ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Triggers of Asthma

ATSDR Case Studies in
Environmental Triggers
of Asthma
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM)
Environmental Triggers of Asthma

Course: WB 2490
CE Original Date: November 28, 2014
CE Expiration Date: November 28, 2016
Key Concepts
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the

airways.
Over the past decade, the prevalence of asthma in
children and adults has increased in the United
States.
Environmental exposures to allergens, air pollutants,
and environmental tobacco smoke, and workplace
exposures can cause and exacerbate asthma.
Control of environmental exposures can significantly
improve the quality of life of persons with asthma.
About This and Other Case Studies in

Environmental Medicine
This educational case study document is one in a series of self-instructional
modules designed to increase the primary care providers knowledge of
hazardous substances in the environment and to promote the adoption of
medical practices that aid in the evaluation and care of potentially exposed
patients. The complete series of Case Studies in Environmental Medicine is
located on the ATSDR Web site at URL:
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.html In addition, the downloadable
PDF version of this educational series and other environmental medicine
materials provides content in an electronic, printable format, especially for
those who may lack adequate Internet service.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the work of the medical writers, editors, and

reviewers in producing this educational resource. Contributors to this version
of the Case Study in Environmental Medicine are listed below.
Please Note: Each content expert for this case study has indicated that there
is no conflict of interest that would bias the case study content.
CDC/ATSDR Author(s): Germania A. Pinheiro, MD, MSc, PhD
CDC/ATSDR Planners: Charlton Coles, Ph.D., Sharon L. Hall, Ph.D.;
Delene Roberts, MSMHC; Smith, Julia, MPH, CHES; Germania A. Pinheiro,
MD, MSc, PhD.
Peer Reviewers: Dan Middleton, MD; Air Pollution and Respiratory Health
Branch/National Center for Environmental Health.
How to
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and Receive
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Education
Credit
Including
the
Assessment
and Posttest
Visit http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/conteduc.html for

more information about continuing medical education
credits, continuing nursing education credits, and other
continuing education units. Access the Assessment and
Posttest by selecting
http://www2a.cdc.gov/TCEOnline/registration/detailpage.as
p?res_id=4730
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Credits Offered
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Council for
Continuing
Medical
Education
(ACCME)
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is

accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing
Medical Education (ACCME) to provide continuing
medical education for physicians.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
designates this educational activity for a maximum of
1.75 AMA PRA Category 1 Credits. Physicians should
only claim credit commensurate with the extent of their
participation in the activity.
American
Nurses
Credentialing
Center (ANCC),
Commission on
Accreditation

accredited as a provider of Continuing Nursing Education
by the American Nurses Credentialing Center's
Commission on Accreditation.
National
Commission
for Health
Education
Credentialing,
Inc. (NCHEC)
Sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, a designated provider of continuing education
contact hours (CECH) in health education by the National
Commission for Health Education Credentialing, Inc. This
program is designed for Certified Health Education
Specialists (CHES) and/or Master Certified Health
Education Specialists (MCHES) to receive up to 1.5 total
Category I continuing education contact hours. Maximum
advanced level continuing education contact hours
available are 0. CDC provider number GA0082.
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This activity provides 1.75 contact hours.

authorized by IACET to offer 0.2 IACET CEU's for this
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Disclaimer and Disclosure

Disclaimer
The state of knowledge regarding the treatment of patients potentially
exposed to hazardous substances in the environment is constantly evolving
and is often uncertain. In developing its educational products, ATSDR has
made a diligent effort to ensure the accuracy and the currency of the
presented information. ATSDR, however, makes no claim that the
environmental medicine and health education resources discussed in these
products comprehensively address all possible situations related to various
substances. The products are intended for educational use to build the
knowledge of physicians and other health professionals in assessing the
conditions and managing the treatment of patients potentially exposed to
hazardous substances. The products are not a substitute for a health-care
provider's professional judgment. Please interpret the environmental

medicine and the health education resources in light of specific information
regarding the patient and in conjunction with other medical authorities.
Use of trade names in ATSDR products is for identification purposes only and
does not imply endorsement by the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry or the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Disclosure
In compliance with continuing education requirements, all presenters must
disclose any financial or other associations with the manufacturers of
commercial products, suppliers of commercial services, or commercial
supporters as well as any use of unlabeled product(s) or product(s) under
investigational use. CDC, our planners, and the presenters for this seminar
do not have financial or other associations with the manufacturers of
commercial products, suppliers of commercial services, or commercial
supporters. This presentation does not involve the unlabeled use of a
product or product under investigational use. There was no commercial
support for this activity.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences
Environmental Medicine Branch
Table of Contents
Initial Check ........................................................................................ 8
Overview of Asthma ............................................................................ 13
Differential Diagnosis of Asthma ........................................................... 16
Environmental Triggers of Asthma ........................................................ 20
Clinical Assessment ............................................................................ 34
Case Study (Continued) ...................................................................... 42
Treatment, Management, and Prevention .............................................. 45
Sources of Additional Information ......................................................... 59
Literature Cited .................................................................................. 65
Table of Tables ................................................................................... 76
Posttest ............................................................................................. 76
Appendix 1: Asthma Triggers Exposure History ..................................... 80
How to Use This Course

Introduction
The goal of Case Studies in Environmental Medicine

(CSEM) is to increase the primary care providers
knowledge of hazardous substances in the environment
and to help in evaluation and treating of potentially
exposed patients. This CSEM focuses on environmental
triggers of asthma.
Availability
Two versions of the Environmental Triggers of Asthma

CSEM are available.
The HTML version
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=32
&po=0 provides content through the Internet.
The downloadable PDF version
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/asthma/docs/asthm
a.pdf provides content in an electronic, printable
format making it especially useful for those who may
lack adequate Internet service.
The HTML version offers interactive exercises and
prescriptive feedback to the user.
Instructions
To most effectively use this course
Instructional
Format
Take the Initial Check to assess your current

knowledge about Environmental Triggers of Asthma.
Read the title, learning objectives, text, and key
points in each section.
Complete the progress check exercises at the end of
each section and check your answers.
Complete and submit your assessment and posttest
response online if you wish to obtain continuing
education credit. Continuing education certificates
can be printed immediately upon completion.
This course is designed to help you learn efficiently.

Topics are clearly labeled so that you can skip sections or
quickly scan sections you are already familiar with. This
labeling will also allow you to use this training material as
a handy reference. To help you identify and absorb
important content quickly, each section is structured as
follows
Section
Element
Title
Purpose
Serves as a focus question that you should be able to
answer after completing the section
Learning
Objectives
Describes specific content addressed in each section and

focuses your attention on important points
Text
Provides the information you need to answer the focus

question(s) and achieve the learning objectives
Key Points
Highlights important issues and helps you review
Progress Check
exercises
Enables you to test yourself to determine whether you

have mastered the learning objectives
Progress Check
Answers
Provide feedback to ensure you understand the content

and can locate information in the text
Learning
Objectives
Upon completion of the Environmental Triggers of Asthma

CSEM, you will be able to
Content Area
Overview of
Asthma
Differential
Diagnosis of
Asthma
Environmental
Triggers of
Asthma
Objectives
Define asthma
Identify environmental factors that trigger asthma
Identify five conditions that may be confused with

asthma in children
asthma in adults
Identify five indoor triggers of an acute asthma

episode
Identify five outdoor triggers of an acute asthma
episode
Describe the impact of occupational exposures on
adult asthma prevalence
Clinical
Assessment
Treatment,
Management,
and Prevention
Identify the key signs and symptoms of asthma

Describe questions regarding environmental asthma
triggers that should be included in the standard
medical history
Describe pulmonary function test criteria for
diagnosing asthma
Describe questions regarding occupational exposures
that should be included in the standard medical
history
Describe general management goals for patients with
asthma
Describe modifying factors that might affect how
environmental triggers cause/exacerbate asthma
Identify at least three things you can advise patients
to do to decrease exposure to allergens and irritants
Initial Check
Instructions
This Initial Check will help you assess your current

knowledge about Environmental Triggers of Asthma. To
take the Initial Check, read the case below, and then
answer the questions that follow.
Case Study
A 12-year-old girl arrives at your office with her mother

for an evaluation of the childs cough. The mother reports
that the child has a nocturnal nonproductive cough 2 to 3
times per month for the past 3 months associated with
increasing episodes of shortness of breath that usually
resolve spontaneously. However, during soccer games,
the girl has recurrent episodes of cough and wheezing
that are only relieved when she uses a friends albuterol
inhaler.
Past medical history reveals that the patient has had
recurrent upper respiratory infections and had bronchitis
2 years ago. The patient has had no hospitalizations or
emergency department visits. Current medications
include diphenhydramine for her intermittent runny nose
and an occasional puff from her friends albuterol inhaler
during soccer games.
Family history reveals that the girl lives with her mother,
father, and older sister in a house on the outskirts of the
community. The father had a history of seasonal hay
fever as a child. Both parents are indoor and outdoor
smokers. The mother reports that her husband has had
some difficulties with episodic cough and shortness of
breath, but has not seen a physician.
A review of systems reveals that the patient has
numerous episodes of
Sneezing,
Itchy eyes, and
Clear discharge from the nose.
You ask the mother to leave the examination room. This

allows you to ask the patient confidentially if she has
been smoking or is around friends who smoke. The
patient states that neither she nor any of her friends
smoke cigarettes or any other inhaled substances, such
as marijuana. In addition, the patient has not reached
menarche and she denies sexual activity. The patient has
met developmental milestones and followed a 50thpercentile growth curve. She is a 7th grader doing well
academically, with no school absences.
Physical examination reveals a young girl, who sits quietly

and comfortably, in no apparent distress. Her vital signs
are
Temperature 98.6F (37.0C),

Respiratory rate 17,
Heart rate 82,
Blood pressure 118/75 millimeter of mercury (mmHg).
No dyspnea or stridor is evident. Her skin color is normal,

without cyanosis. Examination of the nares reveals
boggy, red turbinates with moderate congestion, but no
sinus tenderness or flaring. The tympanic membranes are
mobile and without erythema or air/fluid levels.
Inspection of the chest does not show accessory muscle
use or intercostal, suprasternal, or supraclavicular
retractions. The antero-posterior diameter does not seem
to be increased. Pulmonary auscultation reveals
inspiratory and expiratory wheezing scattered throughout
both lung fields. Her peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR)
reading is 285 liters per minute (L/min). You explain to
the patient and her mother that her predicted normal
should be 360 L/min (give or take 20%), which is the
predicted normal PEFR for her age and build. The rest of
the physical examination is unremarkable. The fingers are
not clubbed, nor are the nail beds cyanotic.
Your primary working diagnosis for this patient is asthma.
Initial Check
Questions
1. List the primary and differential diagnosis for

wheezing in this patient.
2. What are some risk factors for asthma in this patient
and her family?
3. What further questions might you ask about other
environmental triggers of asthma in this household?
4. What tests would you order to confirm or rule out
your primary diagnosis?
Initial Check
Answers
1. The differential diagnosis for wheezing in this patient

includes
Bronchial asthma (primary diagnosis),

Exercise induced bronchospasm,
Wheezing solely associated with respiratory
infections,
Foreign body aspiration, and
Wheezing associated with gastroesophageal
reflux.
Less likely diagnoses include

Cystic fibrosis,
Immune deficiency,
Congenital heart disease or congenital
malformation causing narrowing of the
intrathoracic airways,
Vocal cord dysfunction and,
Chronic rhino-sinusitis.
The information for this answer comes from the

Differential Diagnosis of Asthma section.
2. This family has a history of atopy. Both parents are
smokers. The patient has a history of recurrent
upper respiratory infections and bronchitis, as well as
a suspicion of allergic rhinitis.
Differential Diagnosis of Asthma section.
3. Ask the parent and patient about possible exposures
and events that worsen the wheezing. This
information should include
Exacerbation due to upper respiratory illness,

Relationship of symptoms to specific
exposures,
Exacerbation with exposure to nonspecific
triggers such as cigarette smoke, woodstove
smoke or household cleaning products,
Exacerbation due to use of drugs such as
aspirin and certain foods and food additives
such as sulfites,
Emotional stress, and
Seasonal variation in symptoms.
The home environment should be carefully reviewed,

focusing on the possible presence of house-dust
mites, indoor fungi (mold), and smoke:
The patients environment, particularly within

his or her bedroom due to dust mites,
The presence of furry pets and carpeting,
Condition of home heating and cooling system,
Past water damage or leakage,
Smoking within the home,
Woodburning stoves or fireplaces,
Other irritants (e.g., perfumes, cleaning
agents, sprays), and
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as
new carpeting, particle board, painting.
The environment outside the home should be

reviewed, including a potential relationship of
symptoms and school and recreational activities.
Environmental Triggers of Asthma section.
4. Consider referral to a pulmonologist or
allergy/asthma specialist if there is any question
about the diagnosis. In the pulmonologists office,
use the measurement of forced expiratory volume in
1 second (FEV 1 ) before and after short-acting
bronchodilator therapy to demonstrate reversible
airway obstruction. This should be done by
spirometry (for children who are able to cooperate),
preferably using American Thoracic Society
guidelines [ATS 1995]. Although variability in peak
expiratory flow limits its application in screening for
asthma, simple peak expiratory flow monitoring in
the general practitioners office can be used. Perform
chest radiographs for individuals with systemic
symptoms such as fever and signs suggestive of
another lung disease. A total immunoglobulin E (IgE)
level, an eosinophil count, and a differential count for
eosinophils on nasal or sputum secretions may also
provide useful information.
Clinical Assessment section.
Overview of Asthma
Learning
Objectives
Upon completion of this section, you will be able to
Purpose of This
Case Study
Define asthma, and

Identify environmental factors that trigger asthma.
This Case Study in Environmental Medicine focuses

specifically on the environmental factors that contribute
to asthma expression and severity. The goal is to identify
those factors, with the hope of moderating or eliminating
exposures or reducing their effect.
This case study is not a comprehensive review of asthma,
nor a complete review of asthma management. Many
excellent texts and articles have covered this topic. The
Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) updated the Global
Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention
http://ginasthma.org/2016-gina-report-global-strategyfor-asthma-management-and-prevention in 2011. This
document provides recommendations on
Asthma assessment,
Monitoring,
Pharmacotherapy,
Asthma education and,
Implementation of asthma guidelines in health care
systems.
The NIH Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of

Asthma provide key recommendations about the disease.
This Report was developed by a panel convened by the
National Asthma Education and Prevention Program
(NAEPP), coordinated by the National Heart, Lung, and
Blood Institute (NHLBI) of the National Institutes of
Health. The third and most recent report, Expert Panel
Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management
of Asthma (EPR-3) was released in August 2007. The full
report is available online at
www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.htm
Definition of
Asthma
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute defines

asthma as a chronic inflammatory disorder of the
airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a
role, in particular
Mast cells,
Eosinophils,
T lymphocytes,
Airway Macrophages,
Neutrophils, and
Epithelial cells.
In susceptible individuals, this inflammation causes

recurrent episodes of
Wheezing,
Breathlessness,
Chest tightness, and
Coughing,
particularly at night or in the early morning. These

episodes are usually associated with widespread but
variable airflow obstruction that is often reversible, either
spontaneously or with treatment. The inflammation also
causes an associated increase in the existing bronchial
hyper responsiveness to a variety of stimuli [NHLBI
2007].
Incidence and
Prevalence
Allergic diseases such as asthma, rhinitis, and eczema are

increasing in prevalence.
Asthma is a worldwide problem, with an estimated

300 million affected individuals [GINA 2011].
The increasing incidence of asthma in many parts of
the world continues to make it a global health
concern [NHLBI 2003]. Asthma is one of a few
diseases in the United States that is increasing in
incidence among children and adults. This is despite
scientific advances in improving treatment
outcomes and understanding the pathogenesis
[IOM 2000].
During 2008-2010, an estimated 8.2% of the U.S.
population had current asthma.
Asthma prevalence was higher among Puerto Rican
Hispanics (16.1%) and non-Hispanic blacks

(11.2%) than among non-Hispanic whites (7.7%).
Current asthma prevalence was also higher
o Among children (9.5%) than among adults
(7.7%),
o Among females (9.2%) than among males
(7.0%), and
o Among persons with family income below 100%
of the federal poverty threshold (11.2%) than
among persons with family income at or above
the federal poverty threshold (8.5% for 100% to
less than 250% of the poverty threshold, 7.8%
for 250% to less than 450% of the poverty
threshold, and 6.7% for at or above 450% of the
poverty threshold) for the United States [CDC
2012].
Factors That
Contribute to
Asthma
Environmental factors that contribute to asthma

symptoms and severity include
Viral infections [Gern 2004; Martinez 2003;

Lemanske 2003],
Allergens, such as
o
o
o
o
o
Cockroaches,
Dust mites,
Pollens,
Animal dander, and
Molds [Murray et al. 2001; Togias 2003; Jaakkola
et al. 2005],
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) (passive and

active smoking),
Indoor and outdoor air pollution,
Occupational sensitizers: more than 300 substances
were identified (including many chemical substances)
causing occupational asthma or exacerbating its
symptoms such as
o Isocyanates,
o Platinum salts and
o Animal biological products [GINA 2011], and
Miscellaneous causes such as

o
o
o
o
o
Exercise,
Food allergies,
Gastroesophageal reflux,
Aspirin, or
Other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
(NSAID) sensitivity, sulfite sensitivity, and others
[Weinberger 2003; NHLBI 1997].
This Case Study focuses on preventable environmental

asthma triggers and measures that may decrease their
effects on patients.
Key Points
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease. It is

o Increasing in prevalence and
o Triggered by many various environmental factors.
Progress Check
1.
Which of the following is not a symptom of asthma

A.
B.
C.
D.
Wheezing.
Seizures.
Shortness of breath.
Cough.
To review relevant content, see Definition of

Asthma in this section.
2.
Common environmental triggers of asthma include

A.
B.
C.
D.
Allergens.
Irritant chemicals.
Viral infections.
All of the above.
To review relevant content, see Factors Which

Contribute to Asthma in this section.
Differential Diagnosis of Asthma

Learning
Objective

Differential
Diagnosis in
Adults
asthma in children, and

asthma in adults.
The first step in dealing with the asthma patient is to

make sure it is asthma. Although, many cases of
recurrent cough and wheezing in children and adults are
due to asthma, other conditions are often misdiagnosed
as asthma. In adults, the differential diagnosis of asthma
includes
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),

Congestive heart failure,
Gastroesophageal reflux disease,
Mechanical obstruction of the airways (e.g., tumors,
foreign bodies), and
Vocal cord dysfunction.
Infrequent causes of wheezing include
Differential
Diagnosis in
Children
Pulmonary embolism,
Pulmonary infiltrates with eosinophilia, and
Some medications (e.g., angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE) inhibitors) [NHLBI 2007].
In children, chronic cough is a problem, which needs

differentiation between asthma and not asthma. Chronic
productive cough with purulent sputum is a reason for
concern in children and is not usually a symptom of
asthma. Nevertheless, respiratory infection presenting
purulent sputum can exacerbate asthma in children
previously diagnosed with asthma. The younger the child,
the greater the need to exclude underlying disease at an
early stage [de Jongste and Shields 2003].
Wheezing in children can be an allergic (i.e., asthma) or
non-allergic response [Lemanske 2003; Weinberger
2003]. Non-allergic wheezing in children occurs during
acute infections, including viral bronchiolitis. Coughing
and wheezing in bronchiolitis is difficult to distinguish
from asthma. The differential diagnosis of children with
frequent respiratory infection and wheezing should
include
Foreign body aspiration causing airway obstruction,

Pneumonia/bronchiolitis,
Cystic fibrosis,
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (in premature infants),
Primary ciliary dyskinesia syndrome, and,
Immune deficiency [NHLBI 2007; GINA 2011].
Table 1. Differential Diagnosis Possibilities for Asthma [NHLBI,

2007; GINA 2011]
Infants and Children
Upper airway diseases
Allergic rhinitis and sinusitis
Obstructions involving large

airways
Foreign body in trachea or

bronchus
Vocal cord dysfunction
Vascular rings or laryngeal
webs
Laryngotracheomalacia,
tracheal stenosis, or
bronchostenosis
Enlarged lymph nodes or
tumor
Obstructions involving small

airways
Viral bronchiolitis or
obliterative bronchiolitis
Cystic fibrosis
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
Other causes
Congenital heart diseases

Recurrent cough not due to
asthma
Aspiration from swallowing
mechanism
Adults
Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD)
Hyperventilation syndrome
and panic attacks
Congestive heart failure
Pulmonary embolism
Laryngeal dysfunction
Mechanical obstruction of the
airways (benign and
malignant tumors)
Pulmonary infiltration with
eosinophilia
Diffuse parenchymal lung
diseases
Cough secondary to drugs
(ACE inhibitors)
Vocal cord dysfunction
Dysfunction or
gastroesophageal reflux
Key Points
Many medical conditions may be confused with asthma

at initial diagnosis.
The most common differential diagnoses of asthma
among adults include
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
Congestive heart failure,
Gastroesophageal reflux disease,
Mechanical obstruction of the airways ( e.g., tumors,
foreign bodies), and
o Vocal cord dysfunction.
o
o
o
o
The most common differential diagnoses of asthma

among children are
Foreign body aspiration causing airway obstruction,
Pneumonia/bronchiolitis,
Cystic fibrosis,
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (in premature infants),
and
o Primary ciliary dyskinesia syndrome.
o
o
o
o
Progress Check
3.
Conditions that may be confused with asthma in

CHILDREN include all of the following EXCEPT
A.
B.
C.
D.
Foreign body aspiration.

Enlarged lymph nodes or tumor.
Hematochezia.
Gastroesophageal reflux.
To review relevant content, see Table 1. Differential

Diagnosis Possibilities for Asthma in this section.
4.
Conditions which may be confused with asthma in

ADULTS include all of the following EXCEPT
A. Epistaxis.
B. COPD.
C. Pulmonary embolism.
D. Cough and wheezing secondary to ACE inhibitors.

To review relevant content, see Table 1. Differential
Diagnosis Possibilities for Asthma in this section.
Environmental Triggers of Asthma

Learning
Objectives
Introduction
Identify five indoor triggers of an acute asthma

episode,
Identify five outdoor triggers of an acute asthma
episode, and
Describe the impact of occupational exposures on
adult asthma prevalence.
Exposure to many environmental factors can trigger and

exacerbate asthma. The American Academy of Pediatrics
has published a book about childhood environmental
health problems, which states: "Avoiding environmental
allergens and irritants is one of the primary goals of good
asthma management" [AAPCEH 2003].
Medical and nursing education programs often do not fully
incorporate environmental questions and an exposure
history into asthma management. A recent study
reported that, although over half of practicing
pediatricians surveyed had seen a patient with health
issues related to environmental exposures, fewer than
1/5th were trained in taking an environmental history
[Kilpatrick et al. 2002].
This Case Study focuses on
Allergens such as
o
o
o
o
o
Pollen,
Mold,
Animal dander,
Insect parts, and
Some chemicals
Irritants such as
o
o
o
o
Models of Effect
which can trigger or exacerbate an asthma attack in

individuals with increased airway hyper responsiveness.
How an environmental pollutant may affect asthma
severity [IOM 2000].
Evidence of
Effect
Smoke,
Dust,
Gas or Diesel fumes, and
Chlorine
The pollutant might act as an inciter or trigger,

leading to an asthma attack in an individual with
hyper-responsive airways.
The pollutant can exacerbate pre-existing airway
inflammation, leading to increased airway hyperresponsiveness, which may persist after exposure
ends.
The pollutant might augment or modify immune
responses to inhaled antigens or intensify the effect
of other pollutants in the respiratory tract.
Several studies support the importance of allergies and

allergens in triggering and exacerbating asthma. Key
findings include
Sensitization to indoor allergens and the spores of

outdoor molds is a risk factor for the development of
asthma in children and adults.
In children and adults, sensitive to indoor allergens,
the severity of asthma symptoms may vary with the
level of exposure.
Reduction of exposure to house-dust mites has
improved Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs) results
and reduction in airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in sensitive children and adults
[Nelson 2000; Frew 2003a; Simpson and Custovic
2004].
Taken together, these studies make a strong argument

for the importance of allergen and irritant exposure as
aggravating factors in asthma in both children and adults.
The findings reinforce the importance of the identification
and treatment of these exposures.

Indoor Air
Pollution
In industrialized countries, adults and children often

spend most of their time indoors [Schwab et al. 1992].
Exposure to indoor air pollutants may have a more
important effect on childhood asthma than exposure to
outdoor air pollutants [IOM 2000; Etzel 2003]. The
primary indoor air pollutants associated with asthma
exacerbation include [AAPCEH 2003; Jones 2000]
Biologic
Allergen
Overview
Biologic allergens (dust mites, cockroaches, animal

dander, mold, etc.),
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS),
Irritant chemicals and fumes, and
Products from combustion devices.
Biologic allergens can be found throughout the
Home,
School, and
Work and recreational environments
although concentrations of
Dust mites,
Cockroaches, and
Animal dander allergens (pets, mice, rats) vary with
geographic location.
However,
Dust mite allergen,

Mold, and
Cat and dog allergens
can be found in most homes, including homes where

there are no pets at present [Togias 2003; Weinberger
2003; Nelson 2000].
Dust Mites
Sensitization to house dust mites is an important risk

factor for asthma exacerbations and the development of
asthma. The dust mite grows optimally at warm
temperatures and with humidity greater than 50% in
cloth-covered objects such as
Cockroaches
Soft toys,
Upholstered furniture,
Bedding,
Mattresses, and
Carpets [Sporik et al. 1990; Platts-Mills et al. 1995;
Duffy et al. 1998].
Cockroach allergens also may increase a childs risk of

developing asthma [IOM 2000, Etzel 2003].
Cockroach droppings may be one of the most under

appreciated allergens in the indoor environment.
There have been reports of 36% cockroach
sensitization rates in inner-city asthmatic children.
Children with asthma and cockroach allergy exposed
to cockroach allergens have more
o
o
o
o
Wheezing,
Missed school days,
Emergency room visits, and
Hospitalizations
than nonsensitized or nonexposed children [IOM 2000;

Rosenstreich et al. 1997].
Cats
Asthma exacerbation among many children with asthma

is causally related to cats [IOM 2000].
Other Animals
The severity of allergic reactions to cats is greater

than reactions to other common domestic pets.
More than 6 million U.S. residents have allergies to
cats, and up to 40% of atopic patients demonstrate
skin test sensitivity [Wood and Eggleston 1993].
However, recent studies have shown that the
presence of a cat in the house may decrease the risk
of developing asthma [Platts-Mills et al. 2001;
Nafstad et al. 2001].
Dogs, rodents, birds, and other furry or feathered animals

may contribute in varying degrees to the animal allergens
within the home.
Dogs may have breed-specific allergens, and are less

uniformly allergenic than cats [Lindren et al. 1988].
Rodent allergens can come from pets or pests in the
home.
Birds and feathers have been suggested as
allergenic; however the true culprits may be dust
mites associated with feathers (including feathers in
pillows and clothes) [IOM 2000].
Molds
Exposure to molds may lead to allergic sensitization and

may exacerbate asthma or allergic rhinitis [IOM 2004].
At least 60 species of molds have spores thought to

be allergenic [Burge 1989].
Species of particular concern are
o
o
o
o
Penicillium,
Aspergillus,
Cladosporium, and
Alternaria.
Effects of exposure to these species include:
Nasal congestion,
Runny nose,
Conjunctivitis
Sneezing,
Lacrimation,
Wheezing,
Chest tightness, and
Shortness of breath.
Among patients studied, children are the most sensitive

to mold allergens [Etzel 2003].
Pollens
Exposure to pollens may cause asthma exacerbations. For

pollen to be clinically significant, it must be present in
significant numbers and be allergenic. Particles <7m
tend to deposit in the airways [Brooks and Bush 2009].
Ragweed pollen is the most common cause of pollen
asthma in the United States. Grass and tree pollens are
also a concern in many areas worldwide [Shah and
Grammer 2012].
Environmental
Tobacco Smoke
(ETS)
Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is a risk

factor for asthma attacks in children [AAPCEH 1997].
Children with asthma and with parents who smoke have
more frequent asthma attacks and more severe
symptoms [Weitzman et al. 1990; Martinez et al. 1992;
Murray and Morrison 1993]. There is clear evidence of an
association between exposure to environmental tobacco
smoke and the development and exacerbations of
asthma. Exposure to ETS also places children at increased
risk for
Combustion
Devices
Sinusitis,
Otitis media, and
Bronchiolitis [IOM 2000; Tager et al. 1993].
Improperly used or malfunctioning heating devices are a

major source of combustion pollutants indoors. Possible
sources of contaminants include
Gas ranges, especially if used for home heating;

Improperly vented fireplaces;
Inefficient or malfunctioning furnaces;
Stoves burning wood, coal, or other biomass; and
Unvented or improperly vented kerosene or gas
space heaters.
The combustion products from these devices include
Carbon monoxide (CO),

Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ),
Particulate matter, and
Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ).
Although CO is a major health concern, it is not an

irritating gas and is not likely by itself to exacerbate
asthma. In combination, these combustion products will
often exacerbate asthma symptoms [AAPCEH 2003].
Chemical Fumes
Some building materials and home furnishings off-gas

formaldehyde [US EPA 1994]. Formaldehyde may
exacerbate asthma in some infants and children
[Krzyzanowski et al. 1990]. At sufficient concentrations in
the air, cleaning products such as chlorine and ammonia
may also trigger reactions.
Miscellaneous
Allergens
Latex may cause an allergic response either by direct

contact or by inhalation of latex particles [Fish 2002].
Symptoms range from skin eruption to bronchospasm and
anaphylaxis. Allergic responses around the home may be
triggered by
Outdoor Air
Pollution
Gloves,
Balloons,
Condoms, and
Various types of sporting equipment [Landwehr and
Boguniewicz 1996].
For the last several decades, high levels of outdoor air

pollution have been associated with short-term increases
in asthma morbidity and mortality [AAPCEH 1993; Ostro
et al. 2001; Tolbert et al. 2000]. Specific exposures to
outdoor plant allergens such as organic dusts from
Castor beans,
Soybeans, and
Grains
dramatically illustrate this relationship [Etzel 2003].

Asthma has been shown to be caused and triggered by
ambient hazardous air pollutants, as well as industrial
releases of
Aldehydes,
Metals,
Uncombusted hydrocarbons,
Isocyanates, and
Others [Leikauf et al. 1995].
In some communities, hazardous air pollution is

associated with noxious odors, and odors can exacerbate
symptoms among some people with asthma [Shusterman
1992].
Air pollution has been implicated as one of the factors
responsible for the increase in asthma incidence in most
industrialized countries [Salvi 2001]. Clinicians should be
aware of the common (criteria) air pollutants that may
affect asthmatic patients. The National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) are set for six criteria
pollutants:
Ozone (O 3 ),
SO 2 ,
NO 2 ,
CO,
Particulate matter <10 microns (PM 10 ) and
particulate matter <2.5 microns (PM 2.5 ).
The standards are designed to protect the health of all

susceptible groups, including persons with asthma. The
Air Quality Index (AQI, Table 2) provides standardized
means of communicating health information associated
with daily ambient levels of ground-level O 3 , SO 2 , NO 2 ,
CO, PM 10 , and PM 2.5 (See Appendix 1). For any reported
index value greater than 100, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) determines the index number
daily and reports the highest of the:
Index figures,
Critical pollutant, and
Specific groups sensitive to the pollutant [US EPA
1999].
Table 2. Air Quality Index

Air Quality
Index
(AQI) Values
Levels of Health
Concern
Colors
When the AQI

is in this range:
...air quality
conditions are:
...as symbolized
by this color:
0 to 50
Good
Green
Ozone
51 to 100
Moderate
Yellow
101 to 150
Unhealthy for
Sensitive Groups
Orange
151 to 200
Unhealthy
Red
201 to 300
Very Unhealthy
Purple
301 to 500
Hazardous
Maroon
[US EPA 2009]
Some children with asthma (and some children without

asthma) have decreases in lung function after exposure to
ozone. In the United States, a large fraction of ambient
O 3 is the product of photochemical reactions between
Various nitrogen oxides (NO x ),

Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), and
Ultraviolet light.
Most of the health effects research on O 3 has focused on

the short-term effects, such as reductions in FEV 1 and
forced vital capacity (FVC). Levels of O 3 are usually
greatest on hot summer days and tend to peak in the late
afternoon [Etzel 2003; Spektor et al. 1991].
SO2
Because of its high solubility, SO 2 mainly irritates the

upper airway. The nasal mucosa effectively removes most
inspired SO 2 during breathing at rest. Deep penetration
to the lung mucosa may occur during moderate exercise.
SO 2 has a dose-response association with
bronchoconstriction. The amount of SO 2 -induced
bronchoconstriction is dependent on the level of preexisting hyper-responsiveness and exercise of the
individual. A person without asthma can tolerate a higher
concentration of SO 2 before developing symptoms. The
bronchoconstrictor response develops within minutes of
exposure and resolves within an hour after exposure ends
[Ware et al. 1986; Koenig et al. 1990]. The Donora, PA
smog disaster in 1948 and the Great London Smog in
1952 are examples of environmental disasters related to
air pollution, which claimed many lives.
NO2
In contrast to the other pollutants, NO 2 is both an indoor

and outdoor air pollutant. Indoor sources of NO 2 include
Malfunctioning gas stoves,

Furnaces,
Fireplaces, and
Kerosene space heaters.
Most NO 2 health effects are believed to be due to longterm, low-level outdoor exposure. Like the other air
pollutants, NO 2 increases bronchial responsiveness during
exercise. NO 2 decreases lung function in persons with
asthma exposed to concentrations above 0.3 ppm,
although there is not a clear dose-response relationship.
Short-term exposure to high concentrations of NO 2
induces terminal bronchiolar changes and diffuses
alveolar injury. Such high concentrations are generally
seen only in accidental exposure, as might occur within
confined spaces or in an occupational setting [Etzel 2003;
Shima and Adachi 2000].
PM 10 and PM 2.5
Particulate matter is a mixture of solid particles and liquid

droplets. Particulate matter <10 microns (PM 10 ) is
referred to as course particulate matter which may
result in lower airway exposure [AAPCEH 2003]. PM 10 is
the standard measure of particulate air pollution used
worldwide. Studies suggest that asthma symptoms can
be worsened by increases in the levels of PM 10 , which is a
complex mixture of particle types. PM 10 has many
components and there is no general agreement regarding
which component(s) could exacerbate asthma. However,
the inflammatory effects of
Transition metals,
Hydrocarbons,
Ultrafine particles, and
Endotoxin
all present to varying degrees in PM 10 could be

important [Donaldson et al. 2000].
Particulate matter <2.5 microns (PM 2.5 ) is referred to as
fine-particle matter. Sources of PM 2.5 include
Industrial and residential combustion,
Vehicle exhaust,
Forest and vegetation fires, and
Atmospheric reactions between gases (SO 2 and NO x )
and VOCs.
PM 2.5 penetrates deeper into the lung than does PM 10 ,

potentially causing greater adverse health effects
[AAPCEH 2003; Schwartz and Neas 2000]. Several
recently published community epidemiologic studies
associated adverse effects when PM 2.5 formed a
significant portion of the particulate exposure, even
though PM 10 air concentrations were below NAAQS.
Medication use, hospital admissions, and the number of
emergency room visits (seen primarily with elderly
patients and individuals with cardiopulmonary disease)
increased under those conditions [Ware et al. 1986;
Dockery et al. 1989].
Traffic-Related
Pollutants and
Diesel Exhaust
Exposure to motor traffic emissions can have a significant

effect on respiratory function in children and adults.
Occupational
Asthma
Studies show that children living near heavily

traveled roadways have significantly higher rates of
wheezing and diagnosed asthma [Ciccone et al.
1998].
Epidemiologic studies suggest that diesel exhaust
may be particularly aggravating to children
[Brunekreef et al. 1997].
A child riding in a school bus may be exposed to as
much as 4 times the level of diesel exhaust as one
riding in a car [NRDC 2001].
Occupational asthma (OA) is defined as a variable airflow

limitation and/or airway hyperresponsiveness due to
causes and conditions attributable to a particular
occupational environment and not to stimuli encountered
outside the workplace [Friedman-Jimenez et al. 2000,
Mapp et al. 2005].
OA is the most frequently reported respiratory
occupational disease in industrialized countries [Bang et
al. 2005; NIOSH 2003].
The annual incidence of OA ranges from 12 to 170

cases per million workers; the estimated mean is 47
cases per million.
The prevalence of OA is reported at 5% to 15%
across many different industries.
The two main types of Occupational Asthma are

1. Immunologic: A latency period that varies from
mmunologically mediated sensitization.
o IgE mediated: Induced by high molecular weight
proteins, and some low molecular weight
proteins. Chemicals can form allergens by
reacting with cells/proteins and produce IgE. It
is associated with other signs and symptoms
such as rhinitis and urticaria.
o Non-IgE: Induced by low molecular weight
agents
2. Non-immunologic: There is no latency period.
o The disease occurs after exposure to high
concentrations of work place irritant.
o Known as irritant induced asthma it can occur
after single or multiple irritant exposures. There
is a clear temporal association between
inhalation exposure and the rapid onset of
asthmatic symptoms.
o The diagnosis is never made in individuals with
preexisting asthma.
o The most common form is reactive airway
dysfunction syndrome (RADS) which occurs
after exposure to high levels of an irritating
vapor, fume, or smoke.
o The symptoms arise within 24 hrs after highlevel exposure to irritant and accompanied by
eye/nasal irritant symptoms and increased
airway responsiveness [Mapp et al. 2005].
Workexacerbated asthma (WEA) is defined as
preexisting or concurrent asthma that is exacerbated by
workplace exposure. WEA is common with a median

prevalence of 21.5% among adults with asthma
[Henneberger et al. 2011].
There are well over 300 agents reported to cause OA
[Malo and Chan-Yeung 2006], and an equal or greater
number of agents and conditions at work can aggravate
existing asthma. Diisocyanates are the leading identified
cause of OA worldwide [Johnson et al. 2004; Wisnewski
et al. 2006].
Some occupational sensitizers and irritants are
Aldehydes,
Animal and vegetable proteins,
Cleaning agents,
Detergent enzymes,
Diisocyanates,
Epoxy glues,
Flour,
Hair dressing products
Latex,
Platinum salts, and
Wood dust.
In 2004, the Institute of Medicine concluded that

sufficient evidence exists for associating the presence of
mold or other agents in damp buildings to
Nasal and throat symptoms,

Cough,
Wheeze, and
Asthma symptoms in sensitized people with asthma
[IOM 2004].
There has been further work indicating that exposure to

damp indoor environments containing mold can lead to
the development of asthma since this review was
published [Cox-Ganser et al. 2005; Jaakkola 2005].
Key Points
Progress Check
3.
A wide range of indoor and outdoor allergens,

irritants, as well as cold temperatures, can
exacerbate asthma.
Household exposures to dust mites and cockroach
allergens, and the irritant effects of environmental
tobacco smoke, contribute significantly to asthma
morbidity.
Occupational asthma is the most common
occupational disease in industrialized countries.
Allergens or irritants in the work environment may
cause occupational asthma or exacerbate asthma in
those individuals with this preexisting condition.
Risk of asthma may be increased by
A. Living near a heavily traveled roadway.
B. Heavy exercise on a day with an AQI of 130.
C. Spending more than 1 hour each day riding a
diesel-powered bus.
D. All of the above.
To review relevant content, see Traffic-Related
Pollutants and Diesel Exhaust in this section.
4.
The leading cause of occupational asthma is

exposure to
A.
B.
C.
D.
Latex.
Spider mites.
Diisocyanates.
Epoxy.
To review relevant content, see Occupational

Asthma in this section.
Clinical Assessment
Learning
Objectives
Identify the key signs and symptoms of asthma,

Describe questions regarding environmental asthma
triggers that should be included in the standard
medical history,
Describe pulmonary function test criteria for
Key Elements
of Diagnosis
diagnosing asthma, and

Describe questions regarding occupational exposures
that should be included in the standard medical
history.
To establish a diagnosis of asthma, the clinician should

confirm the following key points:
Episodic symptoms of airflow obstruction are present,

Airflow obstruction is at least partially reversible, and
Alternative diagnoses are excluded.
Recommended mechanisms to establish the diagnosis

include
Detailed medical history,

Physical exam, and
Measurements of lung function (spirometry or peak
expiratory flow) to assess the severity of airflow
limitation, its variability, its reversibility and provide
confirmation of the diagnosis of asthma.
Additional studies may be needed to diagnosis asthma in

children 5 years and younger, in the elderly, and in workers
with suspected occupational asthma.
More tests can also be considered to:
Evaluate alternative diagnoses,

Identify precipitating factors,
Assess severity, and
Investigate potential complications.
Some cases may require referral to a specialist in asthma

care for consultation or treatment [NHLBI 2007].
Medical
History
The focus of the medical history should be on the presence

of any of the following [NHLBI 2007]:
Cough (particularly worse at night),

Family history of asthma or allergies,
Recurrent chest tightness,
Recurrent difficulty in breathing, and
Recurrent wheeze.
Note whether symptoms occur or worsen in the presence of

[NHLBI 2007]:
Airborne chemicals or dusts,

Animals with fur or feathers,
Changes in weather,
Dust mites (i.e., in mattresses, pillows, upholstered
furniture, carpets, bed linens, stuffed animals; note
laundering/cleaning practices involving these items),
Exercise,
Menses,
Mold,
Pollen,
Smoke (tobacco, wood),
Strong emotional expression (laughing or crying
hard), or
Viral infection.
A sample environmental trigger exposure history is included

in Appendix 1. This tool was developed by The National
Environmental Education and Training Foundation for
children and adolescents with asthma [NEETF 2005].
A resource for general exposure history taking is Case
Studies in Environmental Medicine: Taking an Exposure
History
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=33&po=0
Physical Exam
The physical examination should focus on the:
Upper respiratory tract (rhino-sinusitis, nasal polyps),

Chest, and
Skin (eczema) [NHLBI 2007].
Physical findings that increase the probability of asthma

include
Appearance of hunched shoulders,

Atopic dermatitis/eczema or any other manifestation
of an allergic skin condition,
Chest deformity,
Hyperexpansion of the thorax (especially in children),
Increased nasal secretion, mucosal swelling, and
nasal polyps,
Prolonged phase of forced exhalation (typical of
airflow obstruction),
Sounds of wheezing during normal breathing, and
Use of accessory muscles of respiration (neck, back,
and chest).
NoteWheezing during forced exhalation is not always a

reliable indicator of airflow limitation. In mild intermittent
asthma, or between exacerbations, wheezing may be
absent.
Pulmonary
Function
Testing
Spirometry typically measures the maximal volume of air

forcibly exhaled from the point of maximal inhalation
(forced vital capacity, FVC) and the volume of air exhaled
during the first second of the FVC (forced expiratory volume
in 1 second, FEV 1 ). Reduced FEV 1 and FEV 1 /FVC values
relative to reference or predicted values indicate airflow
obstruction.
To help confirm a diagnosis of asthma, take spirometry
measurements (FEV 1 , FVC, and FEV 1 /FVC) before and after
the patient inhales a short-acting bronchodilator (200400
g salbutamol or albuterol). This helps to determine if the
airflow obstruction is reversible over the short term.
Spirometry is generally valuable in children over 4 years of
age; however, some children cannot conduct the maneuver
adequately until after 7 years of age [NHLBI 2007].

An increase of 12% or more and 200 mL or more in FEV 1
after inhaling a short-acting bronchodilator indicates
significant reversibility. A 2 to 3-week trial of oral
corticosteroid therapy may be required to demonstrate
reversibility. The spirometry measures that establish
reversibility may not indicate the patients best lung
function. Lung function abnormalities are categorized as
restrictive, obstructive, or mixed respiratory impairment.
A reduced ratio of FEV 1 /FVC (i.e., < 65%*) indicates
obstruction to the flow of air from the lungs.
A reduced FVC with a normal FEV1/FVC ratio suggests a
restrictive pattern.
FVC<70% is often taken as the normal cut-off. The normal
cut-off is age dependent (falling over time).
The severity of abnormal spirometric measurements is
evaluated by comparison of the patients results with
reference values that are based on
Allergy
Testing
Age,
Height,
Race, and
Sex [NHLBI 2007].
For patients with persistent asthma who take daily

medications, the clinician should identify allergen exposures
and consider using skin testing or in vitro testing to assess
sensitivity to perennial indoor allergens.
Determination of sensitivity to a perennial indoor allergen is
often not possible from a patient medical history alone.
Susceptible individuals tend to be atopic and will

demonstrate an immediate wheal-and-flare skin
reaction when prick-tested against various common
allergens.
Skin testing and in vitro laboratory results (e.g.,
radioallergosorbent test (RAST testing), which
determine antigen-specific IgE concentration in
serum, must be correctly interpreted and correlated

with the patients history and exam (see Table 3).
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is
also used. The demonstration of IgE antibodies to an
allergen demonstrates prior exposure, but does not
always prove that the patients allergic symptoms are
related to that specific allergen [NHLBI 2007].
The recommendation to do skin or in vitro tests for patients

with persistent asthma exposed to perennial indoor
allergens will result in a limited number of allergy tests for
about half of all asthma patients.
This is based on the prevalence of persistent asthma

and the level of exposure to indoor allergens.
Skin or in vitro tests for patients exposed to perennial
allergens are essential to justify the expense and
effort involved in implementing environmental
controls.
In addition, patients are less likely to maintain
environmental controls (e.g., with regard to pets)
without proof of their sensitivity to allergens [NHBLI
2007].
Completely negative skin tests to common allergens are

rare in childhood asthma but occur in a substantial
proportion of patients with adult-onset asthma [Bonner
1984].
Table 3. Comparison of In Vivo vs. In Vitro Allergy Testing [NHLBI
1997; NHLBI 2003]
Advantages of Skin Testing
Advantages of RAST and Other In

Vitro Test
Less expensive than in vitro

tests
Results are available within 1
hour
More sensitive than in vitro
tests
Results are visible to the
patient (This may encourage
compliance with environmental
control measures.)
Diagnosis and
Evaluation of
Occupational
Asthma
Does not require knowledge of

skin testing technique
Does not require availability of
allergen extracts
No risk of systemic reactions
Can be performed on patients
who are taking medications that
suppress the immediate skin
test (antihistamines,
antidepressants)
Can be done for patients with
extensive eczema
The adult patients occupational history is the key

diagnostic tool.
In addition, lung function assessments that include

spirometry and bronchial responsiveness are often
coupled with immunological assessment and an
evaluation of inflammation in the investigation of
occupational asthma.
Evaluations may include serial peak expiratory flow
rate (PEFR) measurements and nonspecific
hypersensitivity challenges with histamine or
methacholine.
Serial PEFR monitoring while at work and away from
work may be important in documenting whether
asthma is work-related in selected people, workenvironment permitting [Malo and Chan-Yeung
2001].
Information about workplace exposures to irritants
and sensitizers may be useful.
Specific challenge testing at tertiary referral centers
providing specialized laboratories can also be helpful
[Rabatin and Cowl 2001] but is rarely necessary and
may create unnecessary risk.
Immunological skin tests may be useful to document
immunological sensitization. Induced sputum
analysis has been found useful in the assessment of
OA [Obata et al. 1999, Lemiere 2004].
Key Points
Progress Check
5.
The medical history should include a set of standard

questions addressing factors that worsen the
patients asthma symptoms.
Asthma is an episodic disease. Physical findings may
vary dramatically with time.
Spirometry measurements before and after a shortacting bronchodilator are extremely helpful in the
diagnosis of asthma.
For those patients with persistent asthma who take
medications daily, the clinician should consider using
skin testing or in vitro testing to assess sensitivity to
perennial indoor allergens.
Occupational asthma is the most prevalent form of
work-related lung disease in industrialized nations.
Medical history questions about environmental
asthma triggers should include
A.
B.
C.
D.
Tobacco smoke.
Pets.
Bedding and laundering practices.
All of the above.
To review relevant content, see Medical History in

this section.
6.
An individual who increases his/her FEV 1 by more

than 12% after inhaling a short-acting bronchodilator
probably has asthma
A. True.
B. False.
To review relevant content, see Pulmonary Function
Testing in this section.
7.
The key diagnostic tool in occupational asthma is

A.
B.
C.
D.
Complete blood count.

Chest X-ray.
The occupational exposure history.
Arterial blood gases.
To review relevant content, see Diagnosis and
Evaluation of Occupational Asthma in this section.

8.
It is possible to make the diagnosis of asthma

without detectable wheezing
A. True.
B. False.
To review relevant content, see Physical Exam in
this section.
Case Study (Continued)

Case Study
(Continued)
A review of the exposure history for the 12-year-old

reveals that:
The family has a long-haired cat that stays in the

house,
The patient develops nasal congestion and chest
tightness when playing with the pet,
The central heating furnace filters have not been
cleaned in the last year,
Wall-to-wall carpet is present throughout the house,
The home has a wood-burning fireplace, which is
occasionally used,
The shower areas of the bathrooms have some mold,
and
Both parents smoke cigarettes indoors, but do not
smoke in the childrens rooms.
In addition, the patients mother states that:
She vacuums regularly,

She has not seen any insects in the house, and
The basement is not damp.
The patient with asthma symptoms underwent peak flow

testing in your office. The results demonstrated a 24%
increase in peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) after
administration of a short-acting B 2 -agonist
bronchodilator. The patient is diagnosed with mild
persistent asthma.
Anti-inflammatory therapy consisting of a corticosteroid

metered-dose inhaler (MDI) for daily use and a shortacting B 2 -agonist MDI for symptomatic relief is given to
the patient; she is instructed on use of the MDIs with the
spacer. The patient uses the spacer in front of you to
demonstrate that she understands its proper use. You
explain that it might take 7 days or more for the
corticosteroid inhaler to be effective. You also explain that
the goal is to control the asthma with the corticosteroid
inhaler and decrease use of the short-acting B 2 -agonist
for rare breakthrough of acute asthma symptoms. A
return visit in 2 to 3 weeks is scheduled.
You tell the mother:
Both parents should stop smoking or, at a minimum,

not smoke in the house or the car.
Clean or replace the furnace filter on a regular basis.
The cat should not be indoors.
Remove the wall-to-wall carpeting from the patients
bedroom (and preferably the whole house if
feasible).
Encase mattresses and pillows in sealed plastic
covers.
Wash all bedding materials in hot water (>130F
[>55C]) to kill dust mites.
Water heaters in homes with young children are
frequently set at or below 120F (50C) to avoid
scalding. Suggest that the mother turn the water
heater up for short periods to provide the necessary
water temperature for washing bedding and area
rugs.
Case Study
Follow-Up
A few weeks later, the father brings his daughter in for

her follow-up assessment. The childs cough has subsided
and she is able to sleep through the night. The child has
been using the short-acting B 2 -agonist and corticosteroid
inhaler as directed. For the last week, she has not
required additional use of the short-acting B 2 -agonist.
The father relates that his daughter has been more active
lately and plays soccer without episodes of shortness of
breath. Auscultation of the lungs reveals that both fields
are clear without wheezes. You decide to maintain the
current medication treatment regimen. The father has an
audible wheeze and an intermittent cough. He is wearing
his factory work clothes and you smell a strong chemical
odor coming from him. You reiterate that both parents
should stop smoking.
Progress Check
9.
Which is NOT EXPECTED to be an environmental

trigger of asthma in this home?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Cats.
Environmental tobacco smoke.
Mold in the bathroom.
Lead paint around window sills.
To review relevant content, see Case Study

(continued) in this section.
10. You learn from the girls father that his place of
employment has poor ventilation and no provision
for respiratory protection, shower facilities, or
changing his work clothes. What advice could you
give the girls father regarding his current work
practices?
A. He should quit his job immediately.
B. Dont worry, all facilities regulated by OSHA are
safe.
C. Wear a disposable dust mask at work and you
should have no problems.
D. Contact his occupational health clinic or health
professional per worksite protocol for evaluation.
To review relevant content, see Case Study Follow-
Up in this section.
Treatment, Management, and Prevention

Learning
Objectives
Treatment and
Management
Overview
Describe general management goals for patients with

asthma,
Describe modifying factors that might affect how
environmental triggers cause/exacerbate asthma,
and
Identify at least three things you can advise patients
to do to decrease exposure to allergens and irritants.
This Case Study discusses the role environmental

factors play in
Causing,
Triggering, and
Exacerbating asthma.
This Case Study does not comprehensively review

asthma treatment and management.
The treatment and management of environmental asthma
follow the guidelines set forth by the National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute, with special emphasis on the
management of the patients environment [NHLBI 2007].
Pharmaceutical intervention forms the basis of asthma
treatment. Asthma medications are generally categorized
as
Relievers: medications used on an as-needed basis

that act quickly to reverse bronchoconstriction and
relieve symptoms or
Controllers: medications taken daily on a long-term
basis to keep asthma under clinical control mainly
through their anti-inflammatory effects.
A stepwise approach is taken for the long-term

management of asthma after confirming the diagnosis
and assessing the severity of disease [NHLBI 2007, GINA
2011].
Goals for the general management of a patient with
asthma include
Predisposing
Factors
Preventing chronic asthma symptoms and

exacerbations (day and night),
Maintaining the patients normal activity (including
exercise and other physical activities),
Regaining and maintaining normal or near-normal
lung function, and
Prescribing optimal pharmacotherapy with minimal
or no adverse effects.
Management includes careful monitoring of the patients

response to treatment and appropriate adjustments. It
also includes educating the patient and family regarding
primary and secondary preventive measures [NHLBI
2007; GINA 2011].
Atopy, the genetic predisposition for the development of
an immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated response to
common airborne allergens, is the strongest identifiable
predisposing factor for developing asthma [NHLBI 1997;
Holla et al. 2002; NHLBI 2007; Busse and Rosenwasser
2003].
Most children with asthma have allergic rhinitis, a major
independent risk factor for asthma. Rhinitis and asthma
can be viewed as manifestations of one syndromethe
chronic allergic respiratory syndromein different parts
of the respiratory tract [Togias 2003].
Certain immune system components, such as the Thelper phenotype, are determined in the first year of life
by environmental exposure to respiratory infections or
environmental allergens in genetically predisposed
individuals [Robinson et al. 2004; Luft et al. 2004; Larche
et al. 2003; Umetsu et al. 2003].
Exposure to
Allergens and
Risk of Asthma
Studies of exposure to allergens and risk of asthma have

yielded paradoxical results.
Exposure to some pets appears to increase the risk

of asthma and wheezing in older children, yet lower
the risk among young children [Apelberg et al.
2001].
House dust mite and cockroach allergens appear to
have a positive linear relationship, whereas cat
allergens appear to act quite differently, with
maximum sensitization developing at moderate
exposure levels.
Very low levels of cat allergen exposure are likely to
induce no response; very high levels are likely to
develop a form of tolerance [Murray et al. 2001].
Decreased exposure to infections and allergens in
early childhood has been linked to the increased
incidence of asthma in industrialized countries (the
hygiene hypothesis) [Liu and Murphy 2003].
Hygiene
Hypothesis
The hygiene hypothesis of asthma states that naturally

occurring infections and allergen exposures might
essentially immunize against the development of asthma
and allergic and autoimmune diseases. The modern
emphasis on cleanliness or sanitizing the environment
may have reduced this natural immunotherapy over the
past century and might be a factor in the global increase
of these conditions [Liu and Murphy 2003].The
differences in health outcomes from exposure are due to
important moderating variables, such as
Age of exposure,
Timing of exposure relative to disease development,
Dose and frequency of exposure,
Co-exposures, and
Genetic predispositions in response [Song and Liu
2003].
Growing up on a farm may protect against developing

asthma and allergic rhinoconjunctivitis [Von Essen 2001].
An important study in 2002 showed that exposure of
young children to older children at home or to other
children in childcare settings protects against the
development of asthma and frequent wheezing later in
childhood [Ball et al. 2000].
Primary
Prevention
Strategies in
Children
Well-documented primary prevention strategies for

asthma.
Avoid smoking and environmental tobacco smoke
(ETS).
For children, studies indicate that in utero exposure to
tobacco smoke products is an important predictor of
wheezing within the first year of life. Exposure to ETS
places children at increased risk for the development and
exacerbation of asthma as well as
Sinusitis,
Otitis media,
Bronchiolitis, and
Diminished pulmonary function.
Both in utero and passive (environmental) tobacco smoke

exposure adversely affect pulmonary function, and
predispose to asthma symptoms and possibly bronchial
hyper responsiveness in childhood. Exposure to tobacco
smoke products in utero is a risk factor for wheezing in
the first year of life [Tager et al. 1993]. Children who
have asthma and whose parents smoke have more
frequent asthma attacks and more severe symptoms
[Weitzman et al. 1990; Martinez et al. 1992].
Avoid exposure to insect allergens.
House dust mite and cockroach allergens have a very
close association between exposure and the sensitization
of an individual [Murray et al. 2001].
Avoid exposure to molds.
Exposure to mold in homes as much as doubles the risk
of asthma development in children [Jaakkola et al. 2005].
Breast-feed infants.
A study demonstrated that exclusively breastfeeding for
the first 4 months is associated with a statistically
significant decrease in the risk of asthma and wheezing in
children until the age of 6 years [Dell and To 2001].
Primary
Prevention in
Adults
In adult-onset asthma, primary prevention relies mainly

on smoking cessation and control of workplace exposures.
Studies of factory workforces in the past decade have
provided consistent evidence of exposure-response
relationships for both sensitization (IgE production) and
asthma [Taylor 2001; Jeebhay et al. 2001].
New-onset occupational asthma may be immunological or
nonimmunological in origin. The immunologic variants are
usually caused by high molecular-weight allergens such
as grain dust and animal or fish protein. Symptoms may
take months or years to develop.
A brief, high-level exposure to a strong irritant can
precipitate nonimmunologic occupational asthma.
Symptoms occur immediately or within a few hours of the
exposure. Multiple lower level exposures to an irritant can
also cause asthma. The worker should be removed from
further exposure once the diagnosis of occupational
asthma is established, whether immunologic or
nonimmunologic in origin. Continued exposure to
sensitizers or irritants following sensitization may cause
persistent problems that can lead to permanent
impairment. In addition, once sensitized, individuals may
have a substantial response to extremely low levels of
sensitizers or irritants. If the diagnosis is made in a timely
fashion and steps are taken to stop exposure, most
workers experience improvement. Prevention is the best
therapeutic intervention [Bardana 2003].
Avoidance of exposure to occupational irritants and
allergens is the mainstay of primary prevention.
Especially notorious for producing occupational asthma
are jobs that use
Isocyanates,
Enzymes, or
Latex.
Prospective surveillance can detect the development of

specific IgE antibody before the onset of allergic
symptoms. This allows continuing interventions to reduce
exposures and minimize or eliminate those associated
with symptoms. Workers with IgE to specific allergens
can continue to work in the industry symptom-free for

their entire careers. This indicates that exposures needed
to induce sensitization are different and probably lower
than exposures needed to elicit allergic symptoms
[Wisnewski et al. 2006; Sarlo and Kirchner 2002].
Secondary
Prevention in
Children and
Adults
Patients can take a number of steps to reduce or avoid

exposure to:
Pollutants,
Irritants, and
Allergens
that may trigger or exacerbate asthma episodes [Williams

et al. 2003; AAPCEH 2003]. The National Environmental
Education and Training Foundation outlined possible
preventive measures in Environmental Management of
Pediatric Asthma: Guidelines for Health Care Providers.
Summarized below are those environmental intervention
guidelines [NEETF 2005]. It is important to note that no
single intervention will likely achieve sufficient benefits to
be cost effective and that a comprehensive environmental
intervention may be needed to improve asthmaassociated morbidity [GINA 2011].
Dust Mites
No matter how clean the home is, dust mites cannot be

eliminated. However, household interventions can
decrease exposure to dust mites and possibly reduce
asthma exacerbations [Ehnert et al. 1992]. Cleaning with
a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter vacuum is
particularly effective in removing allergens and thus
decreasing asthma symptoms [McDonald et al. 2002;
Platts-Mills et al. 2001].
Listed below are recommended steps to reduce dust
mites in the home [NEETF 2005].
Remove carpet from bedrooms.

Use an air conditioner or dehumidifier to reduce
household humidity.
Remove upholstered furniture.
Replace draperies with blinds or other wipeable
window coverings.
Encase pillow and mattress in allergen impermeable
cover.
Animal
Allergens
Remove humidifiers.
Replace wool or feathered bedding with synthetic
materials that will withstand repeated hot water
washing.
Use a damp mop or rag to remove dust (a dry cloth
just stirs up mite allergens).
Vacuum regularly using a cleaner with a HEPA filter
or a double-layered microfilter bag (try not to
vacuum when the asthmatic is in the room).
Wash and thoroughly dry stuffed toys weekly in hot
water, or freeze them weekly.
Wash bedding in hot water (at least 130F) weekly.
Modifications to the home environment can significantly

reduce animal allergens and the frequency of asthma
episodes [Williams et al. 2003]. The following steps can
reduce exposure to animal allergens.
Find a new home for indoor cats, dogs, and pet

rodents that have caused allergy symptoms.
Keep pets outside.
Select low-dander pets in place of those with fur or
feathers.
If those options are not possible, the following steps may

help reduce exposure.
Cockroach
Allergen
Keep pets out of the bedroom.

Enclose mattresses and pillows in zippered plastic
cases.
Remove carpets.
Vacuum regularly using a cleaner with a HEPA filter
or a double-layered microfilter bag (try not to
vacuum when the asthmatic is in the room).
Use a portable air cleaner with HEPA filter for the
childs bedroom.
Keep pets off furniture.
The first step in limiting cockroach allergens is to keep

the house clean and in good shape [OConnor and Gold
1999]. In general, use the least hazardous methods of
roach control first.
Food
Clean up all food items and crumbs.

Limit spread of food around house, especially
bedrooms.
Restrict food consumption to the kitchen and dining
room.
Store food (including pet food) in closed containers.
Hygiene and maintenance
Fix water leaks under sinks.

Mop the kitchen floor and clean countertops at least
once a week.
Check for and plug crevices outside your house that
cockroaches may enter.
Caulk or patch holes in walls, cupboards, and
cabinets.
Pest management
Use the integrated pest management (IPM) approach

for least toxic extermination methods first.
Use boric acid powder under stoves and other
appliances.
Use bait stations and gels.
Use outdoor treatments as much as possible to
prevent insects from entering your house.
If those steps are unsuccessful, seek help from a
professional, licensed exterminator rather than
spraying chemicals yourself.
Stay away from the house for several hours after
pesticides are applied.
Avoid using liquid sprays inside the house, especially
near places children crawl, play, or sleep.
Mold and Mildew
Mold spores are allergens found indoors and outdoors.

Outdoor molds are present year-round throughout the
West (lower altitudes) and South, and in the North during
the fall. Outdoor molds in the North generally peak in late
summer. There is no definite seasonal pattern to molds
that grow indoors. Moisture control is the key step in
limiting indoor mold growth [Krieger and Higgins 2002].
Tips to help keep exposure to mold spores as low as
possible.
Use air-conditioning to cool the house; evaporative

coolers are not recommended.
When first turning on home or car air-conditioners,
leave the room or drive with the windows open for
several minutes to allow mold spores to disperse.
Use a dehumidifier or air-conditioner (nonevaporative or water-filled type) to maintain relative
humidity below 50%.
Do not use a humidifier.
Check faucets, pipes, and ductwork and repair any
that are leaking.
Clean mold with chlorine solution diluted 1:10 with
water.
Do not install carpet and wallpaper in rooms prone to
dampness.
Leave a light on inside a closet that has mold in it to
dry the air.
Install and use exhaust fans in the kitchen,
bathrooms, and damp areas.
Vent bathrooms and clothes dryers to the outside.
Remove decaying debris from the yard, roof, and
gutters.
Avoid raking leaves, mowing lawns, or working with
peat, mulch, hay, or dead wood if you are allergic to
mold spores.
Environmental
Tobacco Smoke
Cigarette smoke contains many toxic chemicals and

irritants. Approximately 42% of children 2 months to 11
years of age live in a home with at least one smoker
[Pirkle et al. 1996]. Children exposed to tobacco smoke
have increased asthma exacerbations. Studies suggest
that asthma symptoms may be less severe for asthmatic
children if parents expose them to less cigarette smoke
[Murray and Morrison 1993]. Complete cessation of
indoor smoking in the homes of children with asthma may
be needed to achieve significant health improvement
[Lodrup and Carlsen 2001]. The following are the most
important preventive strategies to reduce exposure to
environmental tobacco smoke.
Keep your home and car smoke-free.

If you smoke, do not smoke near children or other
nonsmokers.
Seek support to quit smoking; consider aids such as
nicotine gum, patch, and medication from your
doctor to help you in quitting.
Change clothes after smoking while you are in the
process of cutting down on the number of cigarettes.
Choose smoke-free childcare and social settings.
Seek smoke-free environments in restaurants, theaters,
and hotel rooms.
Indoor Air
Pollution
For indoor air pollution, the two best

approaches to reducing indoor air pollution are
source control and ventilation. Listed below are
specific steps for improving indoor air quality.
Limit use of products and materials that emit strong

odors and irritants, such as
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Air freshener sprays,

Chalk dust,
Cleaning products,
Hair sprays,
Insect sprays.
Paint fumes,
Sawdust,
Smoke,
Strong perfumes, and
Talcum powder.
Moderate indoor humidity and moisture (relative

humidity between 35-50%).
Use good housekeeping practices to reduce the
presence of airborne particles.
Install an exhaust fan close to the source of airborne
contaminants or odors and vent it to the outside.
Properly ventilate the room in which a fuel-burning
appliance is used.
Ensure that the doors of wood-burning stoves fit
tightly.
Follow manufacturers instructions when using an
unvented kerosene or gas space heater.
Ensure fireplaces are properly vented so smoke
escapes through the chimney.
Never use a gas-cooking appliance as a heating
source.
Open windows, especially when pollutant sources are
in use (this option must be balanced against the
concern of mold allergy or other plant allergens and
outdoor air pollution).
Outdoor Air
Pollution
Outdoor air pollution, especially ozone and particulate

matter, can increase asthma symptoms. Ways to limit
exposure to outdoor air pollution.
Desensitization
For some cases, consider desensitizationespecially if

environmental control fails to decrease asthma
exacerbations.
Key Points
Progress Check
Monitor air quality and pollen levels and keep

children indoors when pollutants are high.
Avoid sustained contact with vehicle exhaust
emissions and diesel fumes (such as student
exposure to idling school buses).
Use High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters in
household vents.
If possible, move to a less polluted location.
Schedule outdoor activities for times when ozone
levels are lowest, typically in the morning
Specific immunotherapy involves the administration

of allergen extracts to achieve clinical tolerance of
the allergens that cause symptoms in patients with
allergic conditions.
Immunotherapy can be effective in patients with
mild forms of allergic disease, and in those who do
not respond well to standard drug therapy.
Effects of specific immunotherapy take longer to
manifest, but once established, specific
immunotherapy may give long-lasting relief of
allergic symptoms, whereas the benefits of drugs
only last as long as they are continued [Frew 2003b;
Nelson 2003].
Every practitioner who treats asthma patients should
have general goals for management.
Environmental triggers can cause or exacerbate
asthma.
Patients can take a number of steps to reduce or
avoid exposure to the pollutants, irritants, and
allergens that may trigger or exacerbate asthma
episodes.
11. Your overall treatment, management, and prevention
goals might include

A. Confirmation of asthma diagnosis and gauge of
severity.
B. Optimal pharmacotherapy with minimal or no
adverse effects.
C. Education of the patient and family regarding
primary and secondary preventive measures,
including smoking cessation.
To review relevant content, see Treatment and
Management Overview in this section.
12. Cockroaches in the home should always be treated
with a pesticide
A. True.
B. False.
To review relevant content, see Cockroach Allergen
in this section.
13. Important moderating factors affecting how
environmental exposures may exacerbate asthma
include
A. Age and timing of exposure relative to disease
development.
B. Dose and frequency of exposure.
C. Genetic predispositions in response and coexposures.
To review relevant content, see Hygiene
Hypothesis in this section.
14. Some advice you can give to patients to decrease
exposure to allergens or irritants in the home
include:
A. Cover mattresses and pillows with zippered plastic
cases.
B. Avoid smoking and environmental tobacco smoke.
C. Remove wall-to-wall carpets, particularly in

bedrooms.
To review relevant content, see Secondary
Prevention in Children and Adults in this section.
Sources of Additional Information

Asthma Specific
Information
Please refer to the following Web resources for more

information on the adverse effects of asthma, the
treatment of asthma-associated diseases, and
management of persons with asthma.

(ATSDR) http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
o For chemical, emergency situations
CDC Emergency Response: 770-488-7100 and

request the ATSDR Duty Officer
o For chemical, non- emergency situations
CDC-INFO http://www.cdc.gov/cdc-info/
800-CDC-INFO (800-232-4636) TTY 888-2326348 - 24 Hours/Day
Email: cdcinfo@cdc.gov
PLEASE NOTE
ATSDR cannot respond to questions about
individual medical cases, provide second
opinions or make specific recommendations
regarding therapy. Address these issues
directly with your health care provider.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

o National Center for Environmental Health
Potentially effective interventions for asthma
http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/interventions/
Environmental Hazards and Health Effects
Asthma
http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/default.htm
o National Asthma Control Program
http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/nacp.htm
Key Clinical Activities for Quality Asthma Care.
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml
/rr5206a1.htm
o NIOSH
Safety and Health Topics Asthma and

Allergies
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/asthma/
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention

and Health Promotion; Healthy Youth Health
Topics Adolescent and School Health
http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/asthma/
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

o Asthma and allergy prevention
http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/conditions
/asthma/
National Institutes of Health National Heart, Lung

and Blood Institute
o National Asthma Education and Prevention
Program
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/about/org/naepp/
o Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of
asthma
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/guidelines/ast
hgdln.pdf
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

o Asthma Home Related Checklist
http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/epago
v/www.epa.gov/asthma/resources.html
Asthma-related Publications and Resources

o Global initiative for asthma: global strategy for
asthma management and prevention.
http://www.ginasthma.com.
The National Environmental Education and Training

Foundation
o Pediatric Asthma Initiative
http://www.neefusa.org/health/asthma/index.htm
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and

Immunology
o Online courses on asthma available at no cost
from the Continuing Education Center
http://education.aaaai.org/courses
General
Environmental
Health
Information
American Academy of Pediatrics

https://www.healthychildren.org/English/healthissues/conditions/allergiesasthma/Pages/default.aspx
Bernstein DI, Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L, Bernstein IL,

eds. 2006. Asthma in the Workplace and Related
Conditions, 3rd Edition. New York: Taylor and Francis
Etzel RA. 2003. How environmental exposures

influence the development and exacerbation of
asthma. Pediatrics 112(1):2339
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/112/Su
pplement_1/233.full
Please refer to the following Web resources for general

information on environmental health.

http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
o Taking an Exposure History CSEM
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=
33&po=0
o Taking a Pediatric Exposure History CSEM
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=
26&po=0
o To view the complete library of CSEMs
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.html
o Exposure History Worksheet
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/exphistory/docs/
CSEMExposHist-26-29.pdf
o ATSDR Division of Regional Operations.
Through the working relationships they have

established with EPA, other federal and state
agencies, individual citizens, and community
groups, regional representatives are able to
maintain current and historic knowledge of the
sites and issues in their regions.
ATSDR's Regional Offices, along with the states
and territories that they cover as well as
contact information, can be found at
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/DRO/dro_contact.ht
ml
o ATSDR State Cooperative Agreement Program

http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/states/index.html
The Cooperative Agreement Program provides

essential support in communities nationwide to
fulfill the mission of the Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR).
The program funds 30 states and one tribal
government to develop and strengthen their
abilities to evaluate and respond to
environmental public health issues.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

http://www.cdc.gov
o CDC works to protect public health and the safety
of people, by providing information to enhance
health decisions, and promotes health through
partnerships with state health departments and
other organizations.
o The CDC focuses national attention on developing
and applying disease prevention and control
(especially infectious diseases), environmental
health, occupational safety and health, health

promotion, prevention and education activities
designed to improve the health of the people of
the United States.
National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH)

http://www.cdc.gov/nceh
o NCEH works to prevent illness, disability, and
death from interactions between people and the
environment. It is especially committed to
safeguarding the health of populations that are
particularly vulnerable to certain environmental
hazards - children, the elderly, and people with
disabilities.
o NCEH seeks to achieve its mission through
science, service, and leadership.
National Institute of Health (NIH)

http://www.nih.gov
o A part of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, NIH is the primary Federal
agency for conducting and supporting medical
research.
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

(NIOSH) http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/
o NIOSH is in the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services and is an agency established to
help assure safe and healthful working conditions
for working men and women by providing
research, information, education, and training in
the field of occupational safety and health.
American College of Occupational and Environmental

Medicine (ACOEM) http://www.acoem.org/
o ACOEM is the nation's largest medical society
dedicated to promoting the health of workers
through preventive medicine, clinical care,
research, and education.
o Its members are a dynamic group of physicians
encompassing specialists in a variety of medical

practices united via the College to develop
positions and policies on vital issues relevant to
the practice of preventive medicine both within
and outside of the workplace.
American College of Medical Toxicologists (ACMT)

http://www.acmt.net
o ACMT is a professional, nonprofit association of
physicians with recognized expertise in medical
toxicology.
o The College is dedicated to advancing the science
and practice of medical toxicology through a
variety of activities.
American College of Preventive Medicine (ACPM)

http://www.acpm.org
o ACPM is the national professional society for
physicians committed to disease prevention and
health promotion.
o ACPM's 2,000 members are engaged in preventive
medicine practice, teaching and research.
Association of Occupational and Environmental

Clinics (AOEC) http://aoec.org
o AOEC is a network of more than 60 clinics and
more than 250 individuals committed to
improving the practice of occupational and
environmental medicine through information
sharing and collaborative research.
Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Units

(PEHSUs) http:///www.pehsu.net
o The PEHSUs have been developed to provide
education and consultation for health
professionals, public health professionals and
others about the topic of children's environmental
health.
o The PEHSU staff is available for consultation about
potential pediatric environmental health concerns
affecting both the child and the family. Health

care professionals may contact their regional
PEHSU site for clinical advice.
Poison Control Center

The American Association of Poison Control
Centers can be contacted for questions about
poisons and poisonings. The web site provides
information about poison centers and poison
prevention. AAPC does not provide information
about treatment or diagnosis of poisoning or
research information for student papers.
o American Association of Poison Control Centers
may be contacted at 1-800-222-1222 or
http://www.aapcc.org
o
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Table of Tables
Table
Title
Number
1
Differential Diagnosis Possibilities for Asthma
Air Quality Index
Comparison of In Vivo vs In Vitro Allergy Testing
Posttest
Posttest
1.
Asthma has been defined as

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
Reversible airway obstruction.

Chronic airway inflammation.
Nonreversible airway obstruction.
A and B.
In the diagnosis of asthma in adults, all the following

are true EXCEPT
A. Reversibility of airway obstruction on spirometry
testing after bronchodilators, as demonstrated by
an increase of 12% in the FEV1 with an absolute

minimum improvement of at least 200 mL.
B. The use of peak flow measurements alone is
usually sufficient to diagnose asthma.
C. In patients with mild asthma with normal
spirometry results, nonspecific provocation testing
(e.g., methacholine challenge testing) can be
used to demonstrate the presence of
hyperresponsive airways.
D. Airway obstruction is generally considered present
when the FEV1/FVC ratio is < 65% and the FVC
as a percent predicted is normal.
3.
Risk factors for the development of asthma include

all of the following EXCEPT
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Personal or family history of atopy.

Prenatal smoking by the mother.
Personal or family history of hypertension.
Chronic allergic rhinitis.
For biologic allergens, which of these statements is

FALSE?
A. Biologic allergens are ubiquitous in the
environment.
B. Biologic allergens are associated with 10%
humidity in the case of dust mites.
C. Biologic allergens are associated with waterdamaged areas.
D. Biologic allergens are associated with residential
furry or feathered pets.
5.
Physical examination of a patient with asthma would

be LEAST LIKELY to reveal
A. Allergic conjunctivitis and rhinitis.
B. Focal persistent wheezing involving the base of
one lung.
C. Normal findings on chest auscultation.
D. Prolonged expiratory phase and diffuse wheezing
on chest auscultation.
6.
The treatment for dust mite and cockroach allergens
includes all of the following EXCEPT

A. Cover mattresses and pillows with allergen
impermeable cover.
B. Use a professional exterminator as initial step.
C. Limit food consumption to one area of the house.
D. Remove wall-to-wall carpets, particularly in
bedrooms.
7.
Management of cockroach allergen should be

accomplished first by hygienic measures, such as
A. Maintaining clean areas and limiting food
consumption to only one area, such as the
kitchen.
B. Caulking holes in walls, cupboards, and cabinets.
C. Storing food in closed containers.
8.

children include all of the following EXCEPT
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Foreign body aspiration.

Enlarged lymph nodes or tumor.
Hematochezia.
Gastroesophageal reflux.

adults include all of the following EXCEPT
A.
B.
C.
D.
Epistaxis.
COPD.
Pulmonary embolism.
Cough and wheezing secondary to ACE inhibitors.
10. Risk of asthma may be increased by

A. Living near a heavily traveled roadway.
B. Heavy exercise on a day with an AQI of 130.
C. Spending over 1 hour each day riding a dieselpowered bus.
11. The leading cause of occupational asthma is
exposure to
A.
B.
C.
D.
Latex.
Spider mites.
Diisocyanates.
Epoxy.
12. Medical history questions about environmental

asthma triggers should include
A.
B.
C.
D.
Tobacco smoke.
Pets.
Bedding and laundering practices.
All of the above.
13. It is possible to make the diagnosis of asthma

without detectable wheezing
A. True.
B. False.
14. Your overall treatment, management, and prevention
goals might include
A. Confirmation of asthma diagnosis and gauge of
severity.
B. Optimal pharmacotherapy with minimal or no
adverse effects.
C. Education of the patient and family regarding
primary and secondary preventive measures,
including smoking cessation.
15. Goals for the general management of a patient with
asthma should include
A. Normal or near-normal lung function.
B. Careful monitoring prevention of chronic asthma
symptoms and exacerbations day and night.
C. Normal activity maintained (including exercise
and other physical activities).
16. Important moderating variables affecting how
environmental exposures may exacerbate or cause

asthma include
A. Age and timing of exposure relative to disease
development.
B. Dose and frequency of exposure.
C. Genetic predispositions in response and co
exposures.
17. The hygiene hypothesis of asthma states that
naturally occurring infections and allergen exposures
might essentially protect against the development of
asthma and allergic and autoimmune diseases
A. True.
B. False.
Appendix 1: Asthma Triggers Exposure History

Adapted from The National Environmental Education and Training
Foundation. Environmental Management Of Pediatric Asthma Guidelines.
http://www.neefusa.org/health/asthma/asthmaguidelines.htm, 2005 Aug.
It is very important to ask about all environments in which a child with
asthma may be spending significant amounts of time, including all
residences where the child sleeps or spends time, such as the home of a
relative, schools, daycare, camp, and college dorms (for 17 18 year olds).
Ask the questions in the box first. Ask additional questions if indicated.
Dust Mites
Have you noticed whether dust exposure makes your
childs asthma worse?
Yes
No
Not sure
Have you used any means for dust mite control?
Yes
No
Not sure
Additional Questions:
Do you know that dust exposure can trigger asthma symptoms?_____

Do you live in a house or an apartment? __________
If you live in a house, how old is it? __________
What type of floor coverings are in your house?
_______________________________________
Is there carpet in your childs bedroom? __________
Do you have a HEPA vacuum cleaner? __________
Have you tried anything to decrease dust mite
exposure?__________________________
Have you ever heard of putting special coverings on a pillow or
mattress to decrease dust mite exposure? __________
Are you currently using a mattress or pillow covering on your childs
bed? __________
How often do you wash your childs bed linens? __________
Do you wash them in hot, warm, or cold water? __________
Are there stuffed animals in your childs room/bed? __________
Do you use other ways to decrease dust mite exposure? __________
Animal Allergens
Do you have any furry pets?
Yes
No
Not sure
Have you seen rats or mice in the home?
Yes
No
Not sure
What type of furry pet(s) do you have? (and how many of each)
___________________________________________________
Is it a
o strictly indoor pet? __________
o outdoor? __________
o indoor/outdoor? __________
How often do you wash your pet? __________
How long have you had your pet (s)? __________________________
Has your childs asthma become worse since having the pet? _______
Has your childs asthma become better since moving the pet outside?
________________________________________________________
Have you noticed any rodents indoors or outside your home (rats,
mice)?
Yes
No
Not sure
Cockroach Allergen
Have you seen cockroaches in your home on a regular
basis?
(i e weekly or daily)
Approximately how many cockroaches do you see in your home per

day? __________
Do you see evidence of cockroach droppings?
Yes
No
Not sure
How do you get rid of the cockroaches? ____________________
Mold/Mildew
Do you see or smell mold/mildew in your home?
Yes
No
Not sure
Is there evidence of water damage in your home?
Yes
No
Not sure
Do you use a humidifier or swamp cooler?
Where do you see mold growth in your home?

Attic
Basement
Bathroom
Bedroom
Garage
Laundry room
Other
How large an area is the mold growth? _________________________

Do you have problems with moisture or leaks in your home?
Yes
Not sure
Do you frequently have condensation on your windows?

Yes
No
No
Not sure
Do you have either of the following in your home:

o Humidifier? __________
o Evaporative-type air conditioner (swamp cooler)? __________
How often is it cleaned? ___________________________

Have you tried using something to decrease the humidity in your
home? _________________________________________
Environmental Tobacco Smoke

Do any family members smoke?
Yes
No
Not sure
Does this person(s) have an interest or desire to
quit?
Yes
No
Not sure
Who in the family smokes cigarettes? ___________

o How many cigarettes per day? ______
o Does he/she (they) smoke in the house? ______
Outside? _____ Both inside and outside? ______ In the car?
______
Do you have a smoking ban in the household?_______________

Does anyone smoke in daycare or other childcare setting where the
child stays? ______
Does anyone who spends time at your house smoke? (friends,
neighbors, relatives?) __________
Describe the circumstances when your child may be exposed to
smoke?_________________
Air Pollution
Have you had new carpets, paint, or other changes made to your house in
the past year?
Yes
No
Not sure
Does your child or another family member have a hobby that uses toxic
materials?
Yes
No
Not sure
Has outdoor air pollution ever worsened your childs asthma?

Yes
No
Not sure
Does your child play outdoors when an Air Quality Alert (i.e., ozone,
particulate) is issued?
Yes
No
Not sure
Do you use a wood burning fireplace or stove?

Yes
No
Not sure
Do you use unvented appliances such as a gas stove for heating your home?
Yes
No
Not sure
Indoor Air Pollution Questions
Does anyone in your house use strong-smelling perfumes, scented

candles, hairsprays, or other aerosol substances? __________
Do you live in a home that was built in the past 12 years?
Yes
No
Not sure
If you recently made changes to your houseinstalled new carpets,

painted, or other changeshow long ago was that?
___________________
Was there a change in your childs asthma symptoms after moving to
a new house or having the work mentioned above done in your home?
Yes
No
Not sure
Do you ever notice a chemical type smell in your home?

Yes
No
Not sure
If you have a wood burning fireplace or stove, how many times per
month in the winter do you use it? __________
Do you use an unvented appliance such as a gas stove for heating

your home?
Outdoor Air Pollution Questions
Do you live within a mile of a major roadway or highway?

Yes
No
Not sure
o An area where trucks or other vehicles idle?

Yes
No
Not sure
o A major industry with smokestacks?

Yes
No
Not sure
Is residential or agricultural burning a problem where you live?

Yes
No
Not sure

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Environmental Triggers of Asthma

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provider's professional judgment. Please interpret the environmental

Appendix 1: Asthma Triggers Exposure History ..................................... 80

How to Use This Course

The goal of Case Studies in Environmental Medicine

Two versions of the Environmental Triggers of Asthma

To most effectively use this course

Take the Initial Check to assess your current

This course is designed to help you learn efficiently.

Describes specific content addressed in each section and

Provides the information you need to answer the focus

Highlights important issues and helps you review

Enables you to test yourself to determine whether you

Provide feedback to ensure you understand the content

Upon completion of the Environmental Triggers of Asthma

Identify five conditions that may be confused with

Identify five indoor triggers of an acute asthma

Identify the key signs and symptoms of asthma

This Initial Check will help you assess your current

A 12-year-old girl arrives at your office with her mother

You ask the mother to leave the examination room. This

Physical examination reveals a young girl, who sits quietly

Temperature 98.6F (37.0C),

No dyspnea or stridor is evident. Her skin color is normal,

1. List the primary and differential diagnosis for

1. The differential diagnosis for wheezing in this patient

Bronchial asthma (primary diagnosis),

Less likely diagnoses include

The information for this answer comes from the

Exacerbation due to upper respiratory illness,

The home environment should be carefully reviewed,

mites, indoor fungi (mold), and smoke:

The patients environment, particularly within

The environment outside the home should be

Upon completion of this section, you will be able to

Define asthma, and

This Case Study in Environmental Medicine focuses

The NIH Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute defines

In susceptible individuals, this inflammation causes

particularly at night or in the early morning. These

Allergic diseases such as asthma, rhinitis, and eczema are

Asthma is a worldwide problem, with an estimated

Hispanics (16.1%) and non-Hispanic blacks

Environmental factors that contribute to asthma

Viral infections [Gern 2004; Martinez 2003;

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) (passive and

Miscellaneous causes such as

This Case Study focuses on preventable environmental