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2011IASTutorial
December2011
FailureMode
PercentageofFailures
LinetoGround
98%
PhasetoPhase
<1.5%
*ThreePhase
<0.5%
*Mostthreephasefaultsaremanmade:i.e.accidentscausedbyimproperoperatingprocedure.
Whatisagroundfault?
Whathappensinanungroundedsystem?
Whathappensinasolidlygroundedsystem?
Applicationofresistancegrounding
Resistancegroundingandgenerators
Contact
between
groundand
anenergized
conductor
Unleashes
largeamount
ofelectrical
energy
Dangerousto
equipment
andpeople
SystemGrounding Anintentionalgroundonthesystem
ResistanceGrounding Atypeofgroundingusingaresistor
intheneutral(systemorderived)tolimitavailablefault
current
GroundFaultProtectionDetectionofanunintentional
groundonthesystemandtakingappropriateaction
BoltedFaults
Solidconnectionbetweentwo
phasesorphaseandground
resultinginhighfaultcurrent.
Stressesarewellcontainedsofault
createslessdestruction.
ArcFaults
Usuallycausedbyinsulation
breakdown,creatinganarc
betweentwophasesorphaseto
ground.
Intenseenergyisnotwell
contained,andcanbevery
destructive.
E=(793xFxVxtA)/D2
E =IncidentEnergyincal/cm2
F=BoltedfaultshortcircuitcurrentinkA
V=phasetophasevoltageinkV
tA =ArcDurationinSeconds
D=Distancefromthearcsourceininches
Neutralgroundingmeansapermanentandcontinuousconductivepathtothe
earthwithsufficientampacitytocarryanyfaultcurrentliabletobeimposedonit,
sufficientlylowimpedancetolimitthevoltageriseabovegroundandtofacilitate
theoperationoftheprotectivedevicesinthecircuit.
System
Ground
Grounding
conductor
Equipment
groundor
ground
conductor
GroundingResistor
1:1
transformer
tomakeit
simple
Medium
resistance
grounded
Ungrounded
SolidlyGrounded
ImpedanceGrounded
LowResistanceGrounded
HighResistanceGrounded
ReactanceGrounded
Popularin3wireLVsystemsupto1950s
Advantages
Negligiblefaultcurrenton
firstgroundfault
Notrippingonfirstground
fault
Disadvantages
Difficulttolocateground
faults
5to6timestransientover
voltageonintermittent,
sputteringarcingground
faults
IEEEStd2422001(BuffBook)
RecommendedPracticeforProtectionandCoordinationofIndustrialand
CommercialPowerSystems
UngroundedSystems
8.2.5Ifthisgroundfaultisintermittentorallowedtocontinue,the
systemcouldbesubjectedtopossiblesevereovervoltagestoground,
whichcanbeashighassixtoeighttimesphasevoltage.
Suchovervoltagescanpunctureinsulationandresultinadditional
groundfaults.Theseovervoltagesarecausedbyrepetitivechargingof
thesystemcapacitanceorbyresonancebetweenthesystemcapacitance
andtheinductanceofequipmentinthesystem.
Nointentionalconnectiontoearthground
Weaklygroundedthroughsystem
capacitancetoground
Firstfaulttypically12amps
Severelinetogroundtransientovervoltages
18
Seldomusedonnewsystems
Stillrelativelycommoninexisting
industrialsystems
Lowvoltagesystems(< 600V)
Mediumvoltagesystems(2.4 15kV)
19
20
Unintentionallygroundedthroughsystem capacitance
Suchascables,transformers,motors,surge
suppressors,etc.
Groundfaultcurrentdistribution(minimalcurrent)
Intermittentgroundfault:
Arestrikinggroundfaultcancreateahigh
frequencyoscillator(RLCcircuit),independentofLandCvalues,causinghigh
transientovervoltages.
i.e.restrikingduetoacvoltagewaveformorloosewirecausedbyvibration
OCPDsdonottripbecausegroundfaultcurrentislowduetohighvalueof
Rf.
neutral
neutral
C
A to ground
fault
A to ground
restrike
cycle
C
1.0
cycle
3 per unit
C neutral
A to ground
restrike
cycle
2 per unit
A
B
neutral
neutral
B
A
Plotoftransientovervoltageforaarcinggroundfault
GoodLuck!
Nodirectreturntosource,onlywayisthroughsystem
capacitance.
Useovervoltage
Indicatorlightandrelaymethodtoindicategroundfault.
Deenergizeonefeederatatime.
Verytimeconsuminganddangerous!
Unknowngroundfaultmaybeonsystemforlongperiodoftime.
Maydeenergizevitalequipmenttryingtofindfault.
Connectedtoearthgroundwithno
intentionaladditionalimpedanceincircuit
Arcfaultdangerzoneandflashhazardlarge
Groundfaultcurrentclosetophasecurrent
levels
Minimaltransientovervoltagewithfaults
28
Almostuniversallyusedonhighvoltage
systems(> 72kV)
Commonlyusedonutilitydistribution
systemsupto34.5kV
29
Commonlyusedonlowvoltage
(<600V)commercial,institutional,and
residentialsystems
Sometimesusedonlowvoltage
(<600V)industrialsystems
30
31
Intentionallygroundedthroughgroundwire
480V Wye Source
3 Load
~0
~277
In
Icc
Icb
Ica
32
GroundfaultcurrentdistributiononA
480V W ye Source
3 Load
In
I cc
I cb
I ca
If
~60kA
~60kA
Estim ated Total Fault Current
If =
1
Z pu
* I fla
~0A (3A)
+ (I cb + I cc ) = ~I n
1
0.05
* 3000A = ~60,000A
33
Boltedgroundfault: Ahighfaultcurrent
causingseveredamage.Ifproperlycoordinated
and installed,OCPDswillclearfaultafter
acceptabledamage.
Notransient
overvoltages
Highfault
current
34
GroundfaultcurrentdistributiononA
480V W ye Source
3 Load
In
I cc
I cb
I ca
If
~23kA
~23kA
Estim ated Total Fault Current
If =
1
Z pu
~0A (3A)
* I fla * .38 + (I cb + I cc ) = ~I n
1
0.05
35
Arcinggroundfault: Lowerfaultcurrent,soOCPDs
maynotclearfault.Delaywillcausesevere
equipmentandpersonneldamage dueto
tremendousamountofenergyreleased.
Notransient
overvoltages
Highfault
current
Arcinggroundfaultsareapproximately38%boltedfaults.
36
Popularin4wireLVsystemsupto1950s
Advantages
Eliminatedtransientovervoltageproblem
Permitlinetoneutralloads(lighting,
heatingcables)
Groundfaultseasytolocate(follow
smoke)
Disadvantages
Causeunscheduledserviceinterruption
Dangerfromlowlevelarcingground
faults
Strongshockhazardtopersonnel
Coordinationissues
Arcflashissues
IEEEStd2422001RecommendedPracticefortheProtectionand
CoordinationofIndustrialandCommercialPowerSystems
8.2.2
Onedisadvantageofthesolidlygrounded480Vsysteminvolvesthehigh
magnitudeofdestructive,arcinggroundfaultcurrentsthatcanoccur.
IEEEStd1411993RecommendedPracticeforElectricPowerDistribution
forIndustrialPlants
7.2.4
Thesolidlygroundedsystemhasthehighestprobabilityofescalating
intoaphasetophaseorthreephasearcingfault,particularlyforthe480
and600Vsystems.Thedangerofsustainedarcingforphasetoground
faultisalsohighforthe480and600Vsystems,andlowornearzerofor
the208Vsystem.Asafetyhazardexistsforsolidlygroundedsystems
fromthesevereflash,arcburning,andblasthazardfromanyphaseto
groundfault.
EstimatedGroundfaultcurrentdistributionon A
~60kA
EstimatedGroundfaultcurrentdistributionon A
Ungrounded Methodusedtogroundfirstpowersystems
Verylargetransientovervoltageconditionsmayexist.
Verydifficulttolocategroundfault.
Insulationnotrated,therefore,hazardtopersonnelandequipment.
Goodchanceofsecondgroundfaultonadifferentphaseduetoprolonged
groundfault.
SolidlyGrounded ReplacedUngroundedSystems
Veryhighgroundfaultcurrents.
Faultmustbecleared,shuttingdownequipment.
Generatorsmaynotberatedforgroundfault
Tremendousamountofarcflash/blastenergy.
Equipmentandpeoplearenotratedforenergy.
24Cycles
(0.4seconds)
= 55,200 KWC
IG = Fault Current (A)
Va = 100V (typical)
t = time (cycles)
TypicalTransformer
2500kVA,5%impedance
GroundconditionIg=23kA
KWC=55,200
12Cycles
(0.2seconds)
= 27,600 KWC
6Cycles
(0.1seconds)
= 13,800 KWC
Acceptable???
44
UsezerosequenceCTs,standaloneground
faultrelays,andMCPshunttrips.
Experiencesaysallstarterssize3andlarger
fedfromsolidlygroundedsystemsbe
providedwithgroundfaultprotection
Close
infault
Closein
fault
Remotefault
Highquality
return
Lowquality
return
Sourcevoltage
390Vpeakat
277VacRMS
Arcing
current
375V=Max
voltage
requiredto
startcurrent
flow.
70to140V=
voltrequired
tosustainarc
acrossgap
Sparkgapphenomenon arcstrikesoncevoltageachievessparkoverand
extinguisheswhencathodeandanodeswitch
480Y/277V
Threephase
89%
PhasetoPhase
74%
PhasetoGround
38%
Resistancegrounded
Insulatedbus
BILrating
Sensitivegroundfaultprotection20Amppick
MVarcinggroundcanbesustainedat200A
Dropsabout150voltsperinchacrossarcgap
58
Voltageratingissystemlinetoneutral
voltage
Resistorsavailableforallcommonsystem
voltagesupto13,800V
Currentratingsavailableformediumvoltage
systemsarefrom25Ato2000A
Chooseresistorcurrentbasedonsystem
configurationandrelaying
59
Timeratingsavailableare10seconds,60
seconds,andextendedtime
Mostinstallationstakeeither10sor60srating.
Choosebasedonsystemgroundfaultclearing
time.
Extendedtimeratingsrarelyused;forspecial
conditionswhereresistorwillbeenergizedfor
10minutesormore.
60
Suitableforindoororoutdooruse
Resistorelementsareusuallystainlesssteel
Checkmaterialagainstambient
atmospheretopreventpossiblecorrosion
damage
Temperaturerisemaybe760C
Resistormustbewellventilatedandmustbe
keptawayfromcombustiblematerial
61
Frameofresistorisoftenconnectedto
middleofresistorelement
Underfaultconditions,frameisenergizedat
1/2linetogroundvoltage
Framemustbeinsulatedfromground
Framemustbeinaccessibletopersonnel
62
63
Motorandtransformerfeeders
Usezerosequence(groundsensor)relayingwith
50/5or100/5CTandinstantaneousovercurrent
relay
Pickupwillbeabout15A
Otherfeeders
Usesimilarrelaying,butrelaymayneedtobetime
delaytocoordinatewithdownstreamdevices
64
Mains
UseCTinneutralgroundingresistorcircuit
Usetimedelayrelaytocoordinatewithfeederrelays
ChooseCTratioandrelaysettingtopickupatabout
10%ofgroundingresistorcurrentrating,provided
thatcoordinateswithfeeders
Tripmainbreaker
65
Backuprelaying
UseCTinneutralgroundingresistorcircuit
ThismaybesameCTusedformainrelayoritmay
beasecondCT
Usetimedelayrelayandsettocoordinatewithmain
relays
Tripbackupbreaker,usuallythebreakerthatfeeds
thetransformer
66
Difficulttosetbussdifferentialrelayingtobe
sensitivetomanygroundfaults
Popularin3wireLVsystemsupto1970s
Advantages
Notransientovervoltages
Easyfaultlocationmethod
NoArcFlashHazards(withgroundfaults)
Nocoordinationissues;groundfaultcurrentisconsistent
Maybepossibletousehighergaugewiresforgrounding
Disadvantages
Nodirectlyconnectedlinetoneutralloads
Personnelmustbetrained
Requiresdifferentarresterratings
Requireshighercableinsulationratings
69
Intentionallygroundedthroughneutralresistor
UsedonMediumVoltage
Some5kVsystems
Mainly15kVsystems
SystemchargingcurrentmaybetoohighforHighResistance
Grounding(HRG)Indicatorlightandrelaymethodtoindicate
groundfault.
GroundFault
Currenttypicallylimitedto25400A
TypicallyTripwithin1030secondstoreducedamage
IEEEStd32
TimeRatingandPermissibleTemperatureRiseforNeutralGroundingResistors
TimeRating (OnTime)
TempRise(deg C)
10sec
760
1min
760
10min
610
Continuous
385
DurationMustBeCoordinatedWithProtectiveRelayScheme
ApplicationNotes
LinetoneutralvoltageforResistor
Ratedcurrent
Considerchangeofresistanceduetoheatrise
Considerharmonics,leakage,etc.
Restrikingfaults
VentedEnclosuretype(NEMAvs.IEC)
LinetolinevoltageforGroundingTransformer
Resistormustbreathe
CTsandRelays
NeutralorGroundsideofResistor
Enclosurerating
Enclosurefinish
Currenttransformer
Potentialtransformer
Disconnectswitch
Entrance/exitbushings
Elevatingstand
Seismicrating
Hazardousareaclassification
Thirdpartycertification
400AResistance
groundedwye
connectedsystem
Greatlyreduce
faultenergyfor
groundfaults
Tableassumes
25MVA7%
transformerwith.3
secclearingtime
watt sec
Solid
grounded
15kA fault
Resistance
grounded
400A Limit
75
Cal/CM2
107,000
MW-sec
151
2.8MW-sec
Resistormassproportionaltoratedcurrent,dutyand
temperaturerise
Shorterdurationorhighertemperatureriseequatesto
lowercost
Resistormass=Wattseconds
TCp
Additive
natureof
magnitude
Commonlyusedonlowvoltagesystemsin
industrialplants
Becomingpopularonadvancedmedium
voltagesystemsinindustrialplants
Usedbyutilitiesforlargegenerators
80
Connectedtoearthgroundthroughahigh
resistance
Limitsgroundfaultcurrenttoafewamperes
(110Aiscommon)
Protectiveschemesalarmonly
Tobeeffective,R0 > XC0andR0< 2X0
81
82
HowdoesHRGimprovesafetyandreliability?
Insertsaresistorbetweenneutralandground
DramaticallyreducesriskofElectrocution
Eliminatesapproximately95%ofArcFlash/BlastInjuries
Resistor MountedontopofSwgr
84
Intentionallygroundedthroughneutralresistor
86
87
Settingmustbehigherthancharging
current
Currentratingforlowvoltagesystemsis
typicallyfrom0.9Ato3.6A
Currentratingformediumvoltage
systemsistypicallyfrom2Ato7Aorfrom
5Ato20Aatprimaryvoltage
88
Advantages
Eliminatesovervoltagetransients
Allowsfaultedcircuittocontinueoperation
Disadvantages
Potentialfornuisancealarming
Maintenancepersonnelmayignorefirstfault
CanHRGbeusedonDelta
connectedsystems?
Agroundingtransformeris
installed(eitherazigzag ora
wyedelta)fromallthree
phasestocreateanartificial
neutralforgroundingpurposes
only.
91
92
Inagroundfault,whichisthepathofleastresistance?
ComparedtoUngroundedSystems(voltagerise)
480V Wye Source
3 Load
B
N
C
HRG
VngVan
(277V)
480V
Ir
Additionalreturnpath,onlydifference
betweenUngroundedandHRG!
c
Ic
c
Ib
c
Ia
If
GroundA
94
ImportanceofadditionalpathversusUngrounded
480V Wye Source
R fe
3 Load
HRG
Ir
L fa
Ca
c
Ic
c
Ib
c
Ia
If
RLCcircuitnolongerexists!SystemCapacitance(capacitors)causingresonancecannotoccur
duetodampeningresistor(HRG)preventingtransientovervoltage!
95
ImportanceofadditionalpathversusUngrounded
480V Wye Source
R fe
3 Load
HRG
Ca
Ir
c
Ic
c
Ib
c
Ia
Dischage Path
S fa
If
Intermittentarcingcannotbuildupacharge(transientovervoltage)intheSystem
Capacitance.Capacitorsaredischargingduringnonstriketotheresistor(HRG)!
96
current.
Hereareruleofthumbnumbersforestimation
Transformer(kVA)
1000
1500
2000
2500
ChargingCurrent(A)
0.2 0.6
0.3 0.9
0.4 1.2
0.5 1.5
SeeAppendixFformethodtomeasurecapacitivecurrent
97
www.igard.com
ImportanceofadditionalpathversusSolidlyGrounded
480V Wye Source
3 Load
HRG
Ir
Ca
c
Ic
c
Ib
c
Ia
If
Resistor(HRG)inlieuofwireaddssignificantamountofresistancetolowergroundfaulttoa
predeterminedvaluepreventingdestructivefaultcurrentsandshutdown!
98
ComparedwithSolidlyGrounded(currentrise)
HRG
55.4
5.00A
277
Ir
Resistorinreturnpath,onlydifference
betweenSolidlyGroundedandHRG!
1.73A
c
Ic
c
Ib
GroundA
c
Ia
If
5.83A
5.83A 3.00A+5.00A
99
Currents:
NormalOperation
( Ia Ib Ic ) 0 A
c
I f I r ( I a I b I c )2 0 A
2
Vng
0V
Ir
0A
Rr 55.4
Faultconditions
Ir
Vng
Rr
277V
5.000 A
55.4
I f I r ( I a I b I c ) 2 5.83 A
2
www.igard.com
Anotheradvantageofreturnpath:groundfaultlocation
480V Wye Source
3 Load
HRG
Ir
Ca
c
Ic
c
Ib
c
Ia
If
Contactorshortsoutpartoftheresistorchangingtheresistance,hence,changingthecurrent.
Groundfaultcurrentnowisapulsesignalthatallowsfordetection!
101
OnlydischargesifRo<Xco,soIr >Ixco
(perIEEE14219911.4.3)
Thatis,resistorcurrentmustbegreaterthan
capacitivechargingcurrent.
Ruleofthumbfor480Vsystem:
Transformer(kVA)
1000
1500
2000
2500
ChargingCurrent(A)
0.20.6
0.30.9
0.41.2
0.51.5
Resistanceincreasesasresistorheatsup
Cheaperstainlesssteelalloysmayproduceundesirable
results
ResistancechangeperdegreeC
NickelChromium
0.01%
18SR/1JRSS
0.02 0.04%
304SS
0.22%
Operatorcontrolled
contactorconnectedacross
halfthegroundingresistor
Whenactivated,contactor
alternatelyshortshalfthe
resistorandforcesthe
currenttodouble
Possibletouseammeterto
trackthecurrentfluctuation
Contactorshortsoutresistance,thus,doublingcurrentto
10Aat~30pulses/minute.
106
NOTE: Trackingagroundfaultcanonlybedoneonanenergizedsystem.
Duetotheinherentriskofelectrocutionthisshouldonlybeperformedby
trainedandcompetentpersonnel.AppropriatePPEmeasuresshouldbe
takenintoconsiderationaswell.
Methodtoquicklylocate
groundfaults
Meterreadingwill
alternatefrom5Ato10A
every2seconds.
VeryfewpotentialhazardswithHRG,however
ElevatedVoltages
TrainedPersonnel
Cables,TVSSs,VFDsInsulation
LinetoNeutralLoads
LossofGround
SystembecomesUngroundedorSolidlyGrounded
introducingmoreHazards
Surgeprotectionmustberatedbasedonline
togroundpotentialrise
Highfrequenciescanappearasnuisance
alarms
Groundfaultmaybeleftonsystemforan
extendedtime
110
Harmonicstravelthecouplingcapacitance
system
Bandpassfiltersaroundthefaultsensingunit
Sizeresisterfortotalwatts
DCFaultsareaproblemthatthenew
generationofdrivesareaddressing
Singletransformer
feedingbus
Transformer
secondaryYconnected
Connectgrounding
resistortoneutral
oftransformer
112
Singlegenerator
feedingbus
GeneratorYconnected
Connectgrounding
resistortoneutral
ofgenerator
113
Singlesourcefeeding
bus
Source connected
Deriveneutralwith
Y orzigzag
transformer
Connectgrounding
resistortothis
derivedneutral
114
Multiplesources
feedingbus
SourcesYor
connected
DeriveneutralwithY
orzigzag
transformer
Connectgrounding
resistortothis
derivedneutral
115
Doubleended
substationwith
normallyopen
tie
TransformersY
connected
SchematicoftrippingHRGSystem
117
Properlyratedequipment
preventsHazards
Maintenancemustbeawareofelevatedvoltagesad
methodtolocatefault.IFNOT,DONOTHAVETO
MAINTAINPOWER.Allowedtrip(sameasSG)but
withoutthehazards.
Properlyratedequipment
preventsHazards
Cables,TVSSs,VFDs,etc.andother
equipmentmustberatedforelevated
voltages(UngroundedSystems).
Solidly Grounded
Un-Grounded
Insert resistor in
Insert transformer
Xo
Use isolation
transformers to
support line to
neutral loads
and resistor at Xo
Install zero
sequence cts and
meters
Surge arrestors
Cable voltage
rating
Grounded Neutral
Cap Bank
Derive neutral
Install zero
sequence meters
Derive neutral
120
121
8kVlinelinewithbareconductorsand
varyinggroundfaultcurrents
Variedgroundingresistor
Groundfaultinitiatorshouldbethoughtof
likeafuse(largeenoughfuseneverblows)
122
Multiplearcpaths
Arccanmovefromcolumnararctodiffuse
arcandback
Arcswillwinkoutwhentheycannotbe
sustained
AlwayshighGroundcurrentinvolved
123
124
Test #
Ground
current (A)
Fault self
clearing
Propagated
to a phase
fault
Duration of
ground
current
(msec)
Fuse wire
(mm)
12
225
No
Yes
.5
13
153
No
No
80
.5
14
153
No
No
80
.5
15
119
No
Yes
93
.3
16
182
No
Yes
.5
17
110
No
Yes
6.4
.3
18
105
No
Yes
5.9
.5
19
33
No
Yes
4.7
.5
20
10.4
No
Yes
4.4
.5
125
Nolinetoneutralloadsallowed,preventsHazards.
LinetoneutralVoltageisbackfed via
neutralwire,thus,notallowed.
PhaseandNeutralwiresinsameconduit.Iffaulted,bypassHRG,
thus,Gfault.
Addsmall1:1transformerandsolidlygroundsecondary
for1loads(i.e.lighting).
OpenCircuit:
Desiredfaultcurrentcannot
flow.
UngroundedSystem.
ShortCircuit:
Undesiredfaultcurrentcan
flow.
SolidlyGroundedSystem.
Undercurrentand
undervoltage relay
Reliesoninherent
systemimbalances
DetectsOpen/Short
Circuits
GroundFaultRelay&
SensingResistor
DetectsOpen/Short
Circuits
Forvoltagesupthrough4,160V,groundfaultsare
usuallynotclearedimmediately
Formediumvoltage,zerosequenceCTandmeter
areprovidedforeachfeeder
130
TripsVsalarm impactonOperations
Limitdamageduetofaults
ReducedArcFlashzones
ControlofVoltagetransients
131
DamagetoPowerSystemComponents:
ThermalDamage
MechanicalDamage (Ip)2
(Irms)2 *t
ComparisonbetweenSGexampleandHRG
SystemGrounding
GroundFault(A)
DamagetoEquipment(1sec)
HRG
1perunit
SG
22,800
SolidlyGroundedSystemshave20.8milliontimesmoredamage thanHRG!!!
132
133
IEEEStd1421991(GreenBook)
RecommendedPracticeforGroundingofIndustrialandCommercialPower
Systems
1.4.3
Thereasonsforlimitingthecurrentbyresistancegroundingmaybe
oneormoreofthefollowing:
Toreduceburningandmeltingeffectsinfaultedelectricequipment,suchas
switchgear,transformers,cables,androtatingmachines.
Toreducemechanicalstressesincircuitsandapparatuscarryingfaultcurrents.
Toreduceelectricshockhazardstopersonnelcausedbystraygroundfault
currentsinthegroundreturnpath.
Toreducethearcblastorflashhazardtopersonnelwhomayhave
accidentallycausedorwhohappentobeincloseproximitytotheground
fault.
TOHRGORNOTTOHRG?
IEEEStd1411993(RedBook)
RecommendedPracticeforElectricPowerDistributionforIndustrialPlants
7.2.2
Thereisnoarcflashhazard,asthereiswithsolidlygrounded
systems,sincethefaultcurrentislimitedtoapproximately5A.
Anotherbenefitofhighresistancegroundedsystemsisthe
limitationofgroundfaultcurrenttopreventdamagetoequipment.
Highvaluesofgroundfaultsonsolidlygroundedsystemscandestroy
themagneticcoreofrotatingmachinery.
Baremainbus85kA3phase.5sec
Insulatedmainbus85kA3phase.5sec
HighResistanceGrounded3phase80kA.5sec
Solidgrounded3phase80kA.5sec
Minimizethedamageforinternalgroundfaults
Limitmechanicalstressinthegeneratorfromexternalgroundfaults
Provideameansofsystemgroundfaultdetection
Coordinatewithothersystem/equipmentrequirements
IEEEStd.1421991(GreenBook)
1.8.1DiscussionofGeneratorCharacteristics
Unlikethetransformer,thethreesequencereactances ofageneratorarenotequal.
Thezerosequencereactancehasthelowestvalue,andthepositivesequence
reactancevariesasafunctionoftime.Thus,ageneratorwillusuallyhavehigherinitial
groundfaultcurrentthanathreephasefaultcurrentifthegeneratorissolidly
grounded.AccordingtoNEMA,thegeneratorisrequiredtowithstandonlythethree
phasecurrentlevelunlessitisotherwisespecified
Ageneratorcandevelopasignificantthirdharmonicvoltagewhenloaded.Asolidly
groundedneutralandlackofexternalimpedancetothirdharmoniccurrentwillallow
flowofthisthirdharmoniccurrent,whosevaluemayapproachratedcurrent.Ifthe
windingisdesignedwithatwothirdspitch,thisthirdharmonicvoltagewillbe
suppressedbutzerosequenceimpedancewillbelowered,increasingthegroundfault
current
Internalgroundfaultsinsolidlygroundedgeneratorscanproducelargefaultcurrents.
Thesecurrentscandamagethelaminatedcore,addingsignificantlytothetimeand
costofrepairBothmagnitudeanddurationofthesecurrentsshouldbelimited
wheneverpossible.
NEMAStdMG12003 Motors&Generators
32.34NeutralGrounding
Forsafetyofpersonnelandtoreduceovervoltagestoground,thegenerator
neutralisofteneithergroundedsolidlyorgroundedthrougharesistororreactor.
Theneutralmaybegroundedthrougharesistororreactorwithnospecial
considerationsrequiredinthegeneratordesignorselectionunlessthegeneratoris
tobeoperatedinparallelwithotherpowersupplies.
Theneutralofageneratorshouldnotbesolidlygroundedunlessthegeneratorhas
beenspecificallydesignedforsuchoperation
IEEEStd2422001(BuffBook)
12.4GeneratorGrounding
Generatorsarenotoftenoperatedungrounded.Whilethisapproachgreatlylimits
damagetothemachine,itcanproducehightransientovervoltages duringfaults
andalsomakesitdifficulttolocatethefault.
BestsuitedforLV3,4Wsystems
Generatormustberatedforuseas
solidlygrounded
Systemtripsonfirstfault
Coordinatedrelayschememaybe
difficult
Bestsuitedfor3,3W
systems
Capacitivecharging
currentimportant
Higherresistancelimits
damageoninternal
fault
Lowresistance
groundingovercomes
capacitivecharging
current
Aftergeneratoris
isolatedtheLRGis
removed,limiting
faultcurrentto5A
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
Easyifallgeneratorsaresamedesignandpitch,always
operatedatequalloadingandarenotswitchedwiththree
poletransferswitch
Separatelygroundingpreventscirculating3rdharmoniccurrent
Musthavemeansofdisconnectingneutralifgeneratorisbeingserviced
MultipleNGRshascumulativeeffectongroundfaultcurrent
Faultcurrentconstant
Requiresdisconnectin
eachneutralforservice
Pathforcirculating3rd
harmoniccurrents
Notprotectedagainst
faultsinstatorwindings
Faultcurrentconstant
Generatorssafetoservice
Nopathforcirculating3rd
harmoniccurrents
Generatorsungroundeduntil
synchronizedandconnected
Aneutralderivingtransformerholdsthefaultcurrentonthemainbusto
aconsistent400amps.EachgeneratorisprotectedbyHRG.
SolidlygroundonlyatLVwhengeneratorpermits,loadsare
noncriticalandprimarilysinglephase
HRGatLV
LRGcombinedwithHRGatMVorwherechargingcurrentis
excessive
EquipmentGrounding
GroundSystemsandGEC
Bonding
ComponentGrounding
GroundFaultProtection
Substation
CriteriaforGroundGridDesign
DesigningSafeandEffectiveGroundSystems
Soil
System
Conductors
Arrangement
NFPA70NationalElectrical Code
Generalgroundingprovisions
Certaindefinitions
ANSIC2NationalElectricSafetyCode
Generalgroundingprovisionsforelectricsupplystations
IEEE1422007IEEERecommendedPracticeforGroundingof
IndustrialandCommercialPowerSystemsTheGreenBook
SystemGrounding
EquipmentGrounding
StaticandLightningProtectionGrounding
ConnectiontoEarth
ElectronicEquipmentGrounding
SystemGroundingPart1
IncludesGroundedConductor
EquipmentGroundingPart2
IncludesGECandbonding/groundingofsystem
components
GECrequiredforHRG,LRGandsolidlygrounded
systems
Toreducedshockhazardtopersonnel
Toprovideadequatecurrentcarryingcapability(impedance
andduration)tohandlegroundfaultcurrentw/ofireor
hazard
Toprovidealowimpedancereturnpathforgroundfault
currenttoensureoperationofovercurrentdevice
Panelis20 toground
Transformerground
=10 toground
Nogroundreturnpath
Ig=GroundFault
V=IgR
V=(9.233A)(20)
V=184Vac
Ifagoodreturn
path 0volts
acrosspanel
ConductiveMaterialsenclosingconductorsorequipment
(e.g.conduit,motorframes)shallbeconnectedtoearthto
limitvoltagetogroundontheseitems.Theseshallbe:
Connectedtogether(bonded)
Connectedtothegroundedconductor
ForLRGorHRGorungroundedsystems,theseitemsmust
stillbebondedtogether
EarthcannotbesoleEGCorfaultcurrentpath
DefinedinNECasTheconductivepathinstalledtoconnect
normallynoncurrentcarryingmetalpartsofequipment
togetherandtothesystemgroundedconductororthe
groundingelectrodeconductor,orboth.
Characteristics:
Copperorcorrosionresistantmaterial
Accessible(generally)
SizedperNECTable250.66
167
Trayis20 toground
Transformergroundis10 toground
Nogroundreturnpath
Ig=GroundFault
Ig=__Volts_________________
Rofthegroundpath
=__277Vac_____________
20 +10
=9.233A
168
V=IgR
V=(9.233A)(20)
V=184Vac
Ifagoodreturnpath0voltsacrosstray
169
DefinedinNECasTheconnectionbetweenthegroundedcircuit
conductorandtheequipmentgroundingconductorataseparately
derivedsystem.
Differsfrommainbondingjumperbecausemainjumperisspecificto
service
Characteristics:
Copperorcorrosionresistantmaterial
Accessible(generally)
Unspliced
Wire,busorscrew
SizedperNEC250.28D,basedonphaseconductorsizeSeeTable
250.66
Allofthefollowingpresentatabuildingorstructureserved
shallbebondedtogether:
MetalUndergroundWaterPipe
MetalFrameoftheBuildingorStructure
ConcreteEncasedElectrode
GroundRing
RodandPipeElectrodes
OtherListedElectrodes
PlateElectrodes
Bonded,perNEC:Connectedtoestablishelectrical
continuityandconductivity
NECgivesbondingrequirements
Metalraceways,trays,cablearmor,enclosures,etc.and
othernoncurrentcarryingmetalpartsshallbebonded
NECgivesacceptablebondingmeans
Threadedcouplingsorbosses
Threadless couplingswheremadeuptightforraceways
Otherlisteddevicessuchasbondinglocknuts,bushings
orbushingswithjumpers
TypesofEGCaregiveninNECarticle250.118
CopperorAlwire
RMC
IMC
EMT
ListedFlex(withconditions)
ListedLiquidtight Flex(withconditions)
TypeACcable
MineralInsulatedCable
TypeMCcable
Cabletray(withconditions)
Cablebus framework(withconditions)
Otherraceways(e.g.listedgutters)
EGCcanbebare,coveredorinsulated
Insulationmustbegreenorgreenwithoneormore
yellowstripes
Greenorgreenwithyellowstripesarenotpermittedto
beusedforungroundedorgroundedconductors
Conductor#6orlarger,orconductorsinmulticonductor
cablecanbereidentified by:
Strippinginsulation
Coloringexposedportionsgreen
Markingexposedinsulationwithgreentapeoradhesive
labels
RefertoNECtable250.122
Sizebasedonovercurrentprotection
Nevermustbelargerthancircuitconductor
WhereasingleEGCisrunwithmultiplecircuitsin
sameraceway,cableortray,itshallbesized
basedonthelargestOCdevice
Forparallelcables,EGCmustberunwithboth
sets,witheachsizedper250.122
Forgroundedsystems,theconnectionbybondingthe
EGCtothegroundedserviceconductorandtheGEC
Forfixedequipmentconnectedwithpermanentwiring,
EGCshallberoutedwithcircuitconductors
Requiredforeverypieceoftheequipmentin
asubstation
Conductor,beitaracewayorcable,islimited
intheallowablecurrentcarryingcapabilityby
aseriesofrulesintheNEC
Copperconductors(seeNECTable250122for
ampacity)
CableTray(iflistedforgrounding)(seeNECTable
3187forampacity)
179
Connectnoncurrent
carryingmetalpartsto
systemgrounded
conductor
FaultCurrentreturnpath
NEC250118
180
Equipment
Grounding
Conductor
Connection
isthecurrent
path
Samesizeas
groundedcase
NECTable250122
181
RGSconduitandElectricalMetallicTubing
LiquidtightflexandGreenfieldflexundercertain
conditions
CablearmorofACandMCcables
MetallicSheathsofshieldedcables
NECSections250110through250148for
therulespertainingtotheinstallationofthe
equipmentgroundingconductor
182
183
184
Forparallelconductorstobebasedonthe
tripratingofthegroundfaultprotection
NECrequiresHighImpedanceGroundingstill
sizedontrip
ForHRGFramesizeofthelargestbreakerto
sizethegroundreturnconductoreven
thoughthiswillgreatlyexceedthe10amps
185
Mustberunwiththephaseconductors.
Bondingjumpershavetobedirect
connectionsfortheraceway.NECSection
250118
Mustbepermanentlyidentifiedateachend
andeverypointwheretheconductoris
accessibleNECSection280119
186
Forgroundedsystems,theconnectionare
required:
Theequipmentgroundconductor totheground
bus
Thegroundbustothecase
Thegroundbusviathegroundingelectrodeto
thefloorortoaPCRgroundloopifonehasbeen
specified.SeeNECSection250130(a)
187
Anylugorconnectionusedinthegrounding
conductorpathmustbelistedforthe
purpose.NECSection2508
188
Muchmoresimplethanoutdoor,openframesubstations
(lotsmoreonthatlater)
Voltagegradientsaretypicallynotasignificantproblem
Generallydealingwithametalenclosedpackage,all
bondedtogether
Allgroundingcircuitstoandfromunitsubstationmust
beproperlyconnected
Useofimpedancegroundinggreatlyreducesriskto
personnel
Uniqueproblemsbecausetwosystemsarepresent
MusthaveEGCrunningbacktolinesidesource
Secondaryisseparatelyderivedsystemandissubjectto
allrules(recallsystemgrounding,GEC,systembonding
jumper,etc.)
Linesideandloadsidesystemsareinterconnecteddueto
EGCrequirementsbutarefunctionallyseparate
Useofphaseovercurrentdevicesisnotideal
Canproducelesscurrentthandeviceratingthustrip
timescanbeextremelylong(e.g.fuse)withLRGsystem
Groundfaultsoftenarearcingandareintermittentin
naturenotallowingthermalelementstooperatequickly
Separategroundfaultprotectionisrecommended
Absense
ofinter
grid
connectio
nin
presence
ofhighH
Gcurrent
Zero
resistance
intergrid
connection
minimizes
lineto
ground
insulation
stress
Typical
intergrid
conductor
reduces
transfer
potential
Earth
return
Intergrid
connecti
on
Problem
whenwe
loosethe
equipment
ground
Earth
returnlow
impedance
pathback
Higher
currentbut
muchlower
touch
potential
Part1 CriteriaforGroundGridDesign
ApplicableCodes,StandardsandGuides
SafetyCriteriaandExposureMechanisms
Part2 DesigningSafeandEffectiveGroundSystems
GeneralCriteria
SoilParameters
SystemParameters
Part3 DesigningSafeandEffectiveGroundSystems
ConductorProperties
Part4 DesigningSafeandEffectiveGroundSystems
GroundingSystemArrangement
ComputerSimulation
ProblemAreas
Testing
NFPA70 NationalElectricalCode
Generalgroundingprovisions
Certaindefinitions
ANSIC2 NationalElectricSafetyCode
Generalgroundingprovisionsforelectricsupplystations
IEEE837 IEEEStandardforQualifyingPermanentConnectionsUsedin
SubstationGrounding
Specifictoconnectors
Writteninprocedureform
IEEE81 IEEEGuideforMeasuringEarthResistivity,GroundImpedance,
andEarthSurfacePotentialsofaGroundSystem
IEEE80 IEEEGuideforSafetyinACSubstationGrounding
ComprehensiveandAbsolutelyIndispensable
Shock
Notnecessarilycausedbycontactwithanintentionallyenergized
object(thatswhatinsulationisfor)
Causedbypotentialgradients
Requiresthefollowingsimultaneousconditions
Current,typicallyhighinrelationtothegroundingareaand
resistance
Currentdistributionthroughsoilresistancecausinggradientsat
earthssurface
Absenceofinsulatingmaterialthatcouldmitigatecurrentflow
throughthebody
Durationofcontactandfaultsufficienttodevelopharmful
currentflowthroughthebody
BadluckPresenceofhumanatwrongplaceatthewrongtime,
bridgingtwopointsofpotentialdifferencecausedbytheabove
items
PhysiologicalEffectsofElectricCurrent
Ascurrentincreases,thefollowingeffectsoccur
1mA:thresholdofperception
1to6mA:letgocurrentunpleasantbutcanbe
released
925mA:painandhardtorelease;mayrequire
secondarytreatment
60100mA:highlydangerous;ventriclefibrillation,
stoppageofcardiopulmonarysystem;immediate
treatmentrequired
FibrillationCurrentistheCriteriononWhichAnalysisisBased
DependsonCurrentandTime(Energyabsorbed)
Theenergyabsorbedbythebodyisexpressedasfollows:
=
where:
istheexposurecurrent(rms amperes)
istheexposureduration(seconds)
isanempiricalconstantrelatedtotolerableshockenergy
Further,researchindicatesthat99.5%ofallpersonscanwithstand
currentasexpressedbelowwithoutsufferingventricularfibrillation:
=
where:
isthesquarerootof
AlternateAnalysis
Biegelmiers
Curve
Summary
Eat,drink,
surviveshocks
better
For50and60HzCurrentstheHumanBodyisApproximatedasaResistor
Currentpathassumptions
Onehandtobothfeet
Onefoottotheother
Resistance(fromexperimentaldata)
Bodyresistanceis300
Bodyresistanceincludingskinis500to3000
IEEE80MakestheFollowingCriticalAssumptions
Handandfootcontactresistanceisequaltozero
Gloveandshoeresistanceareequaltozero
(resistanceofahumanbody)=1000for:
Handtohand
Handtofeet
Foottofoot
HandtoHand
Vitalorgans(heart)exposed
HandtoFoot
Vitalorgans(heart)exposed
FoottoFoot
Vitalorgansnotspecificallyexposed
DependsononesdefinitionofVital
Takes25timesmorecurrenttoproducesameheartcurrent
Despitetheabove,IEEE80recommends:
Useof1000forallcalculations(conservative)
Personcouldfallintoenergizedequipment
Personcouldberestinginproneposition
Forthenextfewslides:
totaleffectiveresistanceofthe
accidentalcircuitin
totaleffectivevoltage(steportouch)
oftheaccidentalcircuit
tolerablebodycurrentfromprevious
U,Z and
aresystemparameters
TerminalH isapointinsystematsame
potentialasgrid
isresistanceofbody
bodycurrentinA,flowsfromH toF
throughtheunfortunateindividual
Themaximumdrivingvoltagesofthe
accidentalstepcircuitsare:
=
Fora50kgbodyweight
.
= 1000
Fora70kgbodyweight
= 1000
Themaximumdrivingvoltagesofthe
accidentaltouchcircuitsare:
=
Fora50kgbodyweight
= 1000
1.5
Fora70kgbodyweight
.
isthestepvoltageinV
isthetouchvoltageinV
isthesurfacelayerderating factor
istheresistivityofthesurfaceinm
isthedurationoftheshockinseconds
= 1000
1.5
TheGroundSystemMust
Assurecontinuityofservice
Limittheeffectsofpotentialgradientstosafelevelsundernormal
andfaultconditions
Limitvoltageimposedbylightning,linesurgesorunintentional
contactwithhighervoltagelines
Stabilizethevoltagetoearthduringnormaloperation
Provideaneffectivegroundfaultcurrentpath
GroundPotentialRise(GPR) Themaximumelectricalpotentialthata
substationgroundinggridmayattainrelativetoadistantpointassumed
toberemoteearth.
GPR=gridresistancexmaximumgridcurrent
SafetynotnecessarilydependentonGPR;asafesystemcouldhave
ahighGPRwithlowgradients
StepVoltage Thedifferenceinsurfacepotentialexperiencedbya
personbridgingadistanceof1meterwiththefeetwithoutcontacting
anygroundedobject
TouchVoltage ThepotentialdifferencebetweentheGPRandthe
surfacepotentialwhereapersonisstandingwithonehandona
groundedsurface
MetaltoMetalTouchVoltageThepotentialdifferencebetween
metallicobjectswithinthesubstationsitethatmaybebridgedbydirect
contact
Assumednegligibleinconventionalsubstationsifbothitemsaretied
tothegrid
Couldbesubstantialwithcontactbetweengroundedand
ungroundedobjectsuchasanisolatedfence,waterpipeorrailline
TransferredVoltageSpecialcasewhereavoltageistransferredintoor
outofasubstation
TouchVoltageThepotentialdifferencebetweentheGPRandthe
surfacepotentialwhereapersonisstandingwithonehandona
groundedsurface
Movesall
the
transfer
potential
tothe
fence
Too
Loosea
ground
mat
Step
potential
increase
Minimize
stepand
touch
potential
througho
ut
SoilParameters
SystemParameters
ConductorProperties
GroundSystemArrangement(iterative)
SoilBehavesasResistance
andDielectric
Dielectriceffectcanbe
ignoredexceptfor
highfrequencywaves
Canbemodeledas
pureresistance
Conductivityis
generallyelectrolytic
Resistivityaffectedby
anumberoffactors,
hereisgraphofa
typicalsandyloamsoil:
ProperSurfacingisExtremelyValuable
Typically3to6inchesthick
Helpseliminatesoildryout
Reducesshockcurrent
Decreasesratioofbodytoshortcircuitcurrentby10to20times,
dependingonsurfacingresistivity
Resistivityisoftenprovidedbysurfacingsupplierordeterminedbytested
Typicalvaluesareindicatedonnextpage
ThreeMethodsExist
Uniformsoilmodel
Calculationsassumeuniformsoil
Requireshomogeneoussoilwhichisrare
Highlyinaccurateforsmallgridswhereinfluenceoftoplayerresistivity
ismorepronounced
Twolayersoilmodel
Usesuppersoillayeroffinitedepthwithspecifiedresistivity
Includeslowersoilwithspecifiedresistivityandinfinitedepth
Multilayersoilmodel
Usesmorethantwosoillayerswithdifferentresistivities
Onlyrequiredundercircumstancesnotnormallyencountered
SomeSolutionsforHighResistivitySoil
Effectivelyincreasethediameteroftheconductors
Thesoilclosesttotheelectrodecomprisesthebulkoftheelectrode
groundresistance
Availablemethods
Useofsaltssuchassodiumchloride,calciumchloridetotreatsoilaround
conductors
Mayneedtobereplenished
Maybeprohibited
Useofbentonite aroundconductors
Hygroscopic
Resistivityof2.5 m whenwet
Useofchemicalelectrodes
Porouscoppertubefilledwithsalt
Crammedinauguredholethen
backfilled
Useofgroundingenhancement
material
Verylowresistivity(5%of
bentonite)
Containsaluminumsilicates,
carbon,quartz
andcements
Claimsofpermanenceanddry
performance
ConcreteEncased(Ufer)Electrodes:
LowerResistance
Wireorrodinconcretehaslowerresistancethanwhendirectlyburied
Cancorrode
SmallDCcurrentscancauserebarcorrosion
Corrodedrebarcanexpandby2.2Xanddamagefootings
IEEE80givesaformulaandachartforpredictingDCforvarioussoil
conditions
ArerequiredbyNEC?
Yes,foranybuildingorstructureserved
2005NECdidntreallychangeanything
Replacedifavailableonpremiseswithallthatarepresent
Languagechangedtoclarifyintent
WhatAboutMySubstation?
Ultimatelyitisuptotheauthority
havingjurisdiction.
TheintentoftheNECpassageis
bondingofallpresentgrounding
toformasystem
Inmyview,theintentofpassageis
indicatedtoright:
IEEE80
Givesequationsandmethodologyfordeterminingresistanceofconcrete
encasedelectrode(typicallyarodenclosedinacylinder)
Recommendsthefollowing
Connectanchorboltandanglestubstotherebar
Reducecurrentdutyanddcleakagebymakingsureprimaryelectrodes
carrybulkofcurrent
Usegroundenhancementmaterialinhighresistivitysoilaround
primaryelectrodes
SoilParameters
SystemParameters
ConductorProperties
GroundSystemArrangement(iterative)
DetermineTypeandLocationofWorst
CaseFault
DefineCurrentDivisionFactor
Define
Determine,forEachFault,theDecrement
Factor
SelecttheLargestProductof x
Where:
isthefaultcurrentdivisionfactor
istherms symm.GroundfaultcurrentinA
istherms symm.GridcurrentinA forafault
duration
isthezerosequencesystemfaultcurrentinA
isthemaximumgridcurrentinA forafault
duration
isthe decrementfactorins
SoilParameters
SystemParameters
ConductorProperties
GroundSystemArrangement(iterative)
GroundingMaterialsMust:
Havesufficientconductivitydeterminedbygrounding
calculations
Resistfusingandmechanicaldeteriorationduringfaults
Bemechanicallyreliableandrugged
Beabletomaintainfunctionwhenexposedtocorrosion
orabuse
TypicalMaterials
Copper
Usedforconductorsandelectrodes
Excellentconductivity
Resistanttoundergroundcorrosion;cathodic
Cancontributetocorrosionofotherburiedobjects,particularlysteel(forms
galvaniccell)
CopperCladSteel
Usedforrods,typically
Strong,canbedriven
Theftresistant
Similarcathodic propertiestocopper
Aluminum
Rarelyused
Notcorrosionresistant;anodic
NotsuitableforundergroundapplicationperANSIC2
Steel
Infrequentlyusedforconductorsandelectrodes
Shouldbegalvanized
Mayneedcathodic protection
IEEE80ContainingChartsfortheVariablesBasedOn
ConductorType
Fromthesecharts,itcanbedetermined
that:
=
Where:
istheareaoftheconductor
isthedurationofthecurrent
isaconstantfromTable2inIEEE80
atvariousvaluesof (seenext)
TypicalConnectorTypes
Compression
Exothermic
Mechanical
SomeConsiderations
Willthisneedtoberemoved?
DoesmyconnectorneedtobetestedperIEEE837?
Arespecialpermitsorprecautionsrequiredatthesite?
Whereistheconnectiongoingtobelocated?
Compression
Typicallyappliedwithportablehydraulic
compressiontool
Wideapplicability,e.g.
Cabletocable
Cabletorodorrebar
Cabletoterminal
Canbeused
o
Abovegrade
o
Belowgrade
o
Inconcrete
Irreversible
Manufacturerstout
Safetyversusexothermic
Strength
Conductivity
Irreversibility
Exothermic
Installedusingmold(graphiteformulti
use,ceramicforsingleuse),weldpowder
(shot)andaflintigniter
Wideapplicability,e.g.
Cabletocable
Cabletorodorrebar
Cabletovirtuallyanything
Locations
o
Abovegrade
o
Belowgrade
o
Inconcrete
Irreversible
Manufacturerstout
o
Strength
o
Conductivity
o
Irreversibility
Someplantsrequirehotworkpermit
releasesenergy
Mechanical
Bolted,typicallycopperor
bronzefittings,oftentin
plated
Variedapplicability:
Cabletocable
Cabletorodorrebar
Locations
o
Abovegrade
o
Belowgrade
o
Inconcrete
Reversible
Manufacturerstout
Easeofinstallation
Conductivity
Irreversibility
1.
DetermineAreaFromLayout,DetermineSoilResistivity
2.
DetermineMinimumConductorSize
3.
CalculateTolerableStepandTouchPotential
4.
LayOutPreliminarySubstationGrid,LoopAroundYard,Sufficient
EquipmentTaps
5.
DeterminePreliminaryResistanceofGroundingSystem
6.
DetermineGridCurrent
7.
DetermineGPR;IfLessthanTolerableTouchVoltage,Done;Otherwise:
8.
CalculateMeshandStepVoltages.
9.
IfMeshVoltageisBelowTolerableTouchVoltage,Done;Otherwise:
10.
CheckStepVoltage.IfBelowTolerableLevel,Done;Otherwise:
11.
ReviseGrid
12.
CompleteDetailedDesign
SoilParameters
SystemParameters
ConductorProperties
GroundSystemArrangement(iterative)
NumerousAreasOverTouchLimit
WhatCanBeDone?
Relayingcanbemodifiedtoclearfaultsmorequickly
Amoreaccuratevaluefor can bedetermined
Rodscanbeaddedorlengthened
Conductorcanbeadded
GEMcanbeadded
Griddepthcanbeadjusted
WhatCanBeDoneforThisGrid?
Solutionbasedonexperienceandfeel
Thelowersoilislessresistiveinthiscasesoletsaddrods
Thesubissmallsoitisunderstoodthatgridspacingwillbetightsowecould
addcopper
canbeadjusted.Thissubisconnectedwithtwostaticwires.Transformers
havedeltaprimaries.
Problems
Poorsoil
Smallarea
Highfaultcurrent
Oddlyshapedgrids
Longfaultclearingtime
Solutions
Morecopper(grid,rods)
Groundenhancementmaterial
Takecloselookatstaticconnections
Fasterrelaying
Deepergrid
Moresurfacing
Differentsurfacing
Othermethods(explosiveswithfill,deepwellgrounds)
NonSubstationStuff(e.g.storageareas)WithinorNearSubstation
Checkstepandtouchvoltages
Extendgridorisolate
DisconnectSwitchHandles
Problems
Ionizedairwillbepresent,facilitatespotentialfault
Touchvoltagehazardroutinelypresent
Insulatorormechanicalfailure
Possiblesolutions
Installoperatorplatform
Bondplatformtoswitchhandleandgrid
TransformerOilContainment
Differentsurfacing(e.g.concrete)
Possiblesolutions
o
Asphalt
ControlBuilding
Problems
o
Concreteinsteadofrock
o
Possiblydifficulttorouteconductorsunderneath
PossibleSolutions
Examineexposureistouchvoltageactuallyaproblem?
Groundfoundationanddocalculations
Useframelessmetalbuildingonpiersandextendgridunderbuilding
SubstationFence
Problems
Serioustouchvoltagehazard
Frequentlyaccessibletopublic
Variousinstallationscenarios
o
Fencewithingridareaandconnectedtogrid
o
Fenceoutsidegridareaandconnectedtogrid
o
Fenceoutsidethegridareabutgroundedseparately
o
Fenceoutsidegridareaandgroundedonlythroughposts
IEEE80GoesIntoGreatDetailAboutFences HerestheSkinny
Extendgroundgridoutsidethefence(3workswell)
Greatlyhelpswithtouchpotential
Iftouchpotentialisokay,stepshouldwork
Installisolatingsectionsbetweensubstationfenceandotherfence
Substationfencemustbeisolatedfromplantperimeterfence
Multipleisolatingsectionsworkevenbetter
IEEE80GivesaCursoryGlanceatGIS
Definitions
Specialproblems
Smallsize
Highfrequencytransients
CirculatingCurrents
Inducedvoltagesfromcurrentflowinphaseconductor
Continuousvs.noncontinuousenclosures
Foundations
GeneralRuleIncludetheslab
Summary
Followmanufacturersinstructions
DefinedinIEEE81
CompareResultstoCalculatedValues
MethodsofTesting
Twopointmethod
Resistanceofsystemandanauxiliaryground
Notparticularlyaccurate
Threepointmethod
Usestwotestelectrodesandonestationground
Inaccurateforlargesubstations
Stagedfaulttests
HighcurrenttestInjectcurrentthenmeasurevoltage
Fallofpotentialmethod
Measureresistanceofsystemrelativetoremoteelectrode
Mostwidelyused