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FracturemechanicsWikipedia

Fracturemechanics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Fracturemechanicsisthefieldofmechanics
concernedwiththestudyofthepropagationof
cracksinmaterials.Itusesmethodsofanalytical
solidmechanicstocalculatethedrivingforceona
crackandthoseofexperimentalsolidmechanicsto
characterizethematerial'sresistancetofracture.
Inmodernmaterialsscience,fracturemechanicsis
animportanttoolinimprovingthemechanical
performanceofmechanicalcomponents.Itapplies
thephysicsofstressandstrain,inparticularthe
Thethreefracturemodes
theoriesofelasticityandplasticity,tothe
microscopiccrystallographicdefectsfoundinreal
materialsinordertopredictthemacroscopicmechanicalfailureofbodies.Fractographyiswidelyusedwith
fracturemechanicstounderstandthecausesoffailuresandalsoverifythetheoreticalfailurepredictionswith
reallifefailures.Thepredictionofcrackgrowthisattheheartofthedamagetolerancediscipline.
Therearethreewaysofapplyingaforcetoenableacracktopropagate:
ModeIfractureOpeningmode(atensilestressnormaltotheplaneofthecrack),
ModeIIfractureSlidingmode(ashearstressactingparalleltotheplaneofthecrackand
perpendiculartothecrackfront),and
ModeIIIfractureTearingmode(ashearstressactingparalleltotheplaneofthecrackandparallelto
thecrackfront).

Contents
1 Motivation
2 Linearelasticfracturemechanics
2.1 Griffith'scriterion
2.2 Irwin'smodification
2.3 Stressintensityfactor
2.4 Strainenergyrelease
2.5 CrackTipPlasticZone
2.6 Fracturetoughnesstests
2.7 Limitations
3 Elasticplasticfracturemechanics
3.1 CTOD
3.2 Rcurve
3.3 Jintegral
3.4 Cohesivezonemodels
3.5 Transitionflawsize
4 Cracktipconstraintunderlargescaleyielding
4.1 JQTheory
4.2 Ttermeffects
5 Engineeringapplications
6 Appendix:mathematicalrelations
6.1 Griffith'scriterion
6.2 Irwin'smodifications
6.3 Elasticityandplasticity
7 Applicationsoffracturemechanics
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8 Seealso
9 References
9.1 Notes
9.2 Bibliography
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

Motivation
Arisingfromthemanufacturingprocess,interiorandsurfaceflawsarefoundinallmetalstructures.Notall
suchflawsareunstableunderserviceconditions.Fracturemechanicsistheanalysisofflawstodiscoverthose
thataresafe(thatis,donotgrow)andthosethatareliabletopropagateascracksandsocausefailureofthe
flawedstructure.Ensuringsafeoperationofstructuredespitetheseinherentflawsisachievedthroughdamage
toleranceanalysis.Fracturemechanicsasasubjectforcriticalstudyhasbarelybeenaroundforacenturyand
thusisrelativelynew.[1][2]
Fracturemechanicsshouldattempttoprovidequantitativeanswerstothefollowingquestions:[2]
1.Whatisthestrengthasafunctionofcracksize?
2.Whatcracksizecanbetoleratedunderserviceloading,i.e.whatisthemaximumpermissiblecracksize?
3.Howlongdoesittakeforacracktogrowfromacertaininitialsize,forexampletheminimumdetectable
cracksize,tothemaximumpermissiblecracksize?
4.Whatistheservicelifeofastructurewhenacertainpreexistingflawsize(e.g.amanufacturingdefect)
isassumedtoexist?
5.Duringtheperiodavailableforcrackdetectionhowoftenshouldthestructurebeinspectedforcracks?

Linearelasticfracturemechanics
Griffith'scriterion
FracturemechanicswasdevelopedduringWorldWarIbyEnglish
aeronauticalengineer,A.A.Griffith,toexplainthefailureofbrittle
materials.[3]Griffith'sworkwasmotivatedbytwocontradictoryfacts:
Thestressneededtofracturebulkglassisaround100MPa
(15,000psi).
Thetheoreticalstressneededforbreakingatomicbondsis
approximately10,000MPa(1,500,000psi).
Atheorywasneededtoreconciletheseconflictingobservations.Also,
experimentsonglassfibersthatGriffithhimselfconductedsuggested
thatthefracturestressincreasesasthefiberdiameterdecreases.Hence
theuniaxialtensilestrength,whichhadbeenusedextensivelytopredict
materialfailurebeforeGriffith,couldnotbeaspecimenindependent
materialproperty.Griffithsuggestedthatthelowfracturestrength
observedinexperiments,aswellasthesizedependenceofstrength,
wasduetothepresenceofmicroscopicflawsinthebulkmaterial.
Toverifytheflawhypothesis,Griffithintroducedanartificialflawin
hisexperimentalglassspecimens.Theartificialflawwasintheformof
asurfacecrackwhichwasmuchlargerthanotherflawsinaspecimen.

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Anedgecrack(flaw)oflength ina
material
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Theexperimentsshowedthattheproductofthesquarerootoftheflawlength(a)andthestressatfracture(f)
wasnearlyconstant,whichisexpressedbytheequation:

Anexplanationofthisrelationintermsoflinearelasticitytheoryisproblematic.Linearelasticitytheory
predictsthatstress(andhencethestrain)atthetipofasharpflawinalinearelasticmaterialisinfinite.To
avoidthatproblem,Griffithdevelopedathermodynamicapproachtoexplaintherelationthatheobserved.
Thegrowthofacrackrequiresthecreationoftwonewsurfacesandhenceanincreaseinthesurfaceenergy.
GriffithfoundanexpressionfortheconstantCintermsofthesurfaceenergyofthecrackbysolvingthe
elasticityproblemofafinitecrackinanelasticplate.Briefly,theapproachwas:
Computethepotentialenergystoredinaperfectspecimenunderauniaxialtensileload.
Fixtheboundarysothattheappliedloaddoesnoworkandthenintroduceacrackintothespecimen.The
crackrelaxesthestressandhencereducestheelasticenergynearthecrackfaces.Ontheotherhand,the
crackincreasesthetotalsurfaceenergyofthespecimen.
Computethechangeinthefreeenergy(surfaceenergyelasticenergy)asafunctionofthecracklength.
Failureoccurswhenthefreeenergyattainsapeakvalueatacriticalcracklength,beyondwhichthefree
energydecreasesbyincreasingthecracklength,i.e.bycausingfracture.Usingthisprocedure,Griffith
foundthat

whereEistheYoung'smodulusofthematerialandisthesurfaceenergydensityofthematerial.AssumingE
=62GPaand=1J/m2givesexcellentagreementofGriffith'spredictedfracturestresswithexperimental
resultsforglass.

Irwin'smodification
Griffith'sworkwaslargelyignoredbythe
engineeringcommunityuntiltheearly
1950s.Thereasonsforthisappeartobe
(a)intheactualstructuralmaterialsthe
levelofenergyneededtocausefractureis
ordersofmagnitudehigherthanthe
correspondingsurfaceenergy,and(b)in
structuralmaterialstherearealwayssome
inelasticdeformationsaroundthecrack
frontthatwouldmaketheassumptionof
linearelasticmediumwithinfinitestresses
atthecracktiphighlyunrealistic.[4]

Theplasticzonearoundacracktipinaductilematerial

Griffith'stheoryprovidesexcellentagreementwithexperimentaldataforbrittlematerialssuchasglass.For
ductilematerialssuchassteel,thoughtherelation
stillholds,thesurfaceenergy()predictedby
Griffith'stheoryisusuallyunrealisticallyhigh.AgroupworkingunderG.R.Irwin[5]attheU.S.Naval
ResearchLaboratory(NRL)duringWorldWarIIrealizedthatplasticitymustplayasignificantroleinthe
fractureofductilematerials.

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Inductilematerials(andeveninmaterialsthatappeartobebrittle[6]),aplasticzonedevelopsatthetipofthe
crack.Astheappliedloadincreases,theplasticzoneincreasesinsizeuntilthecrackgrowsandthematerial
behindthecracktipunloads.Theplasticloadingandunloadingcyclenearthecracktipleadstothedissipation
ofenergyasheat.Hence,adissipativetermhastobeaddedtotheenergybalancerelationdevisedbyGriffith
forbrittlematerials.Inphysicalterms,additionalenergyisneededforcrackgrowthinductilematerialswhen
comparedtobrittlematerials.
Irwin'sstrategywastopartitiontheenergyintotwoparts:
thestoredelasticstrainenergywhichisreleasedasacrackgrows.Thisisthethermodynamicdriving
forceforfracture.
thedissipatedenergywhichincludesplasticdissipationandthesurfaceenergy(andanyotherdissipative
forcesthatmaybeatwork).Thedissipatedenergyprovidesthethermodynamicresistancetofracture.
Thenthetotalenergyis

whereisthesurfaceenergyandGpistheplasticdissipation(anddissipationfromothersources)perunitarea
ofcrackgrowth.
ThemodifiedversionofGriffith'senergycriterioncanthenbewrittenas

Forbrittlematerialssuchasglass,thesurfaceenergytermdominatesand
materialssuchassteel,theplasticdissipationtermdominatesand
totheglasstransitiontemperature,wehaveintermediatevaluesof

.Forductile
.Forpolymersclose
.

Stressintensityfactor
AnothersignificantachievementofIrwinandhiscolleagueswastofindamethodofcalculatingtheamountof
energyavailableforfractureintermsoftheasymptoticstressanddisplacementfieldsaroundacrackfrontina
linearelasticsolid.[5]Thisasymptoticexpressionforthestressfieldaroundacracktipis

whereijaretheCauchystresses,risthedistancefromthecracktip,istheanglewithrespecttotheplaneof
thecrack,andfijarefunctionsthatdependonthecrackgeometryandloadingconditions.Irwincalledthe
quantityKthestressintensityfactor.Sincethequantityfijisdimensionless,thestressintensityfactorcanbe
expressedinunitsof

Whenarigidlineinclusionisconsidered,asimilarasymptoticexpressionforthestressfieldsisobtained.

Strainenergyrelease
Irwinwasthefirsttoobservethatifthesizeoftheplasticzonearoundacrackissmallcomparedtothesizeof
thecrack,theenergyrequiredtogrowthecrackwillnotbecriticallydependentonthestateofstressatthe
cracktip.[4]Inotherwords,apurelyelasticsolutionmaybeusedtocalculatetheamountofenergyavailablefor
fracture.
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Theenergyreleaserateforcrackgrowthorstrainenergyreleaseratemaythenbecalculatedasthechangein
elasticstrainenergyperunitareaofcrackgrowth,i.e.,

whereUistheelasticenergyofthesystemandaisthecracklength.EithertheloadPorthedisplacementu
canbekeptfixedwhileevaluatingtheaboveexpressions.
IrwinshowedthatforamodeIcrack(openingmode)thestrainenergyreleaserateandthestressintensity
factorarerelatedby:

whereEistheYoung'smodulus,isPoisson'sratio,andKIisthestressintensityfactorinmodeI.Irwinalso
showedthatthestrainenergyreleaserateofaplanarcrackinalinearelasticbodycanbeexpressedintermsof
themodeI,modeII(slidingmode),andmodeIII(tearingmode)stressintensityfactorsforthemostgeneral
loadingconditions.
Next,Irwinadoptedtheadditionalassumptionthatthesizeandshapeoftheenergydissipationzoneremains
approximatelyconstantduringbrittlefracture.Thisassumptionsuggeststhattheenergyneededtocreateaunit
fracturesurfaceisaconstantthatdependsonlyonthematerial.Thisnewmaterialpropertywasgiventhename
fracturetoughnessanddesignatedGIc.Today,itisthecriticalstressintensityfactorKIc,foundintheplane
straincondition,whichisacceptedasthedefiningpropertyinlinearelasticfracturemechanics.

CrackTipPlasticZone
Intheory,thestressatthecracktipofanextremelysharpcrackwouldtendtoinfinityastheradiusfromthe
endofthecracktendstozero.Thiswouldbeconsideredastresssingularity,whichisnotpossibleinrealworld
applications.Inactuality,thestressconcentrationatthetipofacrackwithinthematerialhasbeenmeasuredto
beafinitevaluelargerthanthatwhichisbeingappliedtothespecimen.Anequationforthisvalueisgiven
below:

Thelocalstressnearthecracktip, ,isdependentontheappliedstress, andacorrectionfactor, ,which

dependsonthegeometryofthespecimen,andisinverselydependentonthedistanceawayfromthecracktip,
.Nevertheless,theremustbesomesortofmechanismorpropertyofthematerialthatpreventssuchalarge
stressfrompropagating.Hence,thematerialundergoesplasticdeformationtobluntthecracktip,which
saturatesthestressatthatlocation.Thisdeformationdependsprimarilyontheappliedstressintheapplicable
direction(inmostcases,thisistheydirectionofaregularCartesiancoordinatesystem),thecracklength,and
thegeometryofthespecimen.[7]Toestimatehowthisplasticdeformationextendedfromthecracktip,George
Irwinequatedtheyieldstrengthofthematerialtothefarfieldstressintheydirectionalongthexaxisand
solvedfortheradius.Fromthisrelationship,Irwindevelopedthefollowingexpressionfortheidealizedradius
oftheplasticzonedeformation:

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Modelsofidealmaterialshaveshownthatthisradiusandsubsequentcircleiscenteredatthecracktip.[8]This
equationgivestheapproximateidealradiusoftheplasticzonedeformationbeyondthecracktip,whichis
usefultomanystructuralscientistsbecauseitgivesagoodestimateofhowthematerialbehaveswhen
subjectedtostress.Intheaboveequation,theparametersofthestressintensityfactorandindicatorofmaterial
toughness,
,andtheyieldstress, ,areimportanttonotebecausetheycanillustratemanythingsaboutthe
materialanditsproperties,aswellasabouttheplasticzonesize.Forexample,if
ishigh,thenitcanbe
deducedthatthematerialistough,whereasif ishigh,oneknowsthatthematerialismoreductile.Theratio
ofthesetwoparametersisimportanttotheradiusoftheplasticzone.Forinstance,if issmall,thenthe
squaredratioof
to islarge,whichresultsinalargerplasticradius.Thisimpliesthatthematerialcan
plasticallydeform,and,therefore,istough.[9]Thisestimateofthesizeoftheplasticzonebeyondthecracktip
canthenbeusedtomoreaccuratelyanalyzehowamaterialwillreactwithinitselfwhenithasplasticzones
aroundcracktips,whichcouldthengiverisetofractureandothercrackinteractionanalyses.
Thesameprocessasdescribedaboveforasingleeventloadingsituationalsoappliesandisvalidforcyclic
loading.Ifacrackispresentinaspecimenthatundergoescyclicloading,thespecimenwillplasticallydeform
tomitigatethestressatthecracktipuntilitcanbetterwithstandfrequentloading.Intheeventofanoverloador
excursion,thismodelchangesslightlytoaccommodatethesuddenincreaseinstressfromthestressthatthe
materialpreviouslyexperienced.Inasituationofoverload,thecrackgrowsoutoftheplasticzoneithad
previouslycreatedandleavesbehindthepocketoftheoriginalplasticdeformation.Now,giventhatthe
overloadstressisnotsufficientlyhighastofracturethespecimen,thecrackwillundergoagreaterdeformation
aroundthenewcracktiptoaccountforthehigherstressatthatpoint.Thisprocessfurthertoughensand
prolongsthelifeofthematerialbecausethenewplasticzoneislargerthanwhatitwouldbeundertheusual
stressconditions,whichallowsthatmaterialtoundergomorecyclesofloading.Thisideacanbeillustrated
furtherbythegraph(http://www.afgrow.net/applications/dtdhandbook/sections/page5_2_1_0.aspx)of
Aluminumwithacentercrackundergoingoverloadingevents.[10]

Fracturetoughnesstests
Limitations
ButaproblemarosefortheNRLresearchersbecausenaval
materials,e.g.,shipplatesteel,arenotperfectlyelasticbut
undergosignificantplasticdeformationatthetipofacrack.One
basicassumptioninIrwin'slinearelasticfracturemechanicsis
smallscaleyielding,theconditionthatthesizeoftheplasticzone
issmallcomparedtothecracklength.However,thisassumption
isquiterestrictiveforcertaintypesoffailureinstructuralsteels
thoughsuchsteelscanbepronetobrittlefracture,whichhasled
toanumberofcatastrophicfailures.
Linearelasticfracturemechanicsisoflimitedpracticalusefor
structuralsteelsandFracturetoughnesstestingcanbeexpensive.

Elasticplasticfracturemechanics

TheS.S.Schenectadysplitapartbybrittle
fracturewhileinharbor,1943.

Mostengineeringmaterialsshowsomenonlinearelasticandinelasticbehaviorunderoperatingconditionsthat
involvelargeloads.Insuchmaterialstheassumptionsoflinearelasticfracturemechanicsmaynothold,thatis,
theplasticzoneatacracktipmayhaveasizeofthesameorderofmagnitudeasthecracksize
thesizeandshapeoftheplasticzonemaychangeastheappliedloadisincreasedandalsoasthecrack
lengthincreases.
Therefore,amoregeneraltheoryofcrackgrowthisneededforelasticplasticmaterialsthatcanaccountfor:
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thelocalconditionsforinitialcrackgrowthwhichinclude
thenucleation,growth,andcoalescenceofvoidsor
decohesionatacracktip.
aglobalenergybalancecriterionforfurthercrackgrowth
andunstablefracture.

CTOD
Historically,thefirstparameterforthedeterminationoffracture
toughnessintheelastoplasticwasthecracktipopening
Verticalstabilizer,whichseparatedfrom
displacement(CTOD)or"openingattheapexofthecrack"
AmericanAirlinesFlight587,leadingtoa
indicated.ThisparameterwasdeterminedbyWellsduringthe
fatalcrash
studiesofstructuralsteelswhich,duetothehightoughnesscould
notbecharacterizedwiththelinearelasticfracturemechanics.He
notedthat,beforeithappenedthefracture,thewallsofthecrackwereleavingandthatthecracktip,after
fracture,acutetoroundedoffisduetoplasticdeformation.Inaddition,theroundingoftheapexwasmore
pronouncedinsteelswithsuperiortoughness.
ThereareanumberofalternativedefinitionsofCTOD.Thetwomostcommondefinitions,CTODisthe
displacementattheoriginalcracktipandthe90degreeintercept.ThelatterdefinitionwassuggestedbyRice
andiscommonlyusedtoinferCTODinfiniteelementmeasurements.Notethatthesetwodefinitionsare
equivalentifthecrackbluntsinasemicircle.
MostlaboratorymeasurementsofCTODhavebeenmadeonedgecrackedspecimensloadedinthreepoint
bending.Earlyexperimentsusedaflatpaddleshapedgagethatwasinsertedintothecrackasthecrack
opened,thepaddlegagerotated,andanelectronicsignalwassenttoanxyplotter.Thismethodwas
inaccurate,however,becauseitwasdifficulttoreachthecracktipwiththepaddlegage.Today,the
displacementVatthecrackmouthismeasured,andtheCTODisinferredbyassumingthespecimenhalvesare
rigidandrotateaboutahingepoint.

Rcurve
AnearlyattemptinthedirectionofelasticplasticfracturemechanicswasIrwin'scrackextensionresistance
curve,CrackgrowthresistancecurveorRcurve.Thiscurveacknowledgesthefactthattheresistanceto
fractureincreaseswithgrowingcracksizeinelasticplasticmaterials.TheRcurveisaplotofthetotalenergy
dissipationrateasafunctionofthecracksizeandcanbeusedtoexaminetheprocessesofslowstablecrack
growthandunstablefracture.However,theRcurvewasnotwidelyusedinapplicationsuntiltheearly1970s.
ThemainreasonsappeartobethattheRcurvedependsonthegeometryofthespecimenandthecrackdriving
forcemaybedifficulttocalculate.[4]

Jintegral
Inthemid1960sJamesR.Rice(thenatBrownUniversity)andG.P.Cherepanovindependentlydevelopeda
newtoughnessmeasuretodescribethecasewherethereissufficientcracktipdeformationthatthepartno
longerobeysthelinearelasticapproximation.Rice'sanalysis,whichassumesnonlinearelastic(ormonotonic
deformationtheoryplastic)deformationaheadofthecracktip,isdesignatedtheJintegral.[11]Thisanalysisis
limitedtosituationswhereplasticdeformationatthecracktipdoesnotextendtothefurthestedgeoftheloaded
part.Italsodemandsthattheassumednonlinearelasticbehaviorofthematerialisareasonableapproximation
inshapeandmagnitudetotherealmaterial'sloadresponse.Theelasticplasticfailureparameterisdesignated
JIcandisconventionallyconvertedtoKIcusingEquation(3.1)oftheAppendixtothisarticle.Alsonotethat
theJintegralapproachreducestotheGriffiththeoryforlinearelasticbehavior.
ThemathematicaldefinitionofJintegralisasfollows:
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where
isanarbitrarypathclockwisearoundtheapexofthecrack,
isthedensityofstrainenergy,
arethecomponentsofthevectorsoftraction,
thecomponentsofthedisplacementvectors,
andanincrementallengthalongthepath ,an
and arethestressandstraintensors.

Cohesivezonemodels
Whenasignificantregionaroundacracktiphasundergoneplasticdeformation,otherapproachescanbeused
todeterminethepossibilityoffurthercrackextensionandthedirectionofcrackgrowthandbranching.A
simpletechniquethatiseasilyincorporatedintonumericalcalculationsisthecohesivezonemodelmethod
whichisbasedonconceptsproposedindependentlybyBarenblatt[12]andDugdale[13]intheearly1960s.The
relationshipbetweentheDugdaleBarenblattmodelsandGriffith'stheorywasfirstdiscussedbyWillisin
1967.[14]TheequivalenceofthetwoapproachesinthecontextofbrittlefracturewasshownbyRicein
1968.[11]Interestincohesivezonemodelingoffracturehasbeenreignitedsince2000followingthepioneering
workondynamicfracturebyXuandNeedleman,[15]andCamachoandOrtiz.[16]

Transitionflawsize
Letamaterialhaveayieldstrength andafracturetoughness
inmodeI
.Basedonfracturemechanics,thematerialwill
failatstress
.Basedonplasticity,thematerial
willyieldwhen
.Thesecurvesintersectwhen
.Thisvalueof iscalledastransitionflawsize
.,anddependsonthematerialpropertiesofthestructure.When
the
,thefailureisgovernedbyplasticyielding,andwhen
thefailureisgovernedbyfracturemechanics.Thevalue
of forengineeringalloysis100mmandforceramicsis
0.001mm.Ifweassumethatmanufacturingprocessescangive
risetoflawsintheorderofmicrometers,then,itcanbeseenthat
ceramicsaremorelikelytofailbyfracture,whereasengineering
alloyswouldfailbyplasticdeformation.

Failurestressasafunctionofcracksize

Cracktipconstraintunderlargescaleyielding
Undersmallscaleyieldingconditions,asingleparameter(e.g.,K,J,orCTOD)characterizescracktip
conditionsandcanbeusedasageometryindependentfracturecriterion.Singleparameterfracturemechanics
breaksdowninthepresenceofexcessiveplasticity,andthefracturetoughnessdependsonthesizeand
geometryofthetestspecimen.Thetheoriesusedforlargescaleyieldingisnotverystandardized.The
followingtheoriesandapproachesarecommonlyusedamongresearchersinthisfield.

JQTheory
ByusingFEM,onecanestablishaparameterQtomodifythestressfieldforabettersolutionwhentheplastic
zoneisgrowing.Thenewstressfieldis:
where
for
and0ifnot.Q
usuallytakesvaluesfrom3to+2.Anegativevaluegreatlychangesthegeometryoftheplasticzone.
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TheJQMtheoryincludesanotherparameter,themismatchparameter,whichisusedforweldstomakeupfor
thechangeintoughnessoftheweldmetal(WM),basemetal(BM)andheataffectedzone(HAZ).Thisvalueis
interpretedtotheformulainasimilarwayastheQparameter,andthetwoareusuallyassumedtobe
independentofeachother.

Ttermeffects
AsanalternativetoJQtheory,aparameterTcanbeused.Thisonlychangesthenormalstressinthex
direction(andthezdirectioninthecaseofplanestrain).TdoesnotrequiretheuseofFEM,butisderivedfrom
constraint.ItcanbearguedthatTislimitedtoLEFM,butastheplasticzonechangeduetoTneverreachesthe
actualcracksurface(exceptonthetip),itsvalidityholdstruenotonlyundersmallscaleyielding.The
parameterTalsosignificantlyinfluencesonthefractureinitiationinbrittlematerialsusingmaximumtangential
strainfracturecriterion,asfoundbytheresearchersatTexasA&MUniversity.[17]Itisfoundthatboth
parameterTandPoisson'sratioofthematerialplayimportantrolesinpredictionofthecrackpropagationangle
andthemixedmodefracturetoughnessofthematerials.

Engineeringapplications
Thefollowinginformationisneededforafracturemechanicspredictionoffailure:
Appliedload
Residualstress
Sizeandshapeofthepart
Size,shape,location,andorientationofthecrack
Usuallynotallofthisinformationisavailableandconservativeassumptionshavetobemade.
Occasionallypostmortemfracturemechanicsanalysesarecarriedout.Intheabsenceofanextremeoverload,
thecausesareeitherinsufficienttoughness(KIc)oranexcessivelylargecrackthatwasnotdetectedduring
routineinspection.

Appendix:mathematicalrelations
Griffith'scriterion
ForthesimplecaseofathinrectangularplatewithacrackperpendiculartotheloadGriffithstheorybecomes:
(1.1)
where isthestrainenergyreleaserate, istheappliedstress, ishalfthecracklength,and istheYoungs
modulus,whichforthecaseofplanestrainshouldbedividedbytheplatestiffnessfactor(1^2).Thestrain
energyreleaseratecanotherwisebeunderstoodas:therateatwhichenergyisabsorbedbygrowthofthecrack.
However,wealsohavethat:
(1.2)
If

,thisisthecriterionforwhichthecrackwillbegintopropagate.

Irwin'smodifications
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EventuallyamodificationofGriffithssolidstheoryemergedfromthisworkatermcalledstressintensity
replacedstrainenergyreleaserateandatermcalledfracturetoughnessreplacedsurfaceweaknessenergy.Both
ofthesetermsaresimplyrelatedtotheenergytermsthatGriffithused:
(2.1)
and
(forplanestress)(2.2)
(forplanestrain)(2.3)
whereKIisthestressintensity,Kcthefracturetoughness,and isPoissonsratio.Itisimportanttorecognize
thefactthatfractureparameterKchasdifferentvalueswhenmeasuredunderplanestressandplanestrain
Fractureoccurswhen
.Forthespecialcaseofplanestraindeformation, becomes
andis
consideredamaterialproperty.ThesubscriptIarisesbecauseofthedifferentwaysofloadingamaterialto
enableacracktopropagate.Itreferstosocalled"modeI"loadingasopposedtomodeIIorIII:
Wemustnotethattheexpressionfor inequation2.1willbedifferentforgeometriesotherthanthecenter
crackedinfiniteplate,asdiscussedinthearticleonthestressintensityfactor.Consequently,itisnecessaryto
introduceadimensionlesscorrectionfactor,Y,inordertocharacterizethegeometry.Wethushave:
(2.4)
whereYisafunctionofthecracklengthandwidthofsheetgivenby:
(2.5)
forasheetoffinitewidthWcontainingathroughthicknesscrackoflength2a,or
(2.6)
forasheetoffinitewidthWcontainingathroughthicknessedgecrackoflengtha

Elasticityandplasticity
SinceengineersbecameaccustomedtousingKIctocharacterisefracturetoughness,arelationhasbeenusedto
reduceJIctoit:
where

forplanestressand

forplanestrain(3.1)

Theremainderofthemathematicsemployedinthisapproachisinteresting,butisprobablybettersummarised
inexternalpagesduetoitscomplexnature.

Applicationsoffracturemechanics

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Thedesignprocessforacomponentconsistsofchoosingtheappropriategeometry,thenecessarymaterial
strengthaspertheloadingconditions(eithercyclicorconstantloading),thetemperatureofusageandstructural
analysis(TestingandFEManalysis),sothatitdoesnotfailunderload.Themethodologiesfollowedindesign
criteriatraditionallypickuptheconventionalmaterialsbasedonstandarddataandaspertheloadingconditions
proportioningthegeometryofthecomponentsonbasisofanalysis.Thismethodisnotapplicableforsomenew
innovationlikeusageofnewmaterialindesign.Anothermethodfollowedisthataspertheloadingconditions,
staticanalysisisdoneforthestructuretakingintoaccounttheforcesactingoneachcomponent,material
strengthandgeometry.Thematerialstrengthischosenkeepinginmindthefactorofsafety,i.e.theultimate
stress(whereitfails)ismuchhigherthanmaximumstressinthecomponent.Thegeneralassumptionsinthe
designcriteriaare:lackofdiscontinuities,nodefectsorcracksinthematerial,andeveninthepresenceof
discontinuitiesthematerialisassumedtohavesufficientductilitytoyieldlocallysothatredistributionofstress
atdiscontinuitiescanoccur.Investigationsoffailedcomponentsprovedthatcrackgrowthstartedbecauseof
suchdiscontinuities.
Fracturemechanicsfollowsoneoftwodesignprinciples:eitherfailsafeorsafelife.Infailsafemode,evenifa
componentfails,theentirestructureisnotatrisk(failureofredundantmembers).Accordingtothesafelife
principlethroughoutthelife,nocomponentofthestructuremayfail.Fracturemechanicsestimatedthe
maximumcrackthatamaterialcanwithstandbeforeitfailsthroughanalysistakingintoconsiderationthe
overalldimensionsofthestructure,thestressvaluewherecrackinitiationtakesplace,notchtoughnessvalue
(abilityofamaterialtoabsorbenergyinthepresenceofacrackforcrackpropagation),thebehaviorof
materialsundertheactionofstressesbyfindingoutthestressintensityfactor(K),fatiguecrackgrowthand
stresscorrosioncrackgrowth.Asinbasicsolidmechanicsanalysis,stressesinthecomponentshouldbelower
thantheyieldstressapplicationofthesameprincipleismeansthatthestressintensityfactorshouldbeless
thanthecriticalstressintensityfactor.Majorapplicationsoffracturemechanicsdesignarematerialselection,
effectofdefects,failureanalysisandcontrol/monitoringofcomponents.Fractureanalysisincludestheusageof
mathematicalmodelssuchaslinearelasticfracturemechanics(LEFM),crackopeningdisplacement(COD)
andJintegralapproachesbyusingfiniteelementanalysis(FEM).
Therelationshipusedforestimatingstressintensityfactoris

whereKisthecriticalfracturetoughnessvalue,caconstantthatdependsoncrackandspecimendimensions,
theappliedstress,andatheflawsize.
Theaboverelationisverygeneralandaspertheshapeofthecrack,relationsavailableinstandarddatabooks
orcoursebooksaretobeused,anygeneralcrackcanbeapproximatedtostandardshapesusedinwritingthe
relations.
ForagivenmaterialthevalueofKisdependentonstressesactingandflawsize.Flawsizedecreasesasthe
stressincreases.Thusadesignengineercandictatethelifeofacomponentbychoosingappropriatevaluesof
K,aand.Eventhereareotherparametersthatestimatethelifeofacomponentlikeworkingtemperature,
loadingrate(fatigue),residualstressandstressconcentration.ThehighertheKvalue,thehigheristhe
resistancetocrackgrowth,andthematerialcanresisthigherstresses.Designerstrytodecreasethedefectsin
thecomponentarisingincastingormanufacturingprocessesbyfollowinggoodfabricationprocessesand
inspection,andestimatenotchtoughnessvaluesofmaterialsusingmethodslikecharpyVnotchimpacttest,or
dropweighttests.Inmanyinvestigationsitwasprovedthatthematerialfailedataverymuchlowerthanthe
criticalstressintensityfactorbecauseofdefectsinthematerialormicrocracks.Analysisprovedthatforany
componenttherearetwophasesforcrackdevelopment,i.e.crackinitiationandsecondphasecrackgrowth
untilfailure.Ofthetwo,thefirstphasecoversalargerpercentageoffatiguelife,andunderverylargehigh
cycleloadingconditionssecondphaseisinstantaneous.
Thefactor(K/)isusedforestimatingdesignofcomponentbecauseitestimatescracksize,morethevalue
bettertheresistancetotheforces(Stress).Buthowlargethisfactorhastobeisdecidedbyconsideringtypeof
thestructure,frequencyofinspection,accesstoinspection,designlifeofthestructure,consequencesoffailure,
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probabilityofoverload,methodsoffabrication,requiredquality,materialcostinadditiontotheresults
obtainedbyfracturemechanicsanalysis.

Seealso
AFGROWFracturemechanicsandfatiguecrackgrowthanalysissoftware
Earthquake
Fatigue
Fault(geology)
Peridynamics,anumericalmethodtosolvefracturemechanicsproblems
Shock(mechanics)
Strengthofmaterials
Stresscorrosioncracking
StructuralFractureMechanics
Concretefractureanalysis

References
Notes
1.T.L.Anderson(1995).FractureMechanics:FundamentalsandApplications.CRCPress.ISBN9780849316562.
2.H.L.EwaldsR.J.H.Wanhill(1984).FractureMechanics.EdwardArnoldandDelftseUitgeversMaatschappij.
ISBN0713135158.
3.Griffith,A.A.(1921),"Thephenomenaofruptureandflowinsolids"(PDF),PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyal
SocietyofLondon,A,221:163198,Bibcode:1921RSPTA.221..163G,doi:10.1098/rsta.1921.0006.
4.E.Erdogan(2000)FractureMechanics,InternationalJournalofSolidsandStructures,37,pp.171183.
5.IrwinG(1957),Analysisofstressesandstrainsneartheendofacracktraversingaplate,JournalofApplied
Mechanics24,361364.
6.Orowan,E.,1948.Fractureandstrengthofsolids.ReportsonProgressinPhysicsXII,185232.
7.Weisshaar,Terry(July28,2011).AerospaceStructuresanIntroductiontoFundamentalProblems.WestLafayette,
IN:PurdueUniversity.
8."CrackTipPlasticZoneSize".HandbookforDamageTolerantDesign.LexTech,Inc.Retrieved20November2016.
9.Weisshaar,Terry(July28,2011).AerospaceStructuresanIntroductiontoFundamentalProblems.WestLafayette,
IN:PurdueUniveristy.
10."Retardation".HandbookforDamageTolerantDesign.LexTech,Inc.Retrieved20November2016.
11.Rice,J.R.(1968),"Apathindependentintegralandtheapproximateanalysisofstrainconcentrationbynotchesand
cracks"(PDF),JournalofAppliedMechanics,35:379386,Bibcode:1968JAM....35..379R,doi:10.1115/1.3601206.
12.Barenblatt,G.I.(1962),"Themathematicaltheoryofequilibriumcracksinbrittlefracture",AdvancesinApplied
Mechanics,7:55129,doi:10.1016/s00652156(08)701212
13.Dugdale,D.S.(1960),"Yieldingofsteelsheetscontainingslits",JournaloftheMechanicsandPhysicsofSolids,8
(2):100104,Bibcode:1960JMPSo...8..100D,doi:10.1016/00225096(60)900132
14.Willis,J.R.(1967),"AcomparisonofthefracturecriteriaofGriffithandBarenblatt",JournaloftheMechanicsand
PhysicsofSolids,15(3):151162,Bibcode:1967JMPSo..15..151W,doi:10.1016/00225096(67)900294.
15.Xu,X.P.Needleman,A.(1994),"Numericalsimulationsoffastcrackgrowthinbrittlesolids",Journalofthe
MechanicsandPhysicsofSolids,42(9):13971434,Bibcode:1994JMPSo..42.1397X,doi:10.1016/0022
5096(94)900035
16.Camacho,G.T.Ortiz,M.(1996),"Computationalmodellingofimpactdamageinbrittlematerials",International
JournalofSolidsandStructures,33(2022):28992938,doi:10.1016/00207683(95)002553
17.Mirsayar,M.M.,Mixedmodefractureanalysisusingextendedmaximumtangentialstraincriterion,"Materials&
Design,"2015,doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.135.

Bibliography
C.P.Buckley,"MaterialFailure",LectureNotes(2005),UniversityofOxford.

Furtherreading
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Davidge,R.W.,MechanicalBehaviorofCeramics,CambridgeSolidStateScienceSeries,(1979)
Demaid,Adrian,FailSafe,OpenUniversity(2004)
Green,D.,AnIntroductiontotheMechanicalPropertiesofCeramics,CambridgeSolidStateScience
Series,Eds.Clarke,D.R.,Suresh,S.,Ward,I.M.(1998)
Lawn,B.R.,FractureofBrittleSolids,CambridgeSolidStateScienceSeries,2ndEdn.(1993)
Farahmand,B.,Bockrath,G.,andGlassco,J.(1997)FatigueandFractureMechanicsofHighRiskParts
(https://books.google.com/books?id=wuQAFbCY8w4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fatigue+and+fracture
+mechanics+of+high+risk+parts&hl=en&ei=wKvJTLLWMoPenQec0JQR&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false),Chapman&Hall.
Chen,X.,Mai,Y.W.,FractureMechanicsofElectromagneticMaterials:NonlinearFieldTheoryand
Applications(http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/p760),ImperialCollegePress,
(2012)

*Chapter10StrengthofElastomers(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B9780123945846.000108),A.N.Gent,W.V.Mars,In:JamesE.M

AlanZehnder.FractureMechanics(http://www.springer.com/materials/mechanics/book/97894007259
42),SpringerLink,(2012).

Externallinks
FractureMechanicsoneFundasite(http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/fracture_mechani
cs/fm_intro.cfm)
NonlinearFractureMechanicsNotes(http://imechanica.org/node/755)byProf.JohnHutchinson,
HarvardUniversity
NotesonFractureofThinFilmsandMultilayers(http://imechanica.org/node/903)byProf.John
Hutchinson,HarvardUniversity
FractureMechanics(http://www.mate.tue.nl/~piet/edu/frm/sht/bmsht.html)byProf.PietSchreurs,TU
Eindhoven,Netherlands
Fracturemechanics.org(http://www.fracturemechanics.org/)byDr.BobMcGinty,MercerUniversity
Fracturemechanicscoursenotes(http://imechanica.org/node/2621)byProf.RuiHuang,Univ.ofTexas
ApplicationofFractureMechanicsonkeytometals.com(http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=Ch
eckArticle&site=kts&NM=353)
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