core was
analyzed by making use of electromagnetism fundamental principles.
This concise contribution described two possible applications of the device under analysis. An application for velocity sensing
and, also, an application focused on the conversion of a direct current into an alternate sinusoidal voltage. To the best of our
knowledge this contribution is an original one.
Some topics addressed in this paper need further work. On one hand, the shape of the moving core must be properly chosen, using
computer-aided design tools, so that the goal b 0 in Equation (2a) can be achieved. On the other hand, as far as friction phenomena
is concerned, the feedback control loop in Figure 3 must be more thoroughly analyzed (or even modified) in order to assure that not
only the AC voltage amplitude remains constant but also that its oscillation frequency remains stable. At last, experimental work is
needed for the validation of our results.

7. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

7.1. Symbols
E
F
i, I
l
L
m
s
t
u, U
v
Wk
Wm
xc
b
DL
u
c
v

electric field vector

magnetic force
electric current intensity
solenoid length
inductance
mass
axial semi-length of the core
time
electrical voltage
core velocity
kinetic energy
magnetic energy
mid-point axial position of the core
damping factor
inductance variation
phase
linkage flux
angular frequency

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

DOI: 10.1002/etep

MAGNETIC FORCES AND MOVING BODY INDUCED VOLTAGES

729

7.2. Abbreviations
AC
DC

alternating current
direct current
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was carried out under the sponsorship and funding of the Portuguese Science Foundation Fundacao para a Ciencia e a
TecnologiaFCT.

REFERENCES
1. Brandao Faria JA. Electromagnetic Foundations of Electrical Engineering. Wiley: Chichester, UK 2008.
2. Simonyi K. Foundations of Electrical Engineering. Pergamon Press: Oxford, UK 1963.

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2010; 20:723729

DOI: 10.1002/etep