1

5. STEADY STATE FLOW

5.1 Introduction
The flow of water in soils can be very significant, for example:
1. It is important to know the amount of water that will enter a pit during
construction, or the amount of stored water that may be lost by percolation
through or beneath a dam.
2. The behaviour of soil is governed by the effective stress, which is the
difference between total stress and pore water pressure. When water flows
the pore water pressures in the ground change. A knowledge of how the
pore water pressure changes can be important in considering the stability
of earth dams, retaining walls, etc.
5.2 Darcys law
Because the pores in soils are so small the flow through most soils is laminar.
This laminar flow is governed by Darcy's Law which will be discussed below.
5.2.1 Definition of Head

P
IMPORTANT

z(P)

z is measured vertically UP
from the DATUM

Datum

Fig 1 Definition of Head at a Point

Referring to Fig. (1) the head
equation(Bernoullis equation)

at

point

is

defined

by

the

u w ( P)
z( P) +v2/2g
(1)
w
Total head at p= pressure head at P + position head at P + velocity
h ( P)

head(negligible)
In this equation w (9.8 kN/m3) is the unit weight of water, and u w(P) is the pore
water pressure .

Note
1. The quantity u(P)/w is usually called the pressure head or piezometric head.
2. The quantity z(P) is called the elevation head or position head (its value
depends upon the choice of a datum).
3. The velocity head is generally neglected. The only circumstances where it
may be significant is in flow through rock-fill, but in this circumstance, the
flow will generally be turbulent and so Darcy's law is not valid.
Example - Calculation of Head

Static water table

1m

2m

X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum

Fig 2 Calculation of head using different datums

Fig 2 Calculation of head using different datum

1. Calculation of Head at P
Datum at the top of the impermeable layer
uw ( P ) 4 w

h( P )

4 w
1 5m
w

h( X )

w
4 5m
w

z (P) = 1 m
2. Calculation of Head at X
Datum at the top of the impermeable layer
u w ( X ) 1 w

z (X) = 4 m

It appears that when there is a static water table the head is constant throughout the saturated zone.
3. Calculation of Head at P (Datum at the water table)
uw ( P ) 4 w

z (P) = - 4 m

h( P )

4 w
4 0m
w

4. Calculation of Head at X (Datum at the water table)

u w ( X ) 1 w

z (X) = - 1 m

h( X )

w
1 0m
w

When there is a static water table the head is constant throughout the
saturated zone, but its numerical value depends on the choice of datum.
It is very important to carefully define the datum. The use of imaginary
standpipes can be helpful in visualising head. The head is then given by the
height of the water in the standpipe above the datum
Note also that it is differences in head (not pressure) that cause flow

5.2.2 Darcys Experiment

Soil Sample
L

Fig 3 Darcys Experiment

During his fundamental studies of the flow of water in soil Darcy found that the
flow Q was:
1. Proportional to the head difference h
2. Proportional to the cross sectional area A

3. Inversely proportional to the length L of the soil sample.

Thus Darcy concluded that:
Q k A

h
l

(2a)

where k is the Darcy coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity.

Equation (2a) may be rewritten:
Q k Ai
v ki

(2b)

where
i = h/L is the hydraulic gradient
v = Q/A is the Darcy or superficial velocity.
Note that the actual average velocity of the water in the pores (the
groundwater velocity) is

v
where n is the porosity. The groundwater velocity
n

is always greater than the Darcy velocity.

5.3 Measurement of Permeability
5.3.1 Constant Head Permeameter

inlet

constant head
device

load
H

outlet

device for flow

measurement

Sample
sample

Manometers

L
porous disk

Fig. 4 Constant Head Permeameter

This is similar to Darcy's experiment. The sample of soil is placed in a
graduated cylinder of cross sectional area A and water is allowed to flow
through. The discharge X during a suitable time interval T is collected. The
difference in head H over a length L is measured by means of manometers
.
From Darcys law we obtain
X
H
kA
T
L
k

X L
AH T

(3)

The piston is used to compact the soil because the permeability depends upon
the void ratio
5.3.2 Falling Head Permeameter

Standpipe of
cross-sectional
area a

porous disk
H

H1

H2

Sample of
area A

Fig. 5 Falling Head Permeameter

During a time interval t
a

The flow in the standpipe =

The flow in the sample

k A

and thus
a

dH
dt

H
t

k A

H
L

H
L

(4a)

Equation (4a) has the solution:

a ln ( H )

kA
t cons tan t
L

(4b)

Now initially at time t = t 1 the height of water in the permeameter is H = H 1

while at the end of the test, t = t2 and H = H2 and thus:

H1
H2

ln

aL

k
A (t 2 t1 )

(4c)

5.4 Typical permeability ranges

Soils exhibit a very wide range of permeabilities and while particle size may
vary by about 3-4 orders of magnitude, permeability may vary by about 10
orders of magnitude.

10-1

Gravels
Grovels

10-2

10-3

10-4

Sands

10-5

10-6

10-7

10-8

10-9

Silts

10-10

10-11

10-12

Homogeneous Clays

Fissured & Weathered Clays

Fig 6 Typical Permeability Ranges
Permeability is often estimated from correlations with particle size. For example
k ( d 10 ) 2

This expression was first proposed by Hazen in 1893. It is satisfactory for sandy soils but is less
reliable for well graded soils and soils with a large fines fraction.

5.5 Mathematical form of Darcy's law

Because of their geological history soils tend to be deposited in layers and
hence have different flow properties along the layering and transverse to the
layering.
z(Vertical)

z
B
O

x (Horizontal)

Fig 7 Definition of Hydraulic Gradients

Suppose that the permeability in the horizontal plane is k H, then the velocity
vx in the x direction is approximately given by:
vx k H ix
h ( C ) h( B )
x
h
kH
x

ix
vx

(5a)

The negative signs in these equations have been introduced because flow
occurs in the direction of decreasing head.
Similarly if the permeability in the vertical direction is k v then the velocity vz is
given by
vz kv iz
h ( A ) h( B )
z
h
kv
z

iz
vz

(5b)

Should there also be flow in the y direction this is similarly governed by

vy kH

h
y

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5.5.1 Plane Flow

In many situations, as in the dam shown below, there will be no flow in one
direction (usually taken as the y direction).

Cross section of a long dam

Dam

Soil

Flow

Impermeable bedrock

Fig. 8 Plane Flow under a Dam

5.5.2 Continuity Equation
In order to be able to analyse the complex flows that occur in practice it is
necessary to examine the water entering and leaving an element of soil.
Consider plane flow into the small rectangular box of soil shown below:

vz
C

vx

Soil
Element

Fig 9 Flow into a soil element

Fig. 9 Flow into a soil element

Net flow into element =

(6a)

( v x ( B ) v x ( D )) y z ( v z ( C ) v z ( A )) x y

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For steady state seepage the flow into the box will just equal the flow out so
the net flow in will be zero, thus dividing by xyz and taking the limit for an
infinitesimal element, it is found:
vx
vz

0
x
z

(6b)

When equation (6) is combined with Darcys law it is found that:

h

kH

x
x

k v

(7a)
For a homogeneous material in which the permeability does not vary with
position this becomes:
kH

2h
2h

k
0
v
x2
z2

(7b)

and for an isotropic material in which the permeability is the same in all
directions (kH = kv):
2h
2h

0
x2
z2

(7c)

For the more general situation in which there is flow in three dimensions the
continuity equation becomes:
vy
vx
vz

0
x
y
z

(8)

The equation governing seepage then becomes:

h

kH

x
x

h

kH

y
y

k v

(9a)
For a homogeneous material in which the permeability does not vary with
position (x, y, z) this becomes:
kH

2h
2h
2h

k
0
H
v
x2
y2
z2

(9b)
and for an isotropic material in which the permeability is the same in all
directions:

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2h
2h
2h

0
2
2
x
y
z2

(9c)