Is Matter Around us Pure

Matter can be broadly divided into two major groups, 'Pure' and 'Impure'. In chemistry, the term 'purity'
acquires quite a different meaning from what we understand it to be in our day-to-day life. Normally, when
we refer to pure water, pure milk, etc., what is implied is that the water, milk etc., are free from harmful
substances such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc., or are not adulterated. 'Purity' as a chemical concept
signifies something quite different. When we say a substance is pure, it means that the constituent particles
that make up the substance are of only one type and have the same chemical nature. For example, in
chemical terms, pure water implies that it is made of only one type of molecule i.e., H2O. Accordingly, the
chemical classification of matter specifies two main categories of substances, pure substances and mixtures
(impure substances).

Matter that is divided into pure and impure substances can be further categorized. Pure substances can be
divided into 'elements' and 'compounds'; impure substances, commonly called 'mixtures' can be further
divided into homogeneous' and 'heterogeneous' mixtures.

Pure Substances
The distinctive features of pure substances are:
A pure substance is composed of the same kind of particles e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, water, sodium
chloride, etc.
A pure substance is homogeneous, irrespective of its origin or method of preparation.
A pure substance has definite properties, characteristic of itself.
A pure substance has the same composition throughout. For example, different samples of water,
prepared by different methods, by different people at different places always consist of hydrogen and
oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by mass and 2:1 by volume. If any sample has a different ratio of these elements,
then it certainly is not water.
Remember :
A solution of salt in water or sugar solution being homogeneous appears to consist of one type of particles.
But it is made up of more than one kind of particles. Hence it is not a pure substance. It is a mixture.
Pure substances can be classified into elements and compounds. Lavoisier, a French chemist, was the first
to do this on the basis of quantitative studies. He showed that when we heat mercuric oxide it changes into

mercury and oxygen. Mercuric oxide is a

compound because it decomposes into simpler substances, whereas mercury and oxygen cannot be further
decomposed into anything simpler as they are elements.
Element
An element is defined as a pure substance as it is made up of only one kind of atoms having the same
atomic number. The smallest particle of an element is the atom, which has all the properties of that element.
It cannot be further reduced to simpler substances by ordinary physical or chemical processes. Example:
Hydrogen and oxygen
Elements can be divided into two groups, namely, naturally occurring and artificially prepared. Three
hundred years ago scientists all over the world knew of only twelve elements, but today, many more are
known. There are about 114 known elements. Out of these, about ninety-five are naturally occurring
elements and of the rest, nearly 14 elements have been artificially prepared in the laboratories. These
artificially prepared elements, however, have a very short life, as they break up into more stable lighter
elements. Molecules of elements may consist of single atom, two atoms, or even more. All the hundreds of
thousands of compounds existing, and produced by man, are formed as a result of combination of two or
more of these elements in a fixed proportion.
Remember :
Noble gases, some metals, carbon, silicon etc. have only one atom in their molecules. These are called
monatomic molecules. Some elements have two atoms in their molecules. These are called diatomic
molecules e.g., hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), chlorine (Cl2), etc. Those elements that have more
than two atoms in their molecules are said to be polyatomic. For example a molecule of phosphorus consist
four atoms (P4), and that of sulphur contains eight atoms (S8).

Most of the elements are solids, while eleven of them are gases and only two are liquids. The two liquids are
mercury and bromine. However, two other metals can also exist in the liquid state at around 300C. They are
gallium and caesium (gallium melting point = 29.90C and caesium melting point = 28.60C). Elements can be
broadly divided into four categories: Metals, non-metals, metalloids and noble gases.
MetalsThese are generally solids with characteristics such as hardness, malleability, ductility, high
tensile strength, lustre and ability to conduct heat and electricity. Example: Copper, iron, zinc etc.
Non-metalsThese are generally non-lustrous, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Example: Sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen etc.
MetalloidsMetalloids are those elements that have properties, which lie in-between those of metals
and non-metals. Example: Arsenic, tin, bismuth etc.
Noble gasesAre a group of six elements that do not combine with other elements and tend to exist
by themselves. They are characterized by extreme chemical inactivity.. Example: Neon, helium, argon
etc.
Compound
A compound is a pure substance that is formed by the combination of atoms of two or more elements by
either transfer or by sharing of electrons. The atoms of the different elements in a compound are chemically
combined in a fixed and constant proportion. If this proportion is different, the same elements produce
entirely a different compound. Example: Example: Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen present in
the ratio of 2:1 by volume and 1:8 by weight; if the ratio by volume changes to 1:1 and by weight to 1:16, it
forms an entirely new compound called hydrogen peroxide. Thus, compounds are represented by a definite
formula with its constituents combined in fixed proportions.
While the combination of two or more elements forms a compound, similarly, two or more simple
compounds can form a complex compound by a process called synthesis. A compound as a pure substance
can be decomposed into simpler substances by some suitable chemical technique. However, the properties
of compounds are absolutely different from the properties of the elements that constitute the compound. For
instance, hydrogen is combustible and oxygen is a supporter of combustion. But their product, water, neither
burns, nor helps in burning. It actually extinguishes fire. Another familiar example is that of sodium and
chlorine. Sodium is a violently reactive metal while chlorine is a highly poisonous gas with a choking and
irritating smell. One cannot even think of consuming a piece of sodium or breathing in chlorine as such. But
their product, i.e., sodium chloride, is consumed by all of us daily in the form of common salt.
Formation of a compound is a chemical process and always involves exchange of energy. For example,
hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water, liberating heat. Nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide
by absorbing heat. A candle burns in air to produce water (vapour) and carbon dioxide, liberating heat and
light. During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water combine to form carbohydrate with
absorption of light energy. The elements present in a compound can be re-obtained only by chemical
processes. Water can be decomposed to hydrogen and oxygen only by electrolysis. If we bring a magnet
near a sample of iron sulphide, the iron present in the iron sulphide cannot be separated.
We can summarize the properties of compounds as follows:
A compound cannot be separated into its constituents by mechanical or physical means.
Properties of a compound differ entirely from those of its constituent elements.
Energy changes are involved in the formation of a compound.
The constituent elements in a compound are in a fixed proportion by weight.
A compound is a homogenous substance. That is it is same throughout in properties and
composition.
A compound has a fixed melting point and boiling point. For example, ice melts at 0oC.

Impure Substances - Mixtures

Impure substances are commonly called mixtures. A mixture is a material containing two or more elements
or compounds that are in close contact and are mixed in any proportion. The constituents of mixtures exhibit
their individual properties. These constituents can be separated by physical means. Example: air,
gunpowder, etc.
Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition
through out its mass. For example, sugar or salt dissolved in water, alcohol in water, etc. While in a
heterogeneous mixture the composition is not uniform throughout its mass. Different portions of a
heterogeneous mixture show different properties. There are visible sharp boundaries. Example: Oil and
water, salt and sand, etc.
Experiment
Take a beaker of water. Add a pinch of salt (sodium chloride) and stir. The water dissolves the salt and the
salt spreads out throughout the water. Two samples of this solution taken from two different parts of the
beaker will have the same composition. So, the solution is said to be homogeneous. Generally, all solutions
tend to be homogeneous. In a solution the solute particles divide and subdivide and finally achieve the form
of molecules or ions and spread uniformly throughout the solution. These particles (ions and molecules)
become so small that they cannot be seen even through a microscope. Similarly, when sugar is dissolved in
water, the sugar molecules distribute over the entire bulk of water uniformly. A sugar solution has same
sweetness weather we taste from the top or bottom layers.
In the case of other mixtures like that of salt and sand, no matter how well it is mixed, separate particles of
salt and sand can always be seen. Their composition is also not the same throughout. These are called
heterogeneous mixtures.
We can now summarize the properties of mixtures as follows:
A mixture may be homogenous or heterogeneous.
The constituents of a mixture can be separated by physical means like filtration, evaporation,
sublimation and magnetic separation.
 In the preparation of a mixture, energy is neither evolved nor absorbed.
A mixture has no definite melting and boiling point.
The constituents of a mixture retain their original set of properties. For example, magnet attracts
iron filings in a mixture of sand and iron powder.
Types of Mixtures
Matter MixtureType Example
Solid Solid mixture Iron filings and sulphur
Solid Liquid mixture Common salt and water
Solid Gas mixture Air entrapped in soil
Liquid Gas mixture Oxygen dissolved in water
Gas Gas mixture Air containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide etc.
Liquid Liquid mixture Water and alcohol

Differences Between Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures Compounds
A mixture c b spdrated into its constituents by physical A compound cannot be separated into its constituents by
processes (filtration, evaporation, sublimation, distillation) physical processes. It can be separated by chemical means.
A compound has a new set of properties different from its
A mixture shows the properties of its constituents
constituents
Composition of a mixture varies and the constituents are The composition of a compound is fixed and the
present in any proportion by weight. ft does not have a constituents are present in fixed proportions by weight. It
definite formula. has a definite formula.
The constituents do not react chemically, thus no energy Chemical reactions take place and energy changes in the
changes takes place form of heat and light are involved
A mixture does not have a fixed melting point and boiling A compound has a fixed melting point and boiling point
point Examples: air, sand and salt Examples: 1.120 (water), FeS (iron sulphide)

Remember :
The components hydrogen and oxygen cannot be separated by physical methods such as filtration
or evaporation.
Hydrogen and oxygen are present in a fixed proportion of 1: 8 by weight
Energy changes accompany the formation of this compound i.e., heat and light are given out.
Properties of water are entirely different from the constituents, hydrogen and oxygen.
The boiling point of water is 100oC at 76 cm of Hg i.e., one atmospheric pressure.

Types of Mixtures
Mixtures can be classified based on the composition and can be broadly divided into three groups,
depending on whether the constituents are elements or compounds or both.
Element with an Element (forming alloys)a) Oxygen and nitrogenb) Sodium and mercury
(amalgam)c) Copper and zinc alloy.
Compound with a Compounda) Water and saltb) Water and alcoholc) Salt and sugar.
Element with a Compounda) Oxygen and water (air dissolved in water)b) Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and water vapour (air).
Mixtures can also be grouped on the basis of their physical states.
Mixtures of Solids, Liquids and Gases
Solid Liquid Gas
Solid salt and sugar salt and water Dust in air

Liquid Mercury and copper Alchol and water clouds

Gas Hydrogen and palladium Oxygen and water Air

Characteristics of Compounds and Mixtures

Characteristics Compounds Mixtures
Made up of atoms of elements in a fixed Made up of elements, or compounds, or both in any
Composition
proportion proportion
Nature Particles are of the same kind Particles are of different kinds
Structure Always homogeneous May or may not be homogeneous
Components can be separated only by
Separation Components can be separated by physical means
chemical means
Energy changes Energy is always evolved or absorbed Generally no energy is evolved or absorbed
Appearance Components cannot be seen separately Components may or may not be seen separately
Preparation Always involves a chemical change Involves only physical change
Entirely different from those of the No property of their own. Show the average
Properties
constituents properties of all the constituents

Separation of the Constituents of Mixtures

The separation of the various constituents of different mixtures depends on the properties of the
constituents. Some of these properties are size, density, magnetic nature of particles, solubility, miscibility,
differences in boiling and melting points, sublimability, diffusibility and absorbance.
Sedimentation and Decantation
Sedimentation is the process by which insoluble heavy particles in a liquid are allowed to settle down. This is
a simple process that most people employ at home. For example, suppose you are making some tea and
have boiled the water and added the tealeaves into the water. Then you realize that you cannot find the
strainer. You may look for a clean piece of cloth but do not succeed. What would you do? Keep the tea with
the leaves, aside for some time. The tealeaves begin to settle down. This settling down of the particles in
lower part of the container is called sedimentation. Another example of sedimentation is the settling of mud
particles in water.

Decantation is the process by which, a clear liquid obtained after sedimentation, is transferred into another
container, without disturbing the settled particles. After the tealeaves have settled down, the clear tea
(liquor) from the top can be poured into a cup. This transfer of the clear tea is called decantation.
Types of Solutions
Solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemical substances. The state of matter of a
solution may be solid, liquid or gas. For example: common salt in water (liquid solution), air (gaseous
solution), alloys (solid solution), etc. The components of a solution may be classified as:
Solute
SolventAn intimate mixture of solute and solvent is called a solution.
Difference Between Solute and Solvent
Solute Solvent
Present in lesser proportion in the solution Present in a greater proportion in the solution
Dispersed phase Medium of dispersion of solute
Solution may or may not be in the same of matter as Solution will be in the same state of matter as
the solute the solvent

Aqueous Solutions and Non-aqueous Solutions

Aqueous Solutions
Solutions that contain water as the solvent are called aqueous solutions.For example: sugar in water, carbon
dioxide in water, etc.
Non-aqueous Solutions
Solutions that contain a solvent other than water are called non-aqueous solutions. Ether, benzene, petrol,
carbon tetrachloride etc., are some common solvents. For example: sulphur in carbon disulphide,
naphthalene in benzene, etc.

Concentrated Solutions and Dilute Solutions

Between two solutions, the solute quantity may be relatively more or less. The solution that has a greater
proportion of solute is said to be concentrated more than the other that has a lesser proportion. If the
proportion of solute is less, the solution is said to be dilute. The concentration of a solution is expressed as
the amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of the solution; or the amount of solute
dissolved in a given mass or volume of a solvent. It is expressed as a percentage of these quantities.

Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions

Saturated Solution
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is called a saturated solution.
Unsaturated Solution
A solution in which more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is called an unsaturated solution.
Remember, a given solution that is saturated at a particular temperature may become unsaturated when the
temperature is increased.
Solubility of a Solute
Solubility is defined as the number of grams of a solute that dissolves in 100g of a solvent to form a
saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure. Solubility is the maximum weight of a solute that
can be dissolved in 100g of a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.

Factors Affecting the Solubility of a Solid Solute in Water

Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the solubility. For example, it is easier to dissolve sugar in hot milk than in
cold milk.
Size of Solute Particles
Smaller the size of the particles greater is the solubility. For example, it is easier to dissolve powdered sugar
than granules of sugar.
Mechanical Stirring
Mechanical stirring increases solubility. For example, sugar dissolves faster on stirring with a spoon.

Factors Affecting the Solubility of a Gas in Water

Temperature
Increase in temperature, decreases the solubility of the solute. On heating, the gases dissolved in milk
escape making the milk bubble and boil over.
Pressure
An increase in pressure increases the solubility of a gas. For example, aerated water bottles contain carbon
dioxide gas under pressure.

Solutions and Suspensions

True Solutions
A true solution is a homogeneous solution in which the solute particles have diameters between 0.1 nm to 1
nm i.e., the solute particles are of molecular dimensions. Such dispersed particles dissolve in solution to
form a homogenous system. These do not settle down when the solution is left standing. The particles are
invisible even under powerful microscopes and cannot be separated through filter paper, parchment paper
or animal membranes. For example, sodium chloride in water is a true solution. Most ionic compounds form
true solutions in water. Organic compounds like sugar and urea also form true solutions in water.
Suspensions
Suspensions consist of particles of a solid suspended in a liquid medium. Suspensions are systems with two
distinct phases. The particles in suspensions are bigger than 100 nm to 200 nm across. The particles of a
suspension may not be visible to the naked eye but are visible under a microscope. Suspensions are
heterogeneous systems. They stay only for a limited period i.e. these are not stable as the particles have a
tendency to settle down under the influence of gravity. The particles of a suspension can neither pass
through ordinary filter paper nor through animal membranes. Examples of suspensions are sodium chloride
in benzene, turmeric in water, silver chloride, barium sulphate or sand in water.

Colloids
Colloidal solution or colloidal state or colloidal dispersion, represent an intermediate kind of a mixture
between true solution and suspension. The size of a colloidal particle lies roughly between 1-100 nm.
Colloids are also a two-phase heterogeneous system consisting of the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium. However, colloidal particles present in small amount as the dispersed phase component behave
like a solute in a solution when suspended in a solvent phase or dispersing medium, because of their small
size.
Since the dispersed phase in a colloidal system is uniformly distributed in the dispersion medium, the
colloidal state appears homogenous to the naked eye or even an ordinary microscope (due to particles
being invisible). However it is a heterogeneous dispersion of two immiscible phases and this is proved by
viewing it under an ultra-microscope, where the light reflected by colloidal particles can be seen. Colloidal
particles do not settle down under gravity: a colloidal solution of gold prepared by Faraday over 125 years
ago continues to be in excellent condition even today. Colloids can pass through ordinary filter paper but do
not pass through animal membranes.

Difference Between True Solutions, Suspensions and

Colloidal Solutions
Property True Solutions Suspensions Colloidal Solutions
Particle size Less than 10 - 7 cm Greater than 10 -5cm Between 10 - 5 and 10 - 7 cm
Invisible to naked eye not
Visibility of Invisible to naked eye. Visible
visible under powerful Easily visible
particles under powerful microscope.
microscope
Sedimentation of Settle down due to Settle down under high
Do not settle down
particles gravity centrifugation
Filtration through
No residue is formed Residue is formed No residue is formed
filter power

Comparative Sizes of Particles in Solutions

Classification of Colloids Based on Type of Phases

Each of the two phases of a heterogeneous colloidal system i.e., the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium, can be in any one of the three physical states of matter. We have eight different types of colloidal
solutions (not nine), since a colloidal state of gas-in-gas forms a single phase (gases consist of molecules,
and with molecules of both gases mixing in all proportions, two separate phases do not form).
Types of Colloidal Solutions

Dispersed Dispersed Colloidal

Examples
phase medium system
Coloured glues, gem stones, pearls, some
Solid Solid Solid sols
alloys
Solid Liquid Sols Paints, gold sol, sulphur sol, starch, proteins
Liquid Solid Gels Jellies, cheese butter, hoot polish
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream, emulsified oils, medicines
Solid Gas Aerosols of solids Smoke, dust in air, smog
Liquid Gas Aerosols of Liquids Mist,Fog,clouds,insecticide sprays
Gas Solid Solid foam Foam, pumice stone,ice-cream, rubber
Gas Liquid Foam, Froth Soda water, whipped cream froth, etc.

Properties of Colloids
Heterogeneity
A colloidal solution is heterogeneous system consisting of the two phases of the dispersed phase (colloidal
particles of a solid) and the aqueous dispersion medium. Often a colloidal sol appears to be homogeneous
as the particles are small in size and not visible to the naked eye. However, this is disproved when it is
viewed under electron microscope.
Stable nature
Colloidal solutions are quite stable. The colloidal particles do not settle at the bottom under the influence of
gravity. This is because of the constant motion of colloidal particles.
Filterability
Colloidal particles do not pass through ultrafilter papers, animal and vegetable membranes. The large pore
size of ordinary filter paper enables colloidal particles to pass through. If ordinary filter paper is suitably
impregnated with collodion, the size of the pores adjusts accordingly to disallow filtration.
Colligative properties
In colloidal systems the number of colloidal particles per litre of the sol is relatively much smaller than solute
particles in a true solution. Colloidal particles are aggregates of simple molecules and colligative properties
such elevation in boiling point, depression in freezing point and lowering of vapour pressure depend upon
the number of colloid particles present in system and not on the nature of the particle. The values of
colligative properties are consequently much smaller as compared to true solutions.
However, the osmotic pressure of colloidal solutions, though smaller than true solutions is measurable and
gives information regarding the number of particles present. It is used for the calculation of molecular
weights of polymers like proteins.
Mechanical Properties (Brownian movement)
When colloidal solutions have been observed through ultra microscope, the colloidal particles are seen in
constant and rapid zigzag motion called Brownian movement. Sir Robert Brown first observed the
phenomenon in 1827. Suspensions and true solutions do not exhibit Brownian movement.
Optical Properties (Tyndall Effect)
When a strong beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution, the path of the light becomes visible
when viewed from a direction at right angle to that of the incident light. This occurs because the colloidal
particles absorb light energy and then scatter it in all directions. The phenomenon of scattering of light by sol
particles to form illuminated beam or cone is called Tyndall effect or Tyndall beam or Tyndall cone.
Tyndall effect is not shown by true solutions because the ions or solute molecules are of such minute sizes
that they cannot reflect light. The Tyndall effect can therefore be used to distinguish between a true solution
and a colloidal solution. The hazy illumination of the light beams from the headlights of a car on a dusty road
is a familiar example of Tyndall effect. Blue colour of sky and seawater, twinkling of stars and visibility of tails
of comets are also due to scattering of light of Tyndall effect.
Electrical Properties (Electrophoresis)
Colloidal particles of a sol either carry positive or negative charge. Sols in, which the colloidal particles carry
positive charge are called positive sols. When colloidal particles carry negative charge, the sols are called
negative sols. The existence of charge on the colloidal particles can be demonstrated by a phenomenon
called electrophoresis where the colloidal particles, when placed in an electric field, move towards either
cathode or anode depending upon the charge on them. Sols of basic dyestuffs, ferric hydroxide, aluminium
hydroxide etc., are some common examples of positive sols. Colloidal solutions of gums, starch, soap
solution, metals (Ag, Cu, Au, Pt etc.), metal sulphides, and some acid dyestuffs are the examples of
negative sols.

Physical and Chemical Changes

Matter undergoes certain changes as a result of the application of energy. Water from saltpans on the
seacoast dry up, leaving behind salt; water from the sea evaporates to from water vapour, which convert into
clouds and then condense to form rain. Glaciers melt in summer and rivers freeze in winter. A candle upon
burning gives light, heat, water vapour and carbon dioxide. Hydrogen burns in air to form the water molecule
H2O.
The different changes that matter undergoes, may be broadly classified into 'physical' and 'chemical'
changes.

Physical Change
When the shape, size, appearance or state, of a substance is altered, but its chemical composition remains
same a physical change of matter takes place. No new substance is formed. It is usually a change, which is
reversible, that is, by reversing the process, the original substance can be obtained.
By using a piece of gold, a goldsmith can make a gold chain and can later alter it to make a gold bracelet,
ring or a pair of earings. All of them consist of the same substance, namely gold. This is an example of a
physical change. A more common everyday example is that of water, which can be converted into solid ice,
liquid water, and gaseous water vapour. It can be reconverted to its previous state by various methods. Yet,
in all the three forms, the chemical composition of water is not altered. No new substance with new chemical
properties is formed. In all these, water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Thus, a Physical change is a change in which the chemical composition of the substance is not affected, i.e.,
no new substance is formed.
Examples of Physical Changes
(a) Dissolving of sugar in waterWhen crystalline sugar is dissolved in water, it seems to disappear
completely, and not even a very powerful microscope can show us the molecules of sugar in water. The
solution obtained is uniformly sweet. By evaporating the water the sugar can be recovered in a crystalline
form.

(b) Magnetising an iron rod

An iron rod can be converted into a magnet by passing an electric current through an insulated coil wound
around it. When the current flows, the iron bar gets magnetised. One end becomes North Pole and the other
the South Pole. If the direction of the current is reversed, the North Pole changes to South Pole and the
South Pole changes to North Pole.

(c) Glowing of an electric bulb

When an electric current is passed through the filament of a bulb, the filament starts glowing and the glow
stops as soon as the current is cut off. The chemical composition of the filament does not alter in either
state.

Chemical Change
A change in which the composition of a substance is altered is called as chemical change of matter. As a
result, the original properties get changed and one or more new substances are formed.
Iron is greyish white metal and conducts electricity. It is attracted by a magnet, and reacts with dilute acids to
yield hydrogen. Sulphur is a non-metal, and is yellow in colour. It dissolves in carbon disulphide. When
powdered iron and sulphur are heated together, a completely new substance, iron sulphide is formed. The
properties of iron sulphide are entirely different from those of iron and sulphur. It is black in colour, does not
get attracted by a magnet and does not allow electric current to pass through it. It reacts with dilute acids to
from hydrogen sulphide gas. In short, the properties of neither iron nor sulphur are exhibited by iron
sulphide.

Conditions For Chemical Change

The criterion for a chemical change is the production of one or more new substances. Therefore, certain
conditions should be met in order to bring about a chemical change. The necessary conditions are:
1) A minimum amount of energy needed to initiate a reaction, called the activation energy, should be
supplied in the form of heat, light or electric current. In a chemical change the reactants combine to form
new products. For this process it is necessary to break the old bonds of the reactants and forms fresh bonds
in order to give new products. This requires a certain amount of energy.
2) For the occurrence of any reaction, the molecules or atoms of the reactants must collide with one another,
in order to break old bonds and form new bonds.
3) The speed with which the chemical reaction takes place is called the rate of the chemical reaction. This
should be appreciable, to bring about the change.
4) The rate of a reaction depends on following factors:
Temperature
Presence of light
Presence of catalyst
Electricity
Pressure.
Temperature
Certain chemical reactions do not take place at room temperature but occur readily at a higher temperature.
Accordingly, heat is required to start the reaction e.g. fuels like coal and wood only start burning when
heated to a certain temperature called its ignition temperature.
Presence of Light
Some reactions take place only in light and do not take place in dark e.g. photosynthesis in green plants or
reaction between H2 and Cl2 to form HCl.
Presence of a Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction without itself undergoing any
change.Example: Hydrogenation of oils to form fats takes place faster, in presence of nickel.
Electricity
Certain reactions take place with the help of an electric current.Example: Decomposition of acidulated water
to give hydrogen and oxygen gas

Pressure
Some chemical reactions need very high pressure to proceed. For e.g., in the commercial manufacture of
ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen by Haber's process, a pressure of over 200 atmosphere is required, in
presence of a catalyst iron and a temperature of 450oC to 500oC.
Examples of Chemical Changes
(a) Effect of heat on lead nitrate
Lead nitrate is a white, crystalline solid. When heated, it starts decomposing with a crackling sound,
producing a reddish brown gas called nitrogen dioxide, and a colourless gas, oxygen. A yellow residue of
lead monoxide is left behind in the test tube.

(b) Action of concentrated sulphuric acid on sugar

When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to sugar, it becomes a black mass of sugar charcoal. The acid
removes all the water from the sugar, that is, hydrogen and oxygen and absorbs it leaving a residue of
spongy carbon.

(c) Action of sodium on cold water

When a small piece (pea size) of sodium is placed in cold water, it darts about on the water with a hissing
sound and produces hydrogen. The water left behind, acquires the property of turning red litmus blue. This
shows the presence of a basic substance, which is sodium hydroxide
 Physical Change Chemical Change
No new or different substance is formed. The Results in the formation of at least one new substance. The constituent
composition of the substance, that undergoes the particles of the new substance are different from the constituent
change, remains unchanged particles of the original substance
It is temporary change and in most cases it can It is permanent change and cannot be reversed by mere reversal of
be reversed by the reversal of conditions conditions
Mass of the individual substances that undergoes the change, always,
No change occurs in the mass of the substances
either increases or decreases. However, the total mass of all the
undergoing the change
reactants is equal to the total mass of all the products

Remember :
Sometimes both changes occur together. For example, when a person eats chocolate and then digests it a
physical and a chemical change takes place. When the person chews the chocolate and breaks it into
smaller pieces - it is a physical change. No new substances have been formed yet.
Once acted upon by saliva and other digestive juices, the chocolate is broken down into other simpler
substances, which can be absorbed by the blood. This is a chemical change.