Chapter 7

Metal Forming
The objective for this chapter is to understand the following topics:
7.1 Introduction to metal forming
7.2 Plasticity
7.3 Rolling
7.4 Cutting
7.5 Bending
7.6 Other forming methods
7.7 Casting
Textbook: Chapter 18,19, 20
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7.1 Introduction to Metal Forming

Metal forming is a process that changes the shape of metal parts
through compressive or tensile (plastic) deformation.
Metal forming is a near net shaping process. It is divided into:
1) bulk deformation;

2) sheet metalworking.

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Bulk Deformation
Significant change occurs in thickness, cross section, and overall geometry.

Cube

Slab

Forging
Rolling

Bar

Extrusion (push)

Drawing (pull)

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Sheet Metalworking
Some (local) deformation occurs in material, but little in thickness.

Bending

Deep drawing

Shearing

Punch

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7.2 Plasticity
Metal forming is done in the plastic region of
materials so that shapes can be changed
permanently.
Plastic stress-strain relationship is given as
= Kn

Brittle material
Ductile material

where K - strength coefficient, n - strain

hardening exponent.
Flow stress is defined as the yield strength at
true strain in the plastic region. It is used to
determine the maximum force.
Yf = Kn
Average flow stress is defined as the average
stress from the beginning of strain to the final.
Yf = Kn / (1+n)

True strain

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Plasticity of Common Metals

K and n values for common metals are given in Table 3-4 in the text.
The following are the value for common aluminum.

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Deformation Energy
Work of deformation is measured by specific energy - energy
per unit volume
u = d
= Kn d
= Kn+1/(1+n)
=
Then

Kn+1/(1+n) =
= Kn/(1+n)

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Example 7.1 Force Determination

Problem:
A 2024-T4 bar (initially 10 cm long, with 1 cm diameter) is under tension
along its axis (drawing). What are the flow stress and the force acting on
the specimen when the specimen length is 10.25 cm?
Solution:
True strain:

= ln(L/Lo) = ln(10.25/10)

Flow stress: Yf = K n = 690x(ln(10.25/10))0.16 = 381.65 (Mpa)

Average:

Yf = Kn / (1+n) = 381.65 / 1.16 = 329 (Mpa)

It is in plastic zone because

Y = 324.3Mpa < 381.65 Mpa < TS = 469.2 Mpa (ch. 4)
Force:

F = A

True area:

AoLo=AL ! A=AoLo/L

Then

F = 381.65 x106 x (3.14 x(0.01)2/4) x (10/10.25)

= 29.2 (KN)
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Cold, Warm and Hot Working

Good material forming properties include high ductility and low yield
strength, which can be improved by heating.
Hence, metal forming could be done by
Cold working
at room
temperature

High accuracy,
High finish,
Strain hardening,
May require anneal.

High force & power,

Limited amount of forming,
Material must be clean.

Warm working
at 0.3 melting
temperature

Lower force & power,

More deformation,
Intricate geometry,
No annealing.

Lower TS and hardness,

Lower accuracy,
Lower finish.

Hot working at Small force & power,

0.5-0.75 melting Large deformation,
temperature
Complex geometry.

Poor accuracy,
Poor finish,
High total energy (heat),
Oxidation,
Short tool life.

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Temperature Effect
As temperature , K and n , ductility , and deformation forces .

TEMP.
CASTING
Semisolid metal forming

liquid

HOT WORKING
Warm working

rere-crystal.

COLD WORKING

room
atm.
atm. pres.

PRESSURE

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Change in Mechanical Properties

Re-crystallization

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7.3 Rolling
Rolling is the primary process that turns the intermediate product
forms into other shapes.
Slabs: processed into
plates sheets.

Blooms: processed into

shapes and rails

Billets: processed into

bars, rods, pipes and
tubes

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Slab (Flat) Rolling

Aluminium can be flat-rolled & re-rolled until reaching the desired thickness,
which is classified as
Plates: 6 150 mm (> in)
Sheets: 0.4 - 6 mm (1/64 in ! 0.016 0.25 in)

Cleaning oils and oxides

Foil: < 0.4 mm (0.016 in)

.
Plates for pipes
with flat edges

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Slab (Flat) Rolling

2 in down to in ! ratio to / t = 2 / (1/4) = 8
! Ao/A = wto / (1+) wt = 8/(1+0.3)=6.15
= ln(L/Lo) = ln (Ao/A)= ln(6.15) = 1.8
2024-T4
= Kn = 690 (1.8)0.16 = 758 Map / 6895 = 109 Kpsi > TS
2024-O
= Kn = 35 (1.8)0.15 = 38 Kpsi > TS
Maximum strain
27 = 35 ()0.15 ! = (27/35)1/0.15 = 0.18 ! Ao/A = 1.19 = to/1.3t
! to/t = 1.19 x 1.3 = 1.5

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Aircraft Aluminum Sheets

Plates and sheets are called sheet metals, and both are used in aircrafts.
Sheet metals have high strength, with good dimensional accuracy and
surface finish.
Plates/sheets
2024T4 (Alclad 1230)
plates/sheets
2014-T6 (Alclad 6063)
2024-T3 (Alclad 1230)
7075-T6 (Alclad 7270)
sheets

Thickness (inch) Applications

0.040 - 0.375

Wing skins

0.040 - 0.187

Fuselage

Alclad is cladding of a corrosion-resistant layer

over aluminum alloys.
Cladding is a rolling process (cold welding) in
which metals are bonded with a thin layer of
corrosion-resistant metals under high pressure.
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7.4 Sheet Metal Cutting

Sheet metal processing includes cutting, bending and (deep) drawing.
Thin plates and sheets are processed by cold working at room
temperature.
Thick plates may be performed by warm working.
The tooling used is called a punch-and-die.
Cutting process including
- shearing:cutting large sheets into smaller section;
- blanking: cutting the desired parts out of a sheet metal;
- punching: making the desired parts by cutting out the scrap.
- routing: 2D machining (dieless cutting).

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Shearing
Force

The shearing tool includes a

blade and a die, or two blades.

Inclined blade
Sheet metal
Die

Scissors
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Blanking
The blanking tool is a punch-and-die. There is a clearance of 4-8% of
sheet metal thickness between them.

Scrap

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Punching
The punching tool is also a punch-and-die. There is a clearance of 4-8%
of sheet metal thickness between them.

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Routing
Routing is 2D cutting, and the cutting tool could be a milling cutter, or
laser or water jet.
Routing does not require a die, saving tooling cost. The tool path is
generated by CAM according to the part shape.
y
x

Tool

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Sheet Metal Cutting Mechanism

Sheet metal cutting forces the material to fracture along the desired direction.
Clearance is critical. If too small, force will be large. If too large, burr will be big.
Clearance is die based for blanking, as the cut section is the part . It is
punch based for punching, as the left section is the part.
Clearance c = at where t is thickness, a is listed in Table 20.1.
Blanking

Punching

Round corner called

rollover
burnish

t/3

Fracture

Burr

(Fracture angle)

Angular
clearance
0.25-1.5o

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Allowable Value a
Metal group

1100Al/5052Al, all tempers

0.045

2024Al/6061Al, all tempers, soft cold steel,

0.060

soft stainless steel

Cold rolled steel, stainless steel

0.075

TS , a

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Example 7.2 Cutting Force

Cutting force = 0.7 (TS)x(t)x(L)
where TS - shear strength, t thickness, and L perimeter length of the
cutting tool.
Problem
A 2024-T4 Aluminum plate of 5 mm thickness and 2 m width is cut in the
width direction. Estimate the shearing force for cutting: (a) with parallel
blade ( =0) and (b) with = 60. (TS = 282.9 Mpa).
Solution:
(a) In this case, the whole width is cut together
F = 0.7 x (282.9 x106) x (5x10-3) x 2 = 1.98 MN
(b) In this case, the cutting length is smaller
L = t/sin(60o) = 5.77 mm
F=0.7x(282.9 x106)x(5x10-3)x(5.77x10-3)=5.7 KN
Force ratio Fa/Fb = 346, cutting with angle is better.
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Better Tooling Design (Reducing Force)

Shear angle is introduced to punch or die in order to reduce the cutting
length, and in turn the cutting force.

punching

L1 = r

L1 = D

L2 = 2t/sin

L2 = 2t/sin

blanking

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7.5 Bending
Straight flanging

Stretch flanging

Shrink flanging

Seaming

Curling

Hemming

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Bending Methods
Two bending methods:
(a) V-bending

(b) Edge bending

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Bending Mechanisms
Due to stretch in bending, a bend allowance should be added to calculate
the required size of the sheet metals. It is given as
BA = 2(A/360) (R + Kbat) (mm or in)
stretch

where A bend angle (deg), R bend radius, t sheet metal thickness, Kba
=0.33 if R <2t, or Kba = 0.5 if R 2t.

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Bending Force
The maximum bending force is estimated by the equation for bending a
simple beam.
The moment from the applied force is
F

Mf = FD/2
The moment due to the internal force is
Ms = (KbfTS w t) x (t/2)
Since the moments are equal, then
F = (KbfTSwt2)/D (N or lb)
where TS tensile strength,

w width of the part in the direction of the bend axis (mm, in)
t thickness (mm, in)
D die opening dimension (mm, in)
Kbf constant, = 1.33 V-bending; = 0.33 edge bending..
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Example 7.3 Sheet Metal Bending

Problem:
A sheet metal of E = 205 Gpa, Y = 275 Mpa, and TS = 450 Mpa is to be bent
with a V-die of D = 25mm. Determine (a) starting size, and (b) bending force.
Solution:
(a) Bend angle A =180-A=180-120=60; Kba=0.33 as R/t= 4.75/3.2=1.48 < 2
Bend allowance BA=2(A/360)(R + Kbat)=2(60/360)(4.75 + 0.33x3.2)=6.08 mm
Size: L = 38+BA+25= 69.08 mm, W = 44.5 mm
(b) Force, Kbf = 1.33 for V bending
F = (KbfTSwt2)/D
= 1.33(450)(44.5)(3.2)2/25
= 10.9KN
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Minimum Bend Radius

On the outer surface of the bent sheet metal, the strain is
eo = (t/2)A/(R+t/2)A = - ei !
eo = - ei = 1/(2R/t + 1)
As R/t , eo , and the material will crack.
The minimum bend radius is the smallest radius at which a crack appears
on the outer surface of the sheet metal.
It is given in terms of thickness, e.g. 2t, 3t, 4t.
Stretch

Material
Al alloys
Ti alloys
Steel
Stainless

Warm
work
0
2.6t
0.5t
0.5t

Cold
work
6t
4t
4t
6t

t/2
Compress

R+t/2

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Continue on Example 7.3

Problem:
In example 7.3, R/t =1.48, assume that the sheet is 2024-T4, (a) Does it
crack and (b) what is Rmin?
Solution:
(a) Strain = 1/ (2x1.48+1)
stress = Kn = 690x(1/3.96)0.16= 553 Mpa
> TS = 469.2 Mpa, crack.
(b) TS = Kn ! (TS/K)1/n = 1/ (2R/t +1)
Rmin = [((K/TS)1/n 1)/2] t
Rmin = [((690/469)1/0.16 1)/2] = 5.1 t ! 6t

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Bending Compression Relief

The bend radius is a highly stressed area, tension on the outer surface
and compression on the inner surface.
The tension region may crack. Heating is one of relief methods.
The compression region may wrinkle, which is called by buckling. Relief
notches can be used close to the bend region for stress relief.

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7.6 Other Forming Processes

Open-die forging (upsetting), stock is
compressed without closing two flat dies
to make simple shafts, e,g. disks, rings.
Closed-die (impression-die) forging: stock
is compressed by closing the dies to
make the part with the reverse shape of
the dies.
Flashless forging (true close-die) forging:
No flash is produced. It is widely used for
Al parts with simple geometry.
Forging mechanism is based on flow
stress
Yf = K n
Force
F=KfYfA
where Kf is function of friction (Table 19.1
in text, 6-10)
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Coining
Coining is a special forging process in which fine details in the punch and
die are impressed into the top and bottom surface of the part. (Compressor
stator inlet case)

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Semisolid Metal Forming

Semisolid metal forming, also called
Thixoforming, is to forge metals when 3040% is liquid.
Working temperature is between 0.75 Tm and
Tm.
Excellent formability, as metals like better,
when agitated (vibrated) like oil.
Thixoforming has the advantages of both
forging (precision and smoothness) and cast
(complex shape) (7075).
Example: stator shrouds

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7.7 Casting
Metal casting is a molten solidification process.
Metal casting is divided into (1) expandable (sacrificing) mold (low
production) and (2) permanent mold (high production).
Two common expandable mold casting: sand casting and investment
casting.

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Casting

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Investment Casting (Blades)

Wax pattern of blades ! ceramic coating ! heated to make a mold
by melting wax ! pouring molten metal in ! break away ceramic
coating to obtain a cast blade.

Wax: paraffin, animal, vegetable, blue

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Assignment 7
Problem 1
A bending operation is to be performed on 4.75 mm thick cold-rolled steel. The part
drawing is given at the next page. Determine the blank size required.
Problem 2
Determine the bending force required in problem 1 if the bend is to be performed in a
V-die with a die opening width = 38 mm. The material has a tensile strength = 450
Mpa.
Problem 3
Determine the minimum bend radius, for K = 600 Mpa and n=0.10. Check if the
original bend radius could cause cracking. If yes, how to solve this problem.

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