METALS

Metals and their alloys are the backbone of all engineering projects and products. Various
metals are used in one form or the other. Metals are found as compounds like oxides, carbonates,
phosphates and sulfides etc. in nature. These compounds, known as ores, are treated to remove the
impurities and get the metal.
All metals used for engineering purposes are classified into two categories:
i.

Ferrous metals, wherein iron is the main constituent.

ii.

Non-ferrous metals, wherein iron is not the main constituent.

Common ferrous metals in use are cast iron, wrought iron and different forms of steel.
Whereas, the non-ferrous metals in common use are aluminium, copper, zinc, lead and tin etc.

1 STEEL(Typeofferrousmetals)
The main difference between cast iron and steel is in the amount of their carbon contents.
Steel becomes harder and tougher with the increase in its carbon contents. Up to about 1.5 percent
all the carbon gets into chemical combination with iron and none of it exists in its free state. If
carbon contents increases beyond 1.5 percent then it does not combine with iron and present as free
graphite. It is at this stage that the metal falls in the category of cast iron. The carbon contents may
increase to 4.5 percent in case of cast iron. For a material to be classified as steel there should be
no free graphite in its composition.

1.1 Typesofsteel

Depending upon their carbon contents steel is classified as mild steel in case the carbon
content is from 0.15 to 0.3 percent. Steel having carbon content from 0.3 to 0.8 percent is known as
medium carbon steel whereas the one with carbon contents between 0.8 to 1.5 percent is known as
high carbon steel. High carbon steel with carbon percentage over one percent is also known as cast
steel or carbon tool steel.

1.1.1 Mildsteel
Steel wherein the carbon content is from 0.15 to 0.3 percent is called the Mild steel, Low
Carbon steel or Soft steel.
Properties
i. Its structure is fibrous with dark bluish color.
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ii. It is ductile and malleable.

iii. It is tougher and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron.
iv. It is more ability to rusting than the wrought iron.
v. It corrodes quickly
vi. It can be permanently magnetized.
vii. It can be easily forged, welded and riveted.
viii. It withstands shocks and impacts well.
ix. It is equally strong in tension, compression and in shear.
x. It is difficult to harden and temper.

Uses
i.

In construction works it is mainly used as rolled structural sections like I-section, T-section,
channel section, angle Irons, plates, round and square rods.

ii.

Mild steel round deformed bars are extensively used as reinforcement in Reinforced Cement
Concrete (R.C.C.).

iii.

Mild steel tubes and pipes are also extensively used in structures.

iv.

Plain and corrugated sheets of Mild steel are used as roof coverings.

v.

It is extensively used in the manufacture of various tools, equipments, machine parts, for
rail track, transmission towers and industrial buildings.

1.1.2 Highcarbonsteel
These are steels wherein the carbon contents are from 0.55 percent to 1.5 percent. Higher
percentage of carbon makes it harder and tougher.
Properties
i. Its structure is granular.
ii. It is tougher and more elastic than Mild steel.
iii. It is easier to harden and to temper.
iv. It is more difficult to forge and to weld.
v. It can be permanently magnetized.
vi. Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in shear.
vii. It withstands shocks and vibrations better.
Uses
i.

It is used for making tools such as drills, files, chisels etc.

ii.

Fine quality of cutlery is made of High Carbon steel.

iii.

It is used to manufacture those parts of machinery that need a hard, tough, durable material
capable, of withstanding shocks and vibrations.

1.1.3 Hightensionsteel
It is essentially a low carbon steel and the percentage of carbon is kept lesser than 0.15. It is
also termed as high strength steel.
Properties
i.

Because of increased tensile strength, lesser weight of it is used, as compared to Mild steel
for the same job. The structure thus becomes lighter.

ii.

It withstands atmospheric corrosion better, tougher and more elastic, more brittle and less
ductile than mild steel.

Uses
i.

High tension steel wires are extensively used in reinforcing pre-stressed concrete structures.

2 Reinforcement
Because concrete is weak in tension, it is reinforced with steel bars or wires that resist the
tensile stresses.

2.1 Nonprestressingreinforcement
The most common types of reinforcement for non-pre-stressed members are hot-rolled
deformed bars and wire fabric.

2.1.1 Hotrolleddeformedbars
Steel reinforcing bars are basically round in cross section, with lugs or deformations rolled
into the surface to aid in anchoring the bars in the concrete. They are produced according to the
following ASTM specifications, which specify certain dimensions and certain chemical and
mechanical properties.
Reinforcing bars are available in three grades, with yield strengths at 40, 60, and 75 ksi,
referred to as Grades 40, 60, and 75, respectively. Grade 60 is the steel most commonly used in
buildings and bridges. Other grades may not be available in some areas. Grade 75 is used in large
columns. Grade 40 is the most ductile, followed by Grades 60, and 75 in that order. Grade-60
deformed reinforcing bars are available in the 11 sizes. The sizes are referred to by their nominal
diameter expressed in eighths of an inch. Thus, a #4 bar has a diameter of

4
1
in. (or in.). The
2
8

nominal cross-sectional area can be computed directly from the nominal diameter, except for that of
3

the #9 and larger bars, which have diameters slightly larger than

9
10
in.,
in., and so on. For these
8
8

bars the equivalent circular nominal diameter is calculated from the area of square bars. Area of

1" 1"
(1 1 ) , 1 1 ,
8
8
"

"

2" 2"
1 1 ,
8
8

4" 4"
1 1 and (2" 2" ) square bars is considered for #9, #10,
8
8

#11, #14 and #18 bars respectively.

Grade-40 bars are available only in sizes 3 through 6. Grade-75 steel is available only in
sizes 6 to 18.
ASTM A-615: Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement.

This specification covers the most commonly used reinforcing bars.They are available in
sizes 3 to 18 in Grade 60 (yield strength of 60 ksi) plus sizes 3 to 6 in Grade 40 and sizes 6 to 18 in
Grade 75. The phosphorus content is limited to 0.06 percent.
The specified mechanical properties are summarized in Table 1. The diameters, areas, and
weights are listed in Table 2.
Table 1: Mechanical Properties of Reinforcing Bars from ASTM A-615 and ASTM A-706

Table 2: Areas, Weights, and Dimensions of Reinforcing Bars FPS Units

ASTM A-706: Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement.

This specification covers bars intended for special applications where weldability,
bendability, or ductility is important. ACI-318 Code (Reinforced concrete building design code)
requires the use of A-615 bars meeting special requirements or A-706 bars in seismic applications.
There is both a lower and an upper limit on the yield strength as shown in Table 1. A-706
limits the amounts of manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon and limits the carbon equivalent
to 0.55 percent. These bars are available in sizes 3 through 18 in Grade 60 only.

ASTM A-615 and ASTM A-706 Metric (SI) bars

ASTM A-615 and A-706 also specify metric (SI) bar sizes. They are available in 11 sizes.
Each is the same as an existing inchpound bar size but is referred to by its nominal diameter in
whole millimeters. The sizes are #10, #13, #16, #19, #22, #25, #29, #32, #36, #43, and #57,
corresponding to the nominal diameters 10 mm, 13 mm, 16 mm, and so on. The nominal diameters
of metric reinforcement are the traditional U.S. Customary unit diameters

(12.7 mm),

3
4
in. (9.5 mm),
in.
8
8

5
in. (15.9 mm), and so onrounded to the nearest whole millimeter. The diameters,
8

areas, and weights of SI bar sizes are listed in Table 3.

ASTM A-615 defines three grades of metric reinforcing bars: Grades 300, 420, and 520,
having specified yield strengths of 300, 420, and 520 MPa., respectively. These are corresponding
to Grades 40, 60 and 75 in FPS units respectively.

Grade of non pre-stressing reinforcement (Defination)

It is defined as the yield strength of reinforcement expressed in ksi (in FPS units) or in MPa
(in SI units).
Table 3: Areas, Weights, and Dimensions of Reinforcing Bars SI Units

2.2 Prestressingreinforcement
Pre-stressing steel is available as individual wires, seven-wire strands and high strength
steel bars.
Pre-stressing wire is produced through a cold-working process, either drawing or rolling.
Seven-wire strands are produced by helically winding six peripheral wires around a central wire,
which has a slightly larger diameter than the other wires. High-strength steel bars are composed of
various alloys and may be either smooth or deformed.
The tensile strength of pre-stressing steel is significantly larger than that for normal
reinforcing bars. The range of available sizes and grades of pre-stressing steel, and the governing
ASTM standards are given in Table 4.

Table 4: Available Types of Pre-stressing Steel

Grade of pre-stressing reinforcement (Defination)

It is defined as the tensile strength of reinforcement expressed in ksi (in FPS units).

3 ALLOYS
Besides carbon, other elements that impart distinctive characteristics to steel are added to
iron to produce alloy steel named after the element added. An alloy is generally prepared to
increase strength, hardness, toughness, resistance to corrosion and thermal and electrical
conductivities.
Alloys are classified into two categories: (i) Ferrous alloys; and (ii) Non-ferrous alloys.

3.1 Ferrousalloys
Ferrous alloys have iron as the chief constituent, chromium, nickel, vanadium, tungsten,
molybdenum and manganese etc. are the metals that form ferrous alloys with iron. A few important
alloys of iron are discussed below.

3.1.1 Stainlesssteel
Structural steel with a copper content of 0.2 percent resists atmospheric corrosion better
than structural steel with no copper content. Chromium is the most effective ingredient for making
steel resistant to corrosion and to heat. It is especially effective if the chromium content is 16
percent or more. The protection against corrosion is due to the dense tough film of oxide formed

over the surface of metal. Steel with a chromium content of over 16 percent is known as Stainless
steel.
Various brands of stainless steel in the market may be classified into three groups.

Steels in the first group have a chromium content lower than 16 percent and carbon content
lower than 0.4 percent. These respond to heat treatment and are not excessively brittle.
These can be machined by the use of specially designed cutting tools. These can be welded.
These are satisfactory for resisting weather and water. These can be used at temperatures up
to 800C.

Steels in the second group have chromium content higher than 16 percent and a carbon
content not over 0.4 percent. They do not respond readily to heat treatment and are brittle.
They can be forged, rolled or cold drawn and can be machined by use of specially designed
tools. They can be welded but some metals are very brittle near the weld. They resist
corrosion better than the one in the first group.

Stainless steels in the third group contain sufficient chromium to make them non magnetic.
They are very tough and do not respond readily to heat treatment. They can be forged,
rolled or cold drawn but can be machined with great difficulty. They can be welded. Due to
more than 16 percent of chromium their resistance to corrosion is excellent. The metals
under this group are the best for use under high temperatures.

3.1.2 Nickelsteel
It contains 0.5 to 1 percent carbon and about 3.5 percent nickel. Presence of nickel imparts
hardness, toughness, improves strength and reduces rust formation.
It is used in the manufacture of automobile parts, airplane parts, cables and propeller shafts.
If the percentage of nickel present in steel is from 30-40 percent, the steel is then known as invar
which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and is used for making delicate instruments.

3.1.3 Vanadiumsteel
It contains 0.1-2 percent vanadium and very strong and ductile. It is capable of resisting
shocks. Its elastic limit is high.

3.1.4 Tungstensteel
It contains 14-20 percent tungsten, 3-8 percent chromium and very small quantities of
carbon, vanadium and molybdenum. It is sometimes known as high speed steel. It hardens at high
temperatures and retains the temper. It is used for making drilling machines and high speed cutting
tools.
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3.1.5 Manganesesteel
Addition of 12-15 percent manganese to steel makes the steel very hard, tough and nonmagnetic. It is used for making points and crossings in rail track and machine parts etc.

3.2 NONFERROUSALLOYS
A few of the important non-ferrous alloys, wherein the non-ferrous metals predominate, are
described below.

3.2.1 Brass
It is an alloy of about 60-70 per cent copper and zinc. Hardness of the alloy depends upon
the amount of zinc present in it. It is very strong, malleable and ductile. It resists corrosion and it is
extensively used for making household utensils, water pumps and certain machine parts.

3.2.2 Bronze
It is an alloy of 90 per cent copper and 10 percent tin. It can be easily machined and .cast. It
resists corrosion and takes a fine polish. It is used for the manufacture of household utensils.
Phosphorous bronze is used for making radio aerials and certain other instruments.

3.2.3 Duralumin
It is an alloy of 94 percent aluminium, 4 percent copper and magnesium, manganese, silicon
and iron. It is sufficiently strong and resists corrosion. It is a very good conductor of electricity. It is
used for, making cables, airplane parts, automobile parts and surgical instruments.
3.2.4

German silver

It is an alloy of 20 to 35perrcent zinc, 45-60 percent copper and of nickel. It resists

corrosion and has high tensile strength. It is used for making utensils, resistance coils, valves,
plumbing fittings, and parts of automobile, typewriter and musical instruments.

4 NONFERROUSMETALS
Properties and uses of the more commonly used non-ferrous metals are given below:

4.1 Aluminium
It is getting into wider and wider usage in every field of Engineering. Modified
metallurgical processes have improved strength and durability of aluminium to an extent that has
made it versatile material for use by engineers.
Properties

i.

It is of silvery white color and shows bright luster on a freshly broken surface.

ii.

It is highly ductile and malleable.

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iii.

It is very light in weight.

iv.

It withstands atmospheric corrosion exceedingly well.

v.

It is a very good conductor of electricity.

vi.

It is very soft.

vii.

It can be welded and riveted but cannot be soldered.

viii.

It is very easy to work upon.

Uses

i.

It is used for making door and windows frames, corrugated sheets for roofing, piping,
railings, posts, panels and balustrades in building construction.

ii.

It is used in powder form in painting.

iii.

Aircraft and automobile parts are made of aluminium.

iv.

Because of good conductivity electric wires and cables are made of aluminium.

v.

Its alloys with metals like copper, magnesium, manganese and silicon etc. have high tensile
strength and hardness still being light and durable.

4.2 Copper
It is one of the most widely used metals. High is the prohibitive factor in its extensive usage
in engineering works.
Properties

vi.

Its structure is crystalline and the color is reddish brown.

vii.

It is highly ductile and malleable.

viii.

It can be welded only at red heat.

ix.

It is an excellent conductor of electricity.

x.

It withstands corrosion well.

xi.

It turns greenish on exposure to atmosphere.

xii.

It is soft and highly flexible.

xiii.

It is tough and withstands wear well.

xiv.

It is light in weight.

xv.

Dents in copper can be hammered out without any damage to it.

Uses

i.

Copper wires are used for winding electric motors and generators and for transmission of
electricity.

ii.

It is used for electro plating and electrotyping.

iii.

It has wide usage in making alloys like brass, bronze and gun metal.
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iv.

In the form of sheets it is used in damp proofing of buildings.

4.3 Lead.
It extensively used metal in building construction it has the drawback of being poisonous.
Properties

i.

It is bluish grey-metal.

ii.

It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife.

iii.

Its melting point is 326C and boiling point is 1150oC.

iv.

It is highly ductile and malleable.

v.

It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

vi.

It does not corrode.

vii.

Its specific gravity is 11.35.

viii.

It marks the paper.

Uses

i.

It is used as a base in paints.

ii.

Lead pipes and lead joints sanitary fittings are widely used.

iii.

It is used in lead batteries, cable coverings, making bullet shots and as lining in chemical
and metallurgical industries.

4.4 Tin
It is one of the most commonly used protective metals used in construction activities.
Properties

i.

It is lustrous silvery white metal.

ii.

It is highly ductile and malleable.

iii.

It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

iv.

Its melting point is 230oC.

v.

Its specific gravity is 7.3

vi.

It is soft and has good plasticity.

vii.

It withstands corrosion due to acids.

viii.

It becomes brittle at 200C.

Uses

i.

It is used to give protective coatings to iron and steel sheets.

ii.

It is used as an alloying element in soft solders and for moisture proof packing.

iii.

It forms alloys.
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4.5 Zinc
In building construction zinc is commonly used either as a protective covering for metals or
as a base for paints.
Properties

i.

It is a bluish white crystalline metal.

ii.

It is brittle at ordinary temperatures and when heated beyond 150C.

iii.

It becomes ductile and malleable between 100 to 150C.

iv.

It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

v.

It resists corrosion.

vi.

Its specific gravity is 7.0

vii.

Its melting point is 420oC.

viii.

It forms important alloys like brass and German silver.

Uses

i.

It is used for galvanizing iron sheets and pipes.

ii.

It is used for batteries and printing blocks

iii.

It is used for preparing paints and for making important alloys like brass and German silver.

5 RUSTING,CORROSIONANDPRESERVATIONOFSTEEL
Rusting is just the oxidization of iron at the surface. This process is activated by the
presence of moisture and carbon dioxide. On oxidization initially iron changes to ferrous
bicarbonate, then to ferric bicarbonate and finally to hydrated ferric oxide. Even at the final stage of
rust formation certain amounts of ferrous and ferric carbonate are present. Atmospheric pollution
too accelerates rust formation.
Corrosion is slow but steady eating away of the metal and is a consequence of rusting.
Rusting and corrosion can be avoided by not letting moist air come in contact with the iron surface.
Following methods are generally adopted to minimize rusting and corrosion.

5.1 Tarring.
Iron is dipped in hot coal tar so that a film of it sticks to the surface which protects the
surface from rusting and corrosion. Pipes or ends of poles to be embedded in earth are usually
given this protective treatment.

12

5.2 Painting
Paints, usually the lead paints, are applied on the surface for protection against rusting and
corrosion. Exposed metal surfaces such as in case of roof trusses and bridge structure are given this
treatment which has to be invariably repeated after regular intervals of time.

5.3 Enameling
Enamel provides better and long lasting protection as compared to painting. This treatment
is given only to smaller surfaces.

5.4 Galvanizing
Depositing a fine film of zinc on the iron/steel surface is termed as galvanizing. The surface
to be galvanized is first cleared of all foreign matter by giving it an acid wash to be followed by a
wash of clean water. The surface is then dried and dipped in molten zinc. The fine film of zinc that
gets deposited protects the surface from contact with atmosphere and consequent oxidation.
Removal of the zinc film caused by wear or scratches, however, exposes the surface to rust and
corrode.

5.5 Sheradising
Surface to be treated is cleaned of all foreign deposits by washing it with acid solution and
then with clean water. It is then dried and covered with zinc dust and enclosed in steel boxes to be
heated in a furnace under controlled temperatures. Molten zinc spreads over the whole surface and
on cooling forms a thin protective layer. Sheradising gives better protection than galvanizing.

5.6 Tinplating
After cleaning the surface with acid wash followed by wash with plain water and drying, it
is dipped in a bath of molten tin. A protective covering of tin layer is left on the surface.

5.7 Electroplating
By the process of electrolysis a thin film of nickel, chromium, cadmium, copper or zinc is
deposited on the surface to be protected. The surface to be protected is made the cathode and the
metal to be deposited is made the anode.

6 JOININGMETALS
Metals are joined together by any one of the following methods:
(i) Soldering
(ii) Brazing
(iii)Welding
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6.1 Soldering
It is the method of joining two metal surfaces by means of a low melting alloy of lead and
tin (usually mixed in the ratio of 1:2). This alloy (known as solder) melts and adheres to the
surfaces to be joined. It has very poor tensile strength and serves only to fill up the joint.

6.2 Brazing
It is similar to the operation of soldering but it done at a much higher temperature (from
650C to 1100oC). It consists of a mixture of one part of tin, three parts of zinc and four parts of
copper. The brazing solder is applied to the joint in the presence of borax which acts as a flux. The
surfaces to be joined are held pressed firmly together until the brazing solder applied has solidified.
It is used in joining together iron, copper, brass and gun metal etc.

6.3 Welding
Metals may be joined together by any one of the following two methods:

6.3.1 Bypressurewelding
To mild steel and wrought iron with low carbon and silicon content may be applied to this
method of joining together. In it the surfaces to be joined are heated to such a temperature as to
render them plastic and then pressure is applied to join the surfaces.

6.3.2 Byfusionwelding
In welding by fusion, the surfaces to joined are brought near to each other and then locally
heated either by gas or by an electric spark until the surfaces melt. Molten matter to fill the joint is
supplied by the welding rods. Different welding rods are used to weld surfaces of different natures.
Fusion of surfaces may be caused by
Gas welding
Arc welding
Flash welding
Thermit welding

6.3.2.1 GasWelding
In gas welding a combination of oxygen and acetylene gasses supplied from gas cylinders
under pressure is lighted at the tip welding torch. By controlling the supply of gases the length of
flame and its nature (oxidizing or reducing) can be adjusted. Suitable welding rod, depending upon
the nature of surfaces to be welded, are coated with fluxes. Welding rods provide the molten metal
necessary to fill the joint.
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6.3.2.2 ElectricArcWelding
In electric arc welding a spark is produced between the welding rod and the surface to be
welded. The heat of spark is enough to heat the surfaces to be welded and also to melt the welding
rod. To help fusion the welding rod is often coated with a suitable flux.

6.3.2.3 FlashWelding
In flash welding electric arc is utilized to cause fusion of surfaces to be welded and then
pressure is applied to join the fused surfaces. Heavy pieces like rails are welded by this method.

6.3.2.4 ThermitWelding
In thermit welding, molten thermit is poured over the joint of surfaces to be welded.
Thermit consists of a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide in the ratio of 1:3 by weight. This
method is used in welding large damaged steel pieces.

7 HEATTREATMENT
The object of heat treatment is to develop desired properties in steel. The properties of steel
can be controlled and changed as well by various heat treatments. A steel of given composition
may be made soft, ductile and tough by one heat treatment, and the same steel may be made
relatively hard and strong by another. Heat treatment affects the nature, amount, and character of
the metallographic properties.
Heat treatment influences the solubility relations of the constituents, changes the
crystallization either with respect to form or degree of aggregation and introduces or relieves
internal stresses in the metal. The heat treatment process consists in subjecting, a metal to definite
temperature for a certain time period.
Some of the principle purposes of heat treatment are as follows.

To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.

To relieve internal stresses and strains.

To refine the grain.

To remove gases.

To normalize steel after heat treatment.

7.1 Hardening
This heat treatment consists of heating the steel above the upper critical temperature holding
at that temperature until phase equilibrium has been established, and then quenching rapidly to
produce a martensite structure. Martensite is the chief constituent of hardened steel and is fibrous or
15

needle like structure. Hardened steel is very brittle and cannot be used for practical purposes. The
quenching medium is usually brine, water or oil, depending on the desired cooling rate.
The objective of this treatment may be to secure a given hardness to a desired depth in steel.
But in most instances the hardening treatment may simply be considered as starting point from
which better combinations of desired properties may be secured by subsequent heat treatment.
Fully hardened steel are not suitable for most commercial uses because they are hard and brittle and
have poor toughness.

7.2 Tempering
Plain carbon steel that has been hardened is in metastable condition or equilibrium. If this
hardened steel is reheated to some temperature below the critical range, a more stable condition
will be obtained. Since hardened steels do not usually have the combination of properties desired
for specific uses, modification is affected by tempering.
When a thick piece of steel is cooled rapidly it develops additional strains as the surface
cools quicker than the interior. To relieve this strain, steel is subjected to the process tempering
which consists in slowly heating the steel to a predetermined subcritical temperature and then
cooling it slowly. This temperature varies from 100C to 700C. The higher the temperature of
tempering the softer is the product. The properties like toughness and ductility are automatically
introduced with release of strain.

7.3 Annealing
It is a general term used for heating and slow cooling of metal, glass or any other material,
which has developed strain due to rapid cooling.
The process consists of heating the steel to a temperature below the critical range, but high
enough to obtain strain recrystllization and then cooled in any manner. The exact heating
temperature depends on the composition of steel and the amount of work that it has received, but is
frequently between 500C to 600C. Annealing of steel in addition to removing strain introduces
one or more of the following properties.

Introduces softness, ductility and malleability.

Alters electrical, magnetic and other physical properties.

Produces a definite microstructure and grain refinement.

Removes gases.

Full annealing consists of heating iron alloy 20C to 50C above critical temperature range,
holding at that temperature for the required period of time to convert it to austenite followed by
16

slow cooling. Full annealing usually decreases hardness, strength and resistance to abrasion, and
increases ductility and mechaneability.

7.4 Normalizing
It consists in heating steel above critical range and cooling rapidly in air, but at rate slower
than the critical cooling rate. The purpose of this heat treatment is to refine the grain structure
resulting from rolling, forging or other manufacturing processes.

17