FUZZY CONTROLLED UPQC FOR

POWER QUALITY
ENHANCEMENT IN A DFIG BASED GRID
CONNECTED WIND
POWER SYSTEM

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 DOUBLY-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR
Variable speed wind turbines such as DFIGs are the most popular wind turbines being
installed today because they perform better than the fixed speed wind turbines during system
disturbances. DFIGs are the only class of wind generators capable of producing reactive power
to maintain unity power factor at the collector bus. Figure 1.1 shows the DFIG model.

Figure.1.1. Block diagram of a Doubly-fed induction generator

A back-to-back converter is connected between the rotor and stator of the DFIG. The main
objective of the GSC is to keep the DC link voltage constant. The reactive power supplied by this
converter can be controlled by maintaining the power factor of this converter at unity. The GSC
works as supplementary reactive power compensation though the reactive power capability of
this converter during the fault is limited as it is rated just about 25% of the wind turbine power
ratings. RSC controls the stator active and reactive powers. The RSC is also used to control the
machine speed and the stator reactive power. The stator of the DFIG is directly connected to the
grid and the slip-rings of the rotor are fed by self-commutated converters. The magnitude and
phase of the rotor voltage can be controlled using these converters which makes active and
reactive power control possible. By controlling the reactive power generated or absorbed by the
RSC, voltage or reactive power at the grid terminals can be controlled.

The main components of the DFIG model are: the prime mover consisting of the pitch angle
controller, the wind turbine and the shaft, the DFIG, control system regulating active and reactive
power of the DFIG through the RSC and a protection system.
Crowbar protection is also being increasingly used in wind turbines to short circuit (with
small impedance) the rotor side converter in case of faults to protect the RSC from over currents.
Crowbar protection is specific to DFIGs and protects the RSC against over currents. The
converter is blocked and bypassed through additional impedance, when the rotor current exceeds
the rotor converter current ratings. The additional impedance reduces the amount of reactive
power absorbed by the machine and, thus, improves the torque characteristic during voltage sags.
In DFIGs, the size of the converter is related not to the total generated power, but to the selected
speed range and, hence, to the slip. As speed range requirements around the synchronous speed
increases, the size and cost of the converter increases. Typical high power wind turbine
generators are mostly DFIGs that allow more speed control of about 25% synchronous and an
effective reactive power control with a small size rotor that is only about 25% of the total power
rating of the turbine.
1.2 DFIG modelling
The doubly-fed induction machines can be categorized into four types. These types are:
the standard doubly-fed induction machine, the cascaded doubly-fed induction machine, the
single-frame cascaded doubly-fed induction machine and the brushless doubly-fed induction
machine. However, only the standard type and brushless type of doubly-fed induction machines
have been applied in wind turbine-generator systems. In reference, the authors developed the
brushless doubly-fed induction generator by employing two cascaded induction machines to
eliminate the brushes and copper rings, and used a closed-loop stator flux oriented control
scheme to achieve active and reactive power control.
The doubly-fed induction generator model can be expressed in the stationary stator
reference frame, the reference frame rotating at rotor speed and the synchronously rotating
reference frame. While, both stator and rotor variables were referred to their corresponding
natural reference frames, and the machine model expressed in such reference frame is called the
Quadrature-Phase Slip-Ring model.
The DFIG model can usually be expressed by reduced order models, which can yield a
third order model by neglecting the derivative terms of the stator flux and first order model by

neglecting both the derivative terms of the stator flux and rotor flux. There are many references
which made the comparison between the full order model and reduced order models. compared a
third order model with a full order model in two extreme operation points under short-circuit
fault conditions. These points are sub-synchronous speed and super-synchronous speed,
respectively. As known, the difference between the model of a squirrel-cage induction generator
and a doubly-fed induction generator is the rotor input. Hence, the simplified models of squirrelcage induction generators may be helpful for understanding the reduced order models of DFIGs.
1.3 Control Strategies for a Wind Turbine-Generator System
The control schemes for a wind turbine-generator system include the pitch angle control,
maximum power point tracking control, and the DFIG control. The traditional control techniques
and advanced control techniques for wind turbine-generator systems are reviewed in this section.
1.3.1 Pitch angle control
The pitch angle control is a mechanical method of controlling the blade angle of the wind
turbine when the captured wind power exceeds its rated value or wind speed exceeds its rated
value. In this way, pitch angle control is enabled to limit the maximum output power to be equal
to the rated power, and thus protect the generator when the wind speed experiences gusts. The
pitch angle controller is only activated at high wind speeds.
1.3.2

Maximum power point tracking control

In order to achieve the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control, some control

schemes have been presented. The maximum power point tracking control can be mainly divided
into two types. They are the conventional control schemes and intelligent control schemes.

Conventional control schemes

The conventional control schemes can also be divided into current mode control and

speed mode control, which depends on the setting of reference values. The reference values are
the active power and electromagnetic torque for current mode control, and the rotational speed
for the speed mode control. Compared these two control strategies for dynamic transient
analysis, and concluded that the current mode control has slow response with simple
construction, while the speed mode control has fast response with complex construction.
In fact, the wind speeds in above conventional control schemes need to be exactly
measured. However, the anemometer cannot precisely measure the wind speed because of the

flow distortion, complex terrain and tower shadow influence. Hence, some studies on maximum
wind energy tracking without wind velocity measurement had been developed.

Intelligent control
The intelligent control strategies usually apply the hill-climbing control and the fuzzy

logic control to the maximum power point tracking control. The traditional hill-climbing control
uses a fixed-step speed disturbance optimal control method to determine the speed, perturbation
size and direction according to the changes in the power before and after sampling.
However, this control method is usually slow in speed because the step disturbance is
fixed. Therefore, some improved hill-climbing control methods were proposed. For example, a
method of using variable-step wind energy perturbation method to control the captured wind
power was analyzed.
Fuzzy logic control based MPPT strategies have the advantages of having robust speed
control against wind gusts and turbine oscillatory torque, having superior dynamic and steady
performances, and being independent of the turbine parameters and air density.

Other control strategies

A novel adaptive MPPT control scheme in which the wind speed was estimated by the

output power and the efficiency of the generator, and the maximum efficiency was estimated by
the maximum tip-speed ratio tracker. A novel MPPT strategy that was based on directly adjusting
the dc/dc converter duty cycle according to the results of comparisons between successively
monitored wind turbine output powers was proposed, in which there was no requirement for the
knowledge of wind turbine characteristic and measurements of the wind speed.
1.3.3

DFIG control
Control of the DFIGs is more complicated than the control of a squirrel-cage induction

generator, because the DFIGs can operate at sub-synchronous speed and super-synchronous
speed by regulating the rotor terminal voltages. Through the years, many researchers have
presented various types of DFIG control strategies, such as field oriented control, direct
torque/power control, predictive control, sensor less control and nonlinear control.

Field oriented control

Field oriented control (FOC) or vector control is commonly used in doubly-fed induction
generator controls due to its ability of controlling the motor speed more efficiently, and the low
economic cost to build an FOC system. Field oriented control also provides the ability of
separately controlling the active and reactive power of the generator. Currently, there are mainly
two types of field oriented control in DFIGs, which are stator voltage oriented control and stator
flux oriented control, respectively. The stator flux oriented control is widely used in the DFIG
control designs, in which the q-axis current component is used for active power control and the
d-axis component is used for reactive power control. While for the stator voltage oriented
control, the situation is on the contrary, the d-axis component is used for active power control
and the q-axis current component is used for reactive power control. Comparison of real and
reactive power control for a DFIG-based wind turbine system using stator voltage and stator flux
oriented control, respectively, and the simulation results illustrated same performances.

Direct torque/power control

Recently, a new technique for directly control of the induction motors torque or power

was developed, which included direct torque control (DTC) and direct power control (DPC).
Direct torque control scheme was first developed and presented by I. Takahashi and T. Nogouchi.
Based on the principles of DTC for electrical machines, direct power control for a three-phase
PWM converter was introduced.
Direct torque control techniques do not require current regulators, coordinate
transformations, specific modulations and current control loops. Thus, direct torque control has
the ability of directly controlling the rotor flux linkage magnitude and generator torque through
properly selecting the inverter switching states. To show the advantages of DTC, the comparison
between the field oriented control and direct torque control was made in direct torque control
using space vector modulation technology was presented, then applied basic direct torque control
to a doubly-fed induction generator. Direct torque control which was achieved without PI
controller and only required the knowledge of grid voltages, rotor currents, and rotor position as
was proposed a novel direct torque control scheme which was developed based on the control of
the rotor power factor.
Direct power control has the merits of being simple, requiring fewer sensors, having low
computational complexity, fast transient response and low machine model dependency compared

with direct torque control. The comparison between field oriented control and direct power
control for a PWM rectifier was presented, and the simulation results showed that the virtualflux-based direct power control was superior to the voltage-based direct power control and field
oriented control. Direct power control has been applied in DFIG-based wind turbine-generator
systems in recent years used direct power control in a DFIG-based wind turbine system under
unbalanced grid voltage conditions. A new direct power control, which was based on the stator
flux and only needed the stator resistance values of the machine parameters, was proposed.
1.4 Voltage Regulation in the DFIG Wind Turbine System
The reactive power capability of the DFIG system is limited. Typically most large size
wind turbines are usually installed at remote places or offshore because of their dimension and
impact on the scenery. Those areas usually have electrically weak power grids characterized by
low short circuit ratios and under-voltage conditions, which means, they require special
consideration in connecting those wind turbines to the grid. In such grid conditions and during a
grid side disturbance the DFIGs may not be able to provide sufficient reactive power support.
Without any external dynamic reactive compensation, there can be a risk of voltage instability in
the power grid. The aerodynamic behavior of wind turbine causes its output voltage fluctuation.
Voltage instability problems occur in a power system that cannot supply the reactive power
demand during disturbances like faults, heavy loading, voltage swelling and voltage sagging.
This problem is more severe in case of the weak power grids having under-voltage. During the
grid side disturbances, the power electronic converters in the DFIG may be damaged because of
the high voltage induced in it. To prevent such contingencies, utilities typically immediately
disconnect the WTGs from the grid, and reconnect them when normal operation has been
restored. This is possible, as long as wind power penetration remains low. However, with the
rapid increase in penetration of wind power in power systems, tripping of many WTGs in a large
wind farm during grid faults may begin to influence the overall power system stability.
Therefore, it will become necessary to require WTGs to support the network voltage and
frequency not only during steady-state conditions but also during grid side disturbances.
Moreover, the particular bus voltage is local quantity and hence it is very difficult and costly to
control the bus voltage at the remote node by the use of conventional power stations consisting
of synchronous generators and synchronous condensers located elsewhere in the grid. It is
because the reactive power flow in the power system is associated with changes in voltage which

in turn increases the power losses (mainly I 2R loss) in the system. Hence it is necessary to install
local voltage control devices in the transmission/distribution network even if the wind turbine
itself has voltage controlling capability.
At the same time, the decentralization concept of power generation is becoming popular.
As a result, the contribution of conventional power plants to the voltage control in transmission
network is diminishing. It is becoming more difficult to control the voltage in the entire
transmission network from conventional power stations only. Hence grid companies are
installing dedicated local voltage control equipments and demanding distributed generation
equipments to have reactive power capability irrespective of applied technology. So there will
not be any exception for wind power plants.
Recently, the utility companies are asking to fulfill certain criteria (grid codes) for the
interconnection of wind turbines to the power grid. The grid codes mainly demand wind turbines
to have low voltage ride-through capability and reactive power capability. The first specification
seeks to improve transient stability in a power system with a high penetration of wind energy,
while the second specification targets to support steady state voltage regulation in such power
system. Another key requirement for wind power interconnection is that the power factor at the
PCC must remain between 0.95 leading and 0.9 lagging. The reason for this ruling is that
reactive power capability for a wind plant is a significant additional cost compared to
conventional units which possess inherent reactive power capability.
1.5 Interaction of a DFIG Wind Turbine System with the Series Compensated Line
Traditionally, series compensation is used in long transmission line to increase the power
transfer capability of the line. Series compensation also helps in the steady state voltage
regulation. Series compensation is also used to enable power to be transmitted stably over a
greater distance than is possible without compensation. The DFIG wind turbines are installed in
remote areas and offshore due to favorable wind conditions and are therefore connected to the
power system via weak and long transmission lines. Hence, to evacuate large amounts of
electrical power from the wind farms, it is quite likely that the transmission lines will be series
compensated.
In this thesis, the grid side converter (GSC) is designed to regulate the DFIG terminal
voltage of the series compensated line. The steady state analysis of the overall system is done to
evaluate the effect of different compensation levels. It is shown through the dynamic simulation

and steady state analysis that the series compensation helps in improving the steady state voltage
regulation and enhances the power carrying capability of the transmission line. It is clearly
shown that the reactive power that GSC has to supply to regulate the terminal voltage keeps on
decreasing when the compensation level increases.
1.6 Autonomous Operation of DFIG Wind Energy Conversion System with Integrated
Energy Storage
The majority of research interests related to DFIG systems in the literature have
concentrated on the grid connected wind power applications. However, in order to assess the full
potential of the DFIG, control strategies of the standalone operation mode should be also
examined. For the autonomous operation of the wind turbine, two issues need to be addressed: 1)
integration of properly sized energy storage system into the WECS to mitigate the power
fluctuations and consequent power quality problems, and 2) development of effective control
strategies. To control the voltage and frequency of the standalone operated system, traditional
reactive power versus voltage (Q-V) and real power versus frequency (P-) droop techniques have
been adopted and successfully implemented. Moreover, the variability of wind speed causes
fluctuation in the power output of wind generator as a result the voltage and frequency of the
isolated power system gets affected. To increase the reliability and performance of the system,
energy storage is required. Many investigations have been done for technical and/or economical
advantages of augmenting a wind power unit with energy storage for instance fuel cell, batteries,
flywheel, compressed air and super-capacitor. In the case of small-scale wind power system with
energy storage system peak power less than 1 MW, lead-acid battery energy storage systems
constitute a technically mature solution with considerable application potential.
In this thesis, the standalone operation of the DFIG system with integrated battery energy
storage connected across the DC-link of ac/dc/ac converter is modeled. The connected load
consisting of RL load, linear load and non-linear load is modeled. The Grid Side Converter is
designed to control frequency and load bus voltage magnitude using droop control technique.

Advantages of the DFIG-based wind turbine-generator system

 It has the ability of decoupling the control of the active and reactive power by
controlling the rotor terminal voltages. Hence, the power factor control can be
implemented in this system.
The DFIG is usually a wound rotor induction generator, which is simple in
construction and cheaper than a PMSG.
In a DFIG-based wind turbine-generator system, the power rating of the power
converters is typically rated 30% around the rated power, and this characteristic leads to
many merits, such as, reduced converter cost, reduced filter volume and cost, less
switching losses, less harmonic injections into the connected grid, and improved
overall efficiency (approx. 2-3% more than full-scale frequency converter) if only the
generator and power converters are considered.
Disadvantages of the DFIG-based wind turbine-generator system
Needs slip-rings and gearbox, which will require frequent maintenance.
Has limited fault ride through capability and needs protection schemes has complex
control schemes.
1.7 UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER (UPQC)
The Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) which integrates a series and shunt
active filter can compensate: supply voltage sag or swell voltage and current unbalance or
harmonics, reactive power and current negative with zero sequences (neutral current). The
UPQC has the capability of improving power quality at the point of installation on power
distribution systems or industrial power systems. Finally, the UPQC is expected to be one of the
most powerful solutions to high capacity sensitive loads. Figure 1.2 shows the general structure
of an UPQC with the combination of a series (DVR) and shunt (DSTATCOM) active filter.
UPQC will be installed according to the need. Thus, it protects against network voltage
perturbations in the load side or protects the other consumers in the sub-transmission side.

Figure.1.2: UPQC general structure

1.7.1 SERIES ACTIVE FILTER (SAF)
Series active filter is connected in series with the incoming utility supply through a low
pass filter and a voltage injecting transformer. The low pass filter eliminates the high switching
frequency ripple of the inverter. The filter may inject some phase shift, which could be load
dependent, but suitable feedback control is designed to dynamically adjust this shift. SAF is
responsible for compensating the deficiency in voltage quality of the incoming supply; such that
the load end voltage remains insensitive to the variation of utility supply.
1.7.2 PARALLEL ACTIVE FILTER (PAF)
Parallel active filter (PAF) is connected in parallel with the nonlinear load through a
boost inductor Lf, which can boost up the common dc link voltage to the desired value through
appropriate control. The size of the inductor has to be chosen carefully, bigger size would cause
slower response to current control and smaller size would cause the high switching frequency
ripple of the inverter to be injected into the distribution system. The main purpose of the PAF is
to provide required VAR support to the load, and to suppress the load current harmonics from
flowing towards the utility and it is operated in current controlled mode.
The dc link capacitor C provides the common dc link voltage to both SAF and PAF.
Ideally once charged, the dc link voltage should not fall off its charge, but due to finite switching
losses of the inverters, inductor and capacitor, some active power is consumed and the charge of
the dc link voltage needs to be maintained in a closed loop control, through the PAF. The choice
of the reference dc link voltage depends upon the percentage of voltage sag to be mitigated and

amount of VAR to be shared. The higher of the two values is to be chosen to comply with all
needs. It is to be noted that as the C is charged continuously through PAF, it does not require
additional source of voltage support. The online charging also helps UPQC in mitigating voltage
unbalance or under-voltage situations for longer durations, as it is not limited by the storage
capacity of a separate voltage source.
BENEFITS OF UPQC:
1. Regulates load voltage against sag/swell and other voltage fluctuations.
2. Individual phase compensation of the load voltages to eliminate voltage unbalance
3. Reactive current filtering by STATCOM
4. Maintains Grid Power Factor near to unity and brings down Maximum Demand
5. Uninterrupted production and supply
The unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) is a custom power device, which mitigates
voltage and current-related PQ issues in the power distribution systems. In this paper, a UPQC
topology for applications with non-stiff source is proposed. The proposed topology enables
UPQC to have a reduced dc-link voltage without compromising its compensation capability. This
proposed topology also helps to match the dc-link voltage requirement of the shunt and series
active filters of the UPQC. The topology uses a capacitor in series with the interfacing inductor
of the shunt active filter, and the system neutral is connected to the negative terminal of the dclink voltage to avoid the requirement of the fourth leg in the voltage source inverter (VSI) of the
shunt active filter. The average switching frequency of the switches in the VSI also reduces,
consequently the switching losses in the inverters reduce. The reported topologies of 3P-4W
UPQC use active compensation of source neutral current, while the uses of passive elements for
the mitigation of source neutral current are advantageous over the active compensation due to
ruggedness and less complexity of control.
Hence, in this paper a star-delta supported 3P- 4W UPQC is proposed for the mitigation
of different PQ problems. The delta connected secondary of a star delta transformer provides a
circulating path to the zero sequence current (io) in case of unbalanced load and hence the supply
neutral current is reduced to zero. Moreover, star-delta supported 3P-4W UPQC may be realized
using readily available three-leg VSIs. The deregulated power market, adherence to different
power quality standards laid down by different agencies has become a figure of merit for the
utilities. On the other hand three-phase four-wire distribution systems are facing severe PQ

problems. Some of these are high reactive power burden, voltage and current harmonics, poor
power-factor, voltage sag, swells and voltage dip etc. Different devices such as rectifiers,
inverters, adjustable speed drives, computer power supplies, furnaces and traction drives lead to
non-linear current waveforms and hence degrade the quality of power. The quality degradation
leads to low power-factor, low efficiency, overheating of transformers and so on. In addition to
this, the load on a 3P-4W distribution system hardly found balanced. Because of this there is an
excessive neutral current of fundamental and as well harmonic frequencies in the neutral
conductor. For the mitigation of neutral current along with other power quality compensations,
different topologies of UPQC reported in literature are three-leg VSI with split capacitor, threesingle phase VSI, four-leg VSI, current source inverter etc. Out of these proposed topologies, the
four-leg VSI topology is most popular, but has the disadvantages of greater number of
semiconductor switches, complexity of control, etc. the UPQC, the DC-link voltage requirement
for the shunt and series active filters is not the same. Thus, it is challenging task to have a
common DC-link of appropriate rating in order to achieve satisfactory shunt and series
compensation. The shunt active filter requires higher DC link voltage when compared to the
series active filter for proper compensation. In order to have a proper compensation for both
series and shunt active filter, the researchers are left with no choice rather than to select common
DC-link voltage based on shunt active filter requirement. This will result in over rating of the
series active filter as it requires less DC-link voltage compared to shunt active filter. Due to this
criterion, in literature, a higher DC-link voltage based on the UPQC topology has been suggest.
With the high value of DC-link capacitor, the Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs) become bulky and
the switches used in the VSI also need to be rated for higher value of voltage and current. This in
turn increases the entire cost and size of the VSI. To reduce the DC-link voltage storage capacity,
few attempts were made in literature. In, a hybrid filter has been discussed for motor drive
applications. The filter is connected in parallel with diode rectifier and tuned at 7 th harmonic
frequency. Although an elegant work, the design is specific to the motor drive application and the
reactive power. The main power quality problems in three-phase, four wire distribution systems
are poor voltage regulation, high reactive power demand, harmonics current burden, load
unbalancing, excessive neutral current, voltage harmonics, and voltage sags and swells. The
quality degradation leads to low power factor, low efficiency, overheating of transformers, and so
on. Moreover, in case of the distribution system, the overall load on the system is hardly

balanced, causing excessive neutral currents in a three phase, four-wire distribution system.
Overheating of the neutral conductor occurs because of the fundamental and high-frequency
contents in the neutral current. With the application of sophisticated and more advanced software
and hardware for the control systems, power quality has become one of the most important issues
for power electronics engineers. To control power quality problems, many standards are
proposed by different agencies. Ideally, voltage and current waveforms are in phase, the power
factor of load equals unity, and the reactive power consumption is zero. This situation enables the
most efficient transport of active power, leading to the attainment of the cheapest distribution
system. In the past, the solutions to mitigate these identified power quality problems were
through conventional passive filters. However, their limitations, such as fixed compensation,
resonance with the source impedance, and difficulty in tuning time dependence of filter
parameters, have ignited the need for active and hybrid filters. Under this circumstance, a new
technology called Custom Power Devices (CPDs) emerged. This technology is applicable to
distribution systems for enhancing the reliability and quality of power supply. The Unified Power
Quality Conditioner (UPQC) is one of the best solutions to compensate both current- and
voltage-related problems simultaneously. As the UPQC is a combination of series and shunt
active power filters (APFs), two APFs have different functions. The series APF filter suppresses
and isolates voltage-based distortions, whereas the shunt APF cancels current-based distortions.
At the same time, the shunt APF compensates for the reactive current of the load and improves
power factor. Many control strategies to determine the reference signals of the voltage and the
current of three-phase four wires UPQC are reported in the literature. The most common are the
p-q-r theory, modified single-phase p-q theory, Synchronous Reference Frame (SRF) theory,
symmetrical component. Apart from this, the one-cycle control (without reference calculation) is
also used for the control of three-phase, four-wire UPQC.
1.8 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The system under consideration for three-phase, four wire distribution system is shown
in Fig.1.3. The UPQC is connected before the load to make the source and the load voltage free
from any distortions. At the same time, the reactive current drawn from the source should be
such that the currents at source side would be in phase with utility voltages. Provision is made to
realize voltage harmonics in the source voltage by switching on/off the three-phase diode bridge
rectifier. The UPQC, carried out by using two VSIs, is shown in Fig.1.4. One VSI acts as the

shunt APF and the other as the series APF. The shunt APF is realized using a three-phase, fourleg VSI, and the series APF is carried out using a three-phase, three-leg VSI. Both APFs share a
common dc link between them. The four-leg, VSI based shunt active filter is capable of
suppressing the harmonics in the source currents, negative sequence of the source current, load
balancing, and power-factor correction.
The implemented control algorithm consists mainly of the computation of the threephase reference voltages of load

and the reference currents for the

source current

Fig.1.3. the system

Fig.1.4. UPQC block diagram

The voltage at the source side before UPQC, load voltage at the load, voltage injected by
the series APF, and dc link voltage between two inverters are represented by v s, vL, vinj, and Vdc,
respectively. The current on the source side, current drawn by the loads, neutral current on the
source side, load neutral current, and current injected by the shunt APF are represented by i s, il,
isn, iln, and ish, respectively.
1.8.1 CONTROL STRATEGY OF THE UPQC
The proposed control strategy aims to generate reference signals for both shunt and series
APFs of the UPQC. The proposed control technique is capable of successfully extracting most of
the load current and source voltage distortions. The series APF is controlled to eliminate the
supply voltage harmonics; whereas the shunt APF is controlled to alleviate the supply current
from the harmonics, negative sequence current.
1.9 POWER QUALITY
The power quality of power supply of an ideal power system means to supply electric
energy with perfect sinusoidal waveform at a constant frequency of a specified voltage with least
amount of disturbances. Power quality is an issue that is becoming increasingly important to
electricity consumers at all levels of usage. Sensitive equipment and non-linear loads are now
more commonplace in both the industrial commercial sectors and the domestic environment.
Because of this a heightened awareness of power quality is developing amongst electricity users.
Occurrences affecting the electricity supply that were once considered acceptable by electricity
companies and users are now often considered a problem to the users of everyday equipment.
However the harmonic is one of the major factor due to which none of condition is fulfilled in
practice. The presence of harmonics, disturbs the waveform shape of voltage and current, and
increases the current level and changes the power factor of supply and which in turn creates so
many problems.
In this part we introduces the commonly accepted definitions used in the field of power
quality and discusses some of the most pertinent issues affecting end-users, equipment
manufacturers and electricity suppliers relating to the field. This Special Feature contains a range
of articles balanced to give the reader an overview of the current situation with representation
from the electricity industry, monitoring equipment manufacturers, solution equipment
manufacturers, specialist consultants and government research establishments. The term power
quality has come into the vocabulary of many industrial and commercial electricity end-users in

recent years. Previously equipment was generally simpler and therefore more robust and
insensitive to minor variations in supply voltage. Voltage fluctuations coming from the public
supply network were therefore not even noticed. Now equipment is used which depends on a
higher level of power quality and consumers expect disruption-free operation. Wide diversity of
solutions to power quality problems is available to both the distribution network operator and the
end-user. More sophisticated monitoring equipment is readily affordable to end-users, who
empower themselves with information related to the level of power quality they receive. The
following paragraphs introduce the definitions of power quality measurable quantities or
occurrences. A voltage dip is a reduction in the RMS voltage in the range of 0.1to0.9 p.u.
(retained) for duration greater than half a mains cycle and less than 1 minute. Often referred to as
sag. Caused by faults, increased load demand and transitional events such as large motor
starting

. A voltage swell is an increase in the RMS voltage in the range of 1.1 to 1.8 p.u.

for duration greater than half a mains cycle and less than 1 minute. Caused by system faults, load
switching and capacitor switching. A transient is an undesirable momentary deviation of the
supply voltage or load current. Transients are generally classified into two categories: impulsive
and oscillatory.
1.10 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:
The technical terms and definitions of power quality problems are discussed below
1.10.1 TRANSIENTS:
These are undesirable but decay with time and hence not a steady state problem. A broad
definition is that a transient is that part of the change in a variable that disappears during
transition from one steady state operating condition to the other.
Transients are classified into two categories
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory
Impulsive transients:
An impulsive transient has unidirectional polarity and is characterized by the rise and
decay times. For example, a 1.2/50s, 1000v impulsive transient rises from zero to the peak
value in 1.2 s and then decays to half its peak value in 50s. Impulsive transientscan be due to
lightning discharge and switching due to opening and closing of circuit breakers.

 Oscillatory transients:
An oscillatory transient is a sudden non power frequency change that is bi-directional.
Depending on the frequency range, the oscillatory transients are classified as
1. High frequency (>500KHz)
2. Medium frequency (5-500KHz)
3. Low frequency (<5KHz)
The high frequency transients are often due to the response of the network to an impulsive
transient. The medium frequency transients can result from back-to-back capacitor energization
or cable switching. Low frequency transients can be due to capacitor bank energization.
1.10.2 SHORT DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS:
These are further classified as
1. Instantaneous(0.5-30 cycles)
2. Momentary (30 cycles-3 s)
3. Temporary (3 s-1 min)
Short duration voltage variations are generally caused by fault conditions and
energization of large loads such as induction motors. The voltage variations can be temporary
voltage dips (sags) or voltage raises (swells) or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions).
1.10.3 INTERRUPTION:
An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than 0.1
p.u. for a period of time not exceeding one minute. Interruptions can be due to either system
faults, equipment failures or control malfunctions. The interruptions are measured by their
duration alone. The duration due to a fault is determined by the operating time of the protective
devices. Instantaneous reclosure will limit the interruption caused by a non-permanent fault to
less than 30 cycles. Duration of an interruption due to equipment malfunction can be irregular.
Some interruptions may be preceded by voltage sag when there are faults on the source side. The
voltage sag occurs between the initiation of the fault and the operation of the protective device to
clear the fault.

1.10.4 VOLTAGE SAGS:

Sag is a decrease of rms voltage to a value between 0.1 and 0.9 p.u. and lasting for
duration between 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. Voltage sags are mainly due to system faults and last for
durations ranging from 3 cycles to 30 cycles depending on the fault clearing time.
Starting of large induction motors can result in voltage sags as the motor draws a current up to 10
times the full load current during the starting. Also, the power factor of the starting current is
generally poor.
1.10.5 VOLTAGE SWELLS:
A voltage swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 p.u. in rms voltage at the
power frequency for duration between 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. A voltage swell is characterized by
its magnitude and duration. As with sags, swells are associated with system faults. A SLG fault
can result in a voltage swell in the un faulted phases. Swells can also result from energizing a
large capacitor bank.
1.10.6 LONG DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS:
When rms deviations at power frequency last longer than one minute, we say they are long
duration voltage
These are further classified into
1. Overvoltages (greater than 1.1 p.u.)
2. Under voltages(less than 0.9 p.u.)
Over voltages are usually the results of switching off a load or energizing a capacitor bank.
Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in over voltages. Under voltages are the
results of events which are the reverse of events that cause over voltages i.e. switching in a load
or switching off a capacitor bank.
1.10.7 SUSTAINED INTERRUPTIONS:
When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time greater than one minute, then
we say it is a sustained interruption. Generally, voltage interruptions lasting over one minute are
often permanent and require human intervention to restore the supply. For a customer with a
sensitive load, even an interruption of half a cycle can be disastrous.

1.10.8 VOLTAGE UNBALANCE:

Voltage unbalance can be defined using symmetrical components. The ratio of the
negative sequence component to the positive sequence component is a measure of unbalance.
The main sources of voltage unbalance are single phase loads on a three phase circuit resulting in
load unbalance. Severe unbalance can be caused by single phasing conditions.
1.10.9 WAVEFORM DISTORTION:
This is defined as a steady state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency.
There are five types of waveform distortion:
1. DC offset
2. Harmonics
3. Inter harmonics
4. Notching
5. Noise
DC offset:
The presence of DC voltages or currents in AC power systems is termed as DC offset.
This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or ground return operating mode in
monopolar HVDC links. The DC current flow in transformers causes magnetic saturation,
increased heating and loss of transformer life.
Harmonics:
A harmonic is a signal or wave whose frequency is an integer (whole-number) multiple of
the frequency of the main power frequency (50 or 60Hz). Nonlinear loads and power electronic
controllers are the primary source of harmonics. Fourier analysis can be used to characterize
harmonic distortion. Total harmonic distortion is one of the most commonly used measures for
harmonics.
Interharmonic:
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
supply frequency (50 or 60Hz) are called inter harmonics. The main sources of inter harmonics
are static frequency converters, cyclo converters and back-to-back HVDC links.
Notching:
Notching is a periodic disturbance in the voltage waveform introduced by power
converters when current is commutated from one phase to another. Since notching is a steady

state phenomenon, it can be analyzed using Fourier series that gives the harmonic spectrum of
the affected voltage.
Noise:
Noise can be defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content less
than 200 KHz which is superimposed on the voltage or current in distribution lines. Noise can be
caused by power converters, arcing equipment or switched mode power suppliers. The noise
problem can be mitigated by using filters, isolation transformer and line conditioners.
1.10.10 VOLTAGE FLICKER:
A small change in line voltage, which causes a perceptible change in the intensity of
electric lights. In some situations people can detect sags as low as a third of a volt.
1.11 THE INFLUENCE OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEM:
Power quality problem are definitely harmful for both the power system and customers.
And the influences of it are including:
1) Additional loss of power system device reduces the efficiency and operating life of the
generating equipment, transmission line and electrical equipment.
2) It produces mechanical vibration, noise and overvoltage, which results in overheat in some
part of transformer.
3) The false tripping of relay protection and automation device would increase, and it could
cause an inaccuracy measurement of electric testing instrument.
4) A disturbance on telecommunication system nearby could produce noise and interfere the
communication quality, or sometimes it could cause message dropping.
5) The harmonic causes overheat, ageing of insulation, life-span shortening and damages in
capacitor and transmission line.
6) The harmonic also causes parallel resonance and series resonance in part of power system,
which enlarge the harmonic all the more. The harmful could be to a higher degree, and
sometimes a major accident will take place.
7) A voltage imbalance leads to a zero potential drift, which influences the work of computers.

1.12 IMPORTANCE OF FUZZY LOGIC

Fuzzy logic is all about the relative importance of precision: use as Fuzzy Logic Toolbox
software with MATLAB technical computing software as a tool for solving problems with fuzzy
logic. Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area of research because it does a good job of trading off
between significance and precision something that humans have been managing for a very long
time.
In this sense, fuzzy logic is both old and new because, although the modern and
methodical science of fuzzy logic is still young, the concept of fuzzy logic relies on age-old
skills of human reasoning.

Fig.1.5. Fuzzy Description

1.13 USAGE OF FUZZY LOGIC
Fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space to an output space. Mapping input
to output is the starting point for everything. Consider the following examples:
With information about how good your service was at a restaurant, a fuzzy logic system
can tell you what the tip should be.
With your specification of how hot you want the water, a fuzzy logic system can adjust
the faucet valve to the right setting.

 With information about how far away the subject of your photograph is, a fuzzy logic
system can focus the lens for you.
With information about how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is working, a
fuzzy logic system can shift gears for you.
To determine the appropriate amount of tip requires mapping inputs to the appropriate
outputs. Between the input and the output, the preceding figure shows a black box that can
contain any number of things: fuzzy systems, linear systems, expert systems, neural networks,
differential equations, interpolated multi dimensional lookup tables, or even a spiritual advisor,
just to name a few of the possible options. Clearly the list could go on and on.
Of the dozens of ways to make the black box work, it turns out that fuzzy is often the
very best way. As Lotfi Zadeh, who is considered to be the father of fuzzy logic, once remarked:
"In almost every case you can build the same product without fuzzy logic, but fuzzy is faster and
cheaper".
1.13

CONVENIENCE OF FUZZY LOGIC

Fuzzy logic is not a cure-all. When should you not use fuzzy logic? The safest statement

is the first one made in this introduction: fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space
to an output space. Fuzzy logic is the codification of common sense use common sense when
you implement it and which will probably make the right decision. Many controllers, for
example, do a fine job without using fuzzy logic. However, it take the time to become familiar
with fuzzy logic, it can be a very powerful tool for dealing quickly and efficiently with
imprecision and nonlinearity.
1.14 THE FUZZY LOGIC CONCEPT
Fuzzy logic arose from a desire to incorporate logical reasoning and the intuitive decision
making of an expert operator into an automated system. The aim is to make decisions based on a
number of learned or predefined rules, rather than numerical calculations. Fuzzy logic
incorporates a rule-base structure in attempting to make decisions. However, before the rule-base
can be used, the input data should be represented in such a way as to retain meaning, while still
allowing for manipulation. Fuzzy logic is an aggregation of rules, based on the input state
variables condition with a corresponding desired output. A mechanism must exist to decide on
which output, or combination of different outputs, will be used since each rule could conceivably
result in a different output action.

Fuzzy logic can be viewed as an alternative form of input=output mapping. Consider the input
premise, x, and a particular qualification of the input x represented by Ai. Additionally, the
corresponding output, y, can be qualified by expression Ci . Thus, a fuzzy logic representation of
the relationship between the input x and the output y could be described by the following:
R1: IF x is A1 THEN y is C1
R2: IF x is A2 THEN y is C2
............
............
............
Rn: IF x is An THEN y is Cn
Where x is the input (state variable), y is the output of the system, Ai are the different fuzzy
variables used to classify the input x and C i are the different fuzzy variables used to classify the
output y. The fuzzy rule representation is linguistically based.
Thus, the input x is a linguistic variable that corresponds to the state variable under
consideration. Furthermore, the elements Ai are fuzzy variables that describe the input x.
correspondingly, the elements Ci are the fuzzy variables used to describe the output y. In fuzzy
logic control, the term linguistic variable refers to whatever state variables the system designer
is interested in. Linguistic variables that are often used in control applications include Speed,
Speed Error, Position, and Derivative of Position Error. The fuzzy variable is perhaps better
described as a fuzzy linguistic qualifier. Thus the fuzzy qualifier performs classification
(qualification) of the linguistic variables. The fuzzy variables frequently employed include
Negative Large, Positive Small and Zero. Several papers in the literature use the term fuzzy
set instead of fuzzy variable, however; the concept remains the same. Table 30.1 illustrates
the difference between fuzzy variables and linguistic variables. Once the linguistic and fuzzy
variables have been specified, the complete inference system can be defined. The fuzzy linguistic
universe, U, is defined as the collection of all the fuzzy variables used to describe the linguistic
variables.
i.e. the set U for a particular system could be comprised of Negative Small (NS), Zero (ZE) and
Positive Small (PS). Thus, in this case the set U is equal to the set of [NS, ZE, PS]. For the

system described by, the linguistic universe for the input x would be the set Ux . .A1A2 . . . An..
Similarly,

TABLE.1.1 Fuzzy and linguistic variables

The linguistic universe for the output y would be the set Uy . .CaC2 . . . Cn.
The Fuzzy Inference System (FIS) The basic fuzzy inference system (FIS) can be classified as:
Type 1 Fuzzy Input Fuzzy Output (FIFO)
Type 2 Fuzzy Input Crisp Output (FICO)
Type 2 differs from the first in that the crisp output values are predefined and, thus, built
into the inference engine of the FIS. In contrast, type 1 produces linguistic outputs. Type 1 is
more general than type 2 as it allows redefinition of the response without having to redesign the
entire inference engine. One drawback is the additional step required, converting the fuzzy
output of the FIS to a crisp output. Developing a FIS and applying it to a control problem
involves several steps:
1. Fuzzification
2. Fuzzy rule evaluation (fuzzy inference engine)
3. Defuzzification.
The total fuzzy inference system is a mechanism that relates the inputs to a specific
output or set of outputs. First, the inputs are categorized linguistically (fuzzification), then the
linguistic inputs are related to outputs (fuzzy inference) and, finally, all the different outputs are
combined to produce a single output (defuzzification). Figure 1.6 shows a block diagram of the
fuzzy inference system.

Fig.1.6 Fuzzy inference system.

1.14.1 FUZZIFICATION:
Fuzzy logic uses linguistic variables instead of numerical variables. In a control system,
error between reference signal

and output signal can be assigned as Negative Big (NB),

Negative Medium (NM), Negative Small (NS), Zero (ZE), Positive small (PS), Positive Medium
(PM), Positive Big (PB). The triangular membership function is used for fuzzifications. The
process of fuzzification convert numerical variable (real number) to a linguistic variable (fuzzy
number).
1.14.2 DEFUZZIFICATION:
The rules of fuzzy logic controller generate required output in a linguistic variable
(Fuzzy Number), according to real world

requirements; linguistic variables have to be

transformed to crisp output (Real number). This selection of strategy is a compromise between
accuracy and computational intensity.
1.15 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER
Fuzzy logic is a method of rule-based decision making used for expert systems and
process control that emulates the rule-of-thumb thought process used by human beings. The basis
of fuzzy logic is fuzzy set theory which was developed by Lotfi Zadeh in the 1960s. Fuzzy set
theory differs from traditional Boolean (or two-valued) set theory in that partial membership in a
set is allowed. Traditional Boolean set theory is two-valued in the sense that a member belongs
to a set or does not and is represented by 1 or 0, respectively. Fuzzy set theory allows for partial
membership, or a degree of membership, which might be any value along the continuum of 0 to
1. A linguistic term can be defined quantitatively by a type of fuzzy set known as a membership
function. The membership function specifically defines degrees of membership based on a
property such as temperature or pressure. With membership functions defined for controller or

expert system inputs and outputs, the formulation of a rule base of IF-THEN type conditional
rules is done. Such a rule base and the corresponding membership functions are employed to
analyze controller inputs and determine controller outputs by the process of fuzzy logic
inference. By defining such a fuzzy controller, process control can be implemented quickly and
easily. Many such systems are difficult or impossible to model mathematically, which is required
for the design of most traditional control algorithms. In addition, many processes that might or
might not be modeled mathematically are too complex or nonlinear to be controlled with
traditional strategies. However, if a control strategy can be described qualitatively by an expert,
fuzzy logic can be used to define a controller that emulates the heuristic rule-of-thumb strategies
of the expert. Therefore, fuzzy logic can be used to control a process that a human can control
manually with expertise gained from experience. The linguistic control rules that a human expert
can describe in an intuitive and general manner can be directly translated to a rule base for a
fuzzy logic controller
Applications for Fuzzy Logic

Automatic control of dam gates for hydro electric-power plants.

Simplified control of robots.
Camera aiming for the telecast of sporting events.
Substitution of an expert for the assessment of stock exchange actives.
Preventing unwanted temperature fluctuations in air-conditioning systems.
Efficient and stable control of car-engines.
Curise control for automobiles.
Improved efficiency and optimized function of industrial control applications.
Positioning of water-steppers in production of semiconductors.
Optimized planning of bus timetables.
Archiving system for documents.
Prediction system for early recognition of earth quakes
Medicine technology cancer diagnosis.
Combination of fuzzy logic and neural nets.
Recognition of handwritten symbols with pocket computers.
Recognition of motives in pictures with video cameras.
Automatic motor-control for vacuum cleaners with recognition of surface condition and
degree of soiling
Back light control for camcorders.
Compensation against vibrations in camcorders.
Single button control for washing machines.
Recognition of handwriting, objects, voice.

Flight aid for helicopters.

Simulation for legal proceedings.
Software-design for industrial processes.
Controlling of machinery speed and temperature for steel works.
Controlling of subway systems in order to improve driving comfort, precision of halting
and power economy.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 DOUBLY-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR
The DFIG is currently the most popular machine topology for wind power applications.
The majority of large capacity machines (>1 MW) available from manufacturers such as Vestas
and General Electric-Wind are all DFIGs (although some producers such as Entercon are
favoring PMSM). The power electronic converters enable control over the generator operating

characteristics such as speed and reactive power, features which are lacking or limited in squirrel
cage induction machine. This allows for variable speed operation for peak power point tracking
or output power regulation. In addition, the converter rating is significantly reduced compared
with the stator connected converter system.
2.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF DFIGS
The main reasons that make the DFIG a popular choice for wind power applications
include its ability for variable speed operation, reactive power control, and reduced converter
ratings. Due to the fact that the rotor side presents voltages, which are at most20% of the stator si
de voltage, the minimum kVA rating of the converter is approximately20% that of the case of a
back-to-back converter connected machine. The differences between the three main wind
generator topologies.
2.1.2 POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS
The converters that are connected between the rotor and the stator of the machine are
typically back-to-back VSC, however a matrix converter could be used altematively. The
advantages compared with the VSC connected machine is that the converter rating is reduced by
about factor of between 2 and 5, since the rating is now based upon rotor voltages which are
related to the speed range of the machine. The rotor voltages are related to the stator voltages by:

Where the machine slip, s is a measure of the rotor speed relative to synchronous speed, which is
given by:

The converter rating is then defined by the maximum speed and the maximum stator
current and voltage at that speed. The turns ratio which exists across the machine has been
assumed to be 1 for simplicity and therefore, the rotor current magnitude is equal to the stator
current magnitude. If the upper speed limit is taken to be 1.2 of synchronous speed then the
minimum converter rating will be 20% that of the machine's rating. However, for practical
purposes a rating of 30-50% might be used taking into account transient operation and the ability
to deliver reactive power from the stator.

2.1.3 POWER SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION

The DFIG is connected to the medium voltage (MV) level of the power system by a stepup transformer. Since the 1ine side converter typically requires an additiona1 transformer to
match the converter output voltage to the line voltage, either two, 2- winding transformers or
one, 3-winding transformer may be used Fig. 2.1.

Fig.2.1 Connection of the DFIG to the MV network using (a) 2-winding transformers (b) 3winding transformer
Typically in a wind park, numerous wind generators would be connected to the MV bus which
would then be connected to the high voltage feeder via another transformer. High voltage dc
(HVDC) transmission systems have been considered for integration of wind with the ac system,
however, it seems to be only economically feasible for very large installations, located far
offshore. Recently low voltage dc transmission (LVDC) has received interest as a possible
compromise between HVDC and ac interconnection, with the advantages of HVDC at a reduced
cost. However, in most cases an ac intertie is the preferred method of interconnection. These
wind park arrangements are presented in Fig. 2.2. Wind parks are typically only connected at a
single point although reliability could be improved if connection to multiple feeders was done.
Particularly in the case of offshore installations, the cost associated with multiple interties
compounded with the strict environmental regulations make the connection of a radial wind farm
at a single point to the transmission system the norm.
The interconnection of the wind farm is often to a weak system, which amplifies many of
the technical difficulties associated with wind generators. In this case, fluctuating output power
results in a highly variable voltage at the PCC and therefore, reactive power control is required to
help regulate the system voltage. The response of the system following faults in this case is also

of great concern and the under voltage and over speed protections must be carefully chosen.
Future wind park projects have been limited by a number of factors, most importantly, issues
related to transmission. Since new installations are usually located away from central generation
and load centers, transmission problems have slowed their progress. Although many sites have
access to rural distribution networks, the transmission system is usually very weak or inadequate
to support large amounts of generation. The problem is complicated further when the generation
is unpredictable, resulting in similar changes in the bus voltage. This emphasizes the need for
reactive power control but also the ability to smooth the power fluctuations due to the wind
dynamics.

Fig. 2.2 Wind farm interconnections (a) ac interconnect (b) LVDC interconnect

2.1.4 WIND POWER CHALLENGES

The challenges associated with operation of a wind form 1ead to a greater concern for the
operation under disturbances within the nearby power system. Asymmetric and symmetric faults
can 1ead to voltage instabilities and 10ss of synchronism in traditiona1 power systems. Since
wind form sare typically composed of on1y induction machines, 10ss of stability is no longer a
concern. However, tripping of the generators due to under voltage and over speed of the
generators can result in voltage stability prob1ems and even small disturbances may 1ead to
widespread tripping and associated instabi1ities.
Reactive power compensation can he1p to improve transient stability and the integration
of energy storage into variable reactive power sources has shown to provide a further increase in
the transient stability of the system.
2.2 DFIG OPERATION AND DESIGN
The wound rotor induction machine or doubly-fed induction machine has limited
applications in the power industry, however, it has become the most popular choice amongst the
various wind generator options, especially for large capacity machines. The ability to control the
speed of the generator along with controllable power factor has been shown to improve both the
efficiency as well as the stability of this generator. This is accompli shed by decoupled control of
the stator real and reactive powers while the supply side converter maintains the dc bus voltage.
Numerous control methods have been developed which demonstrate these concepts.
This chapter discusses the steady-state operation of the DFIG which serves as the
foundation for the control of the real and reactive power. The DFIG system is introduced and the
various issues concerning the control are discussed. Reactive power sources are presented and a
method for allocation of reactive power between the two converters is given. Steady-state
calculations are performed for various operating points and the results are compared to the
EMTP-RV transient mode1s operating at these points. This provides the theoretical basis from
which the transient mode1s follow.
2.2.1 DFIG BASED WIND GENERATOR
The wind energy conversion system (WECS) using a DFIG is shown in Fig. 2.3. Two
back-to-back voltage source converters connect the stator windings to the rotor windings and as
previously mentioned, a transformer is required between the line side converter and the supply.
Control of the dc bus voltage is accomplished by the line side converter while the rotor side

converter controls both the speed and the pf of the machine. The line side converter may also
deliver reactive power and thus, together with the rotor si de converter dictates the generator pf.

Fig. 2.3 DFIG wind energy conversion system

The ratings of each of the converters as well as of the generator itself must be respected and
therefore, current limits must be implemented in each of the two control algorithms. The speed is
limited as well in order to respect the mechanical limitations of the system.
2.2.2 STEADY-STATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The induction machine can be represented by it steady-state equivalent circuit as is given
in all machine theory textbooks. It is presented in Fig. 2.4 in order to develop the basis for
decoupled control of Ps and Qs. From the equivalent circuit one can derive the following
equations which relate the steady-state quantities of the rotor and stator sides.

If the stator si de voltage is used as the angle reference then the remainder of the
quantities can be defined assuming a fixed stator voltage magnitude and given the required real
and reactive power. From Ps and Qs, one can then define the magnitude and phase of the current,
Is as follows:

Then using (2.1), the first and third row equations are used to find Ir, followed by the
second to find the required voltage applied at the rotor terminals. This apparently elementary
study forms the basis for transient control of the rotor side converter. Of course there are various
technical issues related to synchronization of the various signals and application of the necessary
forward and reverse transformations, however, the control algorithm follows from this simple
analysis.

Fig. 2.4 Wound rotor induction machine equivalent circuit

2.2.3 WIND ENERGY SYSTEM MODELS
In order to investigate the operation of a DFIG as a wind generator, all of the necessary
mode1s include realistic machine parameters, wind speed, input torque characteristics, and the
required protection settings are required. Accurate modeling of the mechanical system is crucial
especially in regards to the various time constants associated with the wind turbine itse1f, the

blades, and the pitch control. The mode1ing of these components is discussed in detail in many
of the literature and they will not be revisited here. The machine parameters and basic wind
mode1s are included in the Appendix for the interested reader while greater details can be found
in references
2.3 REACTIVE POWER ALLOCATION
Reactive power control is an important issue, particularly in WECS which are connected
to weak networks. Voltage support capability is often required to maintain the ac voltage within
the limits of operation and improve recovery following disturbances and is possible in MV
networks when reactive power can be accurate1y controlled. The DFIG is one type of wind
generator which has the ability to at the very least compensate for the reactive power required by
the induction machine. Various studies have shown that this and other wind generators capable of
reactive power control can improve the stability of the system and its tolerance to disturbances.

Fig. 2.5 reactive power options for wind generators (a) switched capacitors (b) svc (c) statcom
(d) dfig
2.3.1 REACTIVE POWER SOURCES
One of the differences between squirre1 cage induction machines and synchronous
machines is that induction machines consume reactive power in all modes of operation whereas
for synchronous generators, the reactive power can be controlled to be leading or lagging

depending on whether the machine is over or under-excited. The DFIG possesses the ability to
control its power factor and additionally it is capable of supplying reactive power from two
separate sources: from the stator by control of the rotor side converter or from the supply side
converter, in a manner analogous to a STATCOM. Since the controls of these two converters are
essentially decoupled, the reactive power can be adjusted by independently adjusting the amount
supplied from either of the two sources. The combined VAr injection then determines the amount
supplied to or absorbed from the grid, Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 Reactive power sources in the DFIG

2.3.2 OPTIMUM REACTIVE POWER DISTRIBUTION
The manner in which the reactive power is allocated will result in different current
magnitudes in the two converters and consequently, will affect their kVA ratings. Studies
performed by the author have shown that in order to minimize the combined current magnitude
the majority of the reactive power should be supplied from the rotor side converter, while
approximate1y 20% is supplied from the supply side converter. However, when generation is
high and the real component of the machine current is high, the current limits may curtail the
reactive power supplied from the stator side and thus the distribution becomes more equal. This
allocation method is based on steady-state considerations and therefore, the current limits of two
converters may cause discrepancies under these extreme transient cases.
This section focuses on the de1egation of the reactive power compensation and
demonstrates that through proper division of the reactive power compensation between the two

converters, the overall rating of the two converters can be minimized. The parameter, K will be
referred to as the rotor side converter compensation constant and will be defined as:

Where Qr and Qconv are defined as the reactive power injected into the machine from the
rotor side and the reactive power injected by the supply side converter, respectively, Fig. 2.6.
Note that the denominator represents the total reactive compensation supplied because of the
way Qconv has been defined. If the synchronously rotating frame is considered, the reactive
powers in (2.4) will be proportional to the currents irq and iconv,q. The compensation constant will
be chosen in order to minimize the combined complex power of the rotor side and grid side
converters.

CHAPTER 3
PROPOSED CONCEPT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Augmentation of renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, tidal and hydro energies
levitate to peak in the present set-up. The cost effectiveness, sustainable and clean nature of wind
explains why its the fast growing energy source in the world [1][2]. Wind farms were built with
fixed speed wind turbines and induction generators in the old era of wind power development [3]
[4].
The power efficiency is literally low for most wind speeds as such generators because it
always prefers constant speed operation. In order to get improved efficiency, now-a-days, the
development of ample modern wind generators with variable speed operation has been increased.
In that sense, Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is widely used due to its variable-speed
action, independent control of active and reactive power and partially rated power converter [5]
[6].
In order to enlarge the power production, wind farm is made to interlock with power
grid. While interconnecting wind farm with power grid, the wind farm emits fluctuating electric
power because of the arbitrary nature of wind resources. These fluctuations have a pessimistic
impact on stability and PQ in electric power systems [7].Also the integration of large wind farms
to power grid yields PQ problems such as voltage sag, swell, harmonics, flicker etc. Outcome of
PQ problems are data errors, automatic resets, equipment failure. Voltage sag is considered to be
one of the most severe disturbance which is triggered due to three phase to ground fault or
starting of large motors since it may cause equipment tripping, shutdown for domestic and
industrial equipment and mis-operation of drive systems [8]. Most industrial and commercial

loads are of non-linear type, which are the origin of harmonics. The utility supplying these
nonlinear loads has to deliver large VARs also [9] [10].
For the alleviation of both voltage sag and current harmonics, custom power technology
comes into picture. The widely exercised custom power device by plentiful researchers for
relieving voltage related problems is Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). Due to its excellent
dynamic capabilities, DVR is well suited to protect sensitive loads from short duration voltage
dips or swells [11]. But DVR doesnt take care of load current harmonics, which when untreated,
results in low power factor, leads to voltage notch and reduced consumption of the distribution
system. The device STATCOM is widely used for the eradication of load current harmonics in
addition to the contribution of reactive power control [12], but it doesnt take care of voltage
related problems. UPQC is the only device widely used for the mitigation of both voltage sag
and load current harmonics, thus replacing the functions of two devices DVR and STATCOM
[13]-[15].The choice of suitable controller plays a vital role to improve the performance of
UPQC. In conventional PI controller, proportional and integral gains are chosen heuristically and
also requires precise linear mathematical model of the system, which is difficult to obtain under
parameter variations and non-linear load disturbances. To overcome this problem the fuzzy logic
controller is proposed which is best suited for non linear loads, as it works with linguistic
variables and it doesnt need any mathematical modeling [16].
In the proposed work, the PQ problems voltage sag and current harmonics are simulated
and analyzed in the grid connected wind power system. To enhance PQ, the proposed FLC based
UPQC is implemented for effective and efficient mitigation of both voltage sag and current
harmonics. The performance of the proposed system is validated by comparing the simulation
results with conventional PI controlled UPQC.
3.2 GRID INTEGRATED DFIG BASED WIND POWERSYSTEM - POWER QUALITY
ISSUES AND THEIR IMPACTS
Power Quality (PQ) is used to describe electric power that drives an electrical load and
the load's ability to function properly. Power Quality determines the fitness of electric power to
consumer devices.

Fig.3.1. Grid connected DFIG based wind power system

Wind power is fast becoming one of the leading renewable energy sources worldwide.
Most of the wind farms uses fixed speed wind turbine, its performance relies on the
characteristics of mechanical sub circuits, every time a gust of wind strikes the turbine, a fast and
strong variation of electrical output power can be observed, as the response time of mechanical
sub-circuits is in the range of 10 milliseconds. These load variations necessitates a stiff power
grid and sturdy mechanical design to absorb high mechanical stresses. This approach leads to
expensive mechanical construction, so that in order to overcome the above issues, now-a-days
DFIG based variable speed wind turbine comes into picture which is benefitted with the
following pros:

Cost effective
Simple means of pitch control
Reduced mechanical stresses
Dynamic compensation of torque pulsations
Improved Quality of Power
Reduced acoustic noise
The schematic diagram of interconnection of Grid with DFIG based wind power system

is shown in Fig.3.1. The stator of DFIG is used to supply power directly to the grid, while the
rotor supplies power to the grid via power electronic converter. As the back to back converter is
connected only to the rotor, the converter costs only 25% of the total system power which
improves entire system efficiency to a greater extent. While integrating electric grid with wind
power system, owing to the stochastic nature of the wind, the quality of power from the
generator output gets affected. If a huge proportion of the grid load is supplied by wind turbines,

the output deviations owing to wind speed alternations incorporate voltage variations, harmonics
and flicker. The origin of voltage variations such as voltage sag and swell is due to wind
velocity, generator torque and switching of wind turbine generator. Harmonics is one of the
severe problems in grid connected wind power system. As the consequences faced by voltage sag
and harmonics are dominant and leads to degradation of PQ at the consumers terminal, this
paper concentrates on alleviating these two PQ problems. The foremost impacts of the PQ
problems are

Malfunction of equipments such as adjustable speed drives, microprocessor based control

system and Programmable Logic Controller.

Tripping of protection devices.
Stoppage and damage of sensitive equipments like personal computers, industrial drives
etc.,

The Standards provided by IEEE for individual customers and utilities for improving PQ is
shown below:

IEEE Standard 519 issued in 1981, suggests voltage distortion < 5% on power lines

below 69 kV.
ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.00 and C57.12.01 confines the current distortion to 5% at
full load in supply transformer.
In order to keep PQ within bounds, there is a need PQ Enhancement. For this custom

power devices plays a vital role for the purpose of supplying required level of PQ thus make the
grid connected wind power system free from PQ problems.
3.3 UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER
UPQC is a custom power device which is responsible for the alleviation PQ disturbances
in both supply and load side. The schematic diagram of UPQC is shown in Fig.3.2. UPQC
consists of two Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) series and shunt, tied back to back with each other
sharing a common dc link. The shunt inverter is controlled in current control mode such that it
delivers a current which is equal to the set value of the reference current as governed by the
UPQC control algorithm and also to maintain the dc bus voltage at a set reference value.

Fig.3.2. Schematic diagram of Unified Power Quality Conditioner

In order to mitigate harmonics commenced by nonlinear load, the shunt inverter injects a
current as governed by following equation:

(3.1)
Where

I sh ( ? ) t ,

I s ( ? ) t

and

IL (? )t

represents the shunt VSI current, reference supply

current, and load current respectively.

The series inverter of UPQC is employed in voltage control mode as it supplies and
injects voltage in series with line to realize a sinusoidal, distortion free voltage at the load
terminal. The voltage injected by series VSI is depicted by the following equation:
(3.2)
Where

V sr ( ? ) t ,

V (? ) t

and

V s (?) t

represents the series inverter injected voltage,

reference load voltage, and actual supply voltage respectively. UPQC is responsible for
mitigating both current and voltage related issues and also has the subsequent facilities:

It eradicates the harmonics in the supply current, thus enlarging utility current quality for
nonlinear loads.

UPQC also supports VAR requirement of the load, so that the supply voltage and current
are forever in phase. As a consequence no additional power factor correction equipment

is essential.
UPQC maintains load end voltage at the rated value even in the existence of supply side

disturbances.
The voltage injected by UPQC to keep the load voltage at the desired value is taken from
the same dc link, thus no extra dc link voltage support is involved for the series
compensator.

3.4 PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

The proposed work in the power grid is interconnected with Doubly Fed Induction
Generator (DFIG) based wind Turbine and is synchronized in terms of voltage and frequency.
The wind speed is kept as 15m/s which are regarded as nominal value which may diverge from 8
to 15 m/s owing to fluctuations. The PQ problems voltage sag is simulated by creating three
phase to ground fault and the load current harmonics are simulated by connecting Diode bridge
rectifier load in the proposed grid connected wind power system. For PQ enhancement, UPQC is
designed for the above mentioned problems and the proposed control strategy using FLC is
implemented for the generation of both reference voltage for series inverter and the reference
current for shunt inverter which provides an effective mitigation of both supply side and also
loads side disturbances, thus keeps the PQ in a grid connected wind power system as per IEEE
norms. The effectiveness of the proposed FLC based UPQC by comparing the simulation results
with the conventional PI controller based UPQC.
3.5 CONTROL STRATEGY
In this work the performance of UPQC is enhanced by developing a novel control
strategy using FLC. The benefits of FLC over the conventional controller are that FLC even
works without a perfect mathematical model. Also FLC is capable of handling nonlinearity and
is more robust compared to conventional PI controller which also improves the performance of
UPQC. The control strategy used in this work is described below.
3.5.1 CONVENTIONAL PI CONTROL STRATEGY
In this control strategy, both shunt and series APF in UPQC is controlled with
conventional PI controller as shown in fig.3.4. and fig.3.5. The gain values P and I are chosen as
Kp=0.1 and Ki=2 using trial and error method. In series APF, the faulted sag voltage is compared
with the reference voltage. The error voltage is processed through PI controller and its output is

converted to three phase through unit vector generation, then it is fed into Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) generator to provide gate pulses to Series APF such that this can be able to
inject the required voltage for the mitigation of voltage sag.

Fig.3.4. Control strategy for Series APF of UPQC

Fig.3.5. Control strategy for Shunt APF of UPQC

In Shunt APF, the harmonic load current is compared with the reference current and the
error is processed through PI controller. Its output is converted to three phase and it is fed into
PWM generator for providing gate pulses to Shunt APF which is capable of mitigating load
current harmonics.
3.5.2 Fuzzy Logic Controller
FLC is one of the most successful operations of fuzzy set theory. Its chief aspects are the
exploitation of linguistic variables rather than numerical variables. FL control technique relies on
human potential to figure out the systems behavior and is constructed on quality control rules. FL
affords a simple way to arrive at a definite conclusion based upon blurred, ambiguous, imprecise,
noisy, or missing input data. The basic structure of an FLC is represented in Fig.3.6.

A Fuzzification interface alters input data into suitable linguistic values.

A Knowledge Base which comprises of a data base along with the essential linguistic

definitions and control rule set.

A Decision Making Logic which collects the fuzzy control action from the information of

the control rules and the linguistic variable descriptions.

A Defuzzification interface which surrenders a non fuzzy control action from an inferred
fuzzy control action.

Fig.3.6. Basic structure of Fuzzy Logic controller

Fig.3.7. Error as input

Fig.3.8. Change in Error as input

Fig.3.9. Output variables to defuzzification process

In this paper, an advanced control strategy, FLC is implemented along with UPQC for
voltage correction through Series APF and for current regulation through Shunt APF. Error and
Change in Error are the inputs and Duty cycle is the output to the Fuzzy Logic Controller as
shown in Fig.3.7-Fig.3.9.
In the decision-making process, there is rule base that links between input (error signal)
and output signal. Table 3.1 shows the rule base exercised in this proposed Fuzzy Logic
Controller.

TABLE.3.1. FUZZY RULE REPRESENTATION

CHAPTER 4
MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB was written originally to
provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear system package) and
EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a modern
programming language environment: it has sophisticated data structures, contains built-in editing
and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented programming. These factors make MATLAB
an excellent tool for teaching and research.
MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g., C,
FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data
element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software package has been

commercially available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at most universities
and industries worldwide.
It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of computations. It also
has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of results immediately available.
Specific applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are toolboxes for
signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation, optimization, and several
other fields of applied science and engineering.
4.2 SIMULATION
Simulink is a simulation and model-based design environment for dynamic and
embedded systems, integrated with MATLAB. Simulink, also developed by Math Works, is a
data flow graphical programming language tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamic systems. It is basically a graphical block diagramming tool with customizable
set of block libraries. It allows you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models as well as
export the simulation results into MATLAB for further analysis. Simulink supports:

System-level design
Simulation
Automatic code generation
Testing and verification of embedded systems.
There are several other add-on products provided by Math Works and third-party hardware and
software products that are available for use with Simulink. The following list gives a brief
description of some of them:
State flow allows developing state machines and flow charts.
Simulink Coder allows the generation of C source code for real-time implementation of
systems automatically.
XPC Target together with x86-based real-time systems provide an environment to simulate and
test Simulink and State flow models in real time on the physical system.
Embedded Coder supports specific embedded targets.

 HDL Coder allows to automatically generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog.

SimEvents provides a library of graphical building blocks for modelling queuing systems.
Simulink is capable of systematic verification and validation of models through
modelling style checking, requirements traceability and model coverage analysis. Simulink
Design Verifier allows you to identify design errors and to generate test case scenarios for model
checking.

4.2.1 SIMULATION TABLE

PARAMETER
1

Vs

Ls, Rs

VALUE

VL

IL

R, L

is

4.3. PROPOSED WORK

4.3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Converting solar energy into electrical energy by PV installations is the most recognized
way to use solar energy. Since solar photovoltaic cells are semiconductor devices, they have a lot
in common with processing and production techniques of other semiconductor devices such as
computers and memory chips. As it is well known, the requirements for purity and quality
control of semiconductor devices are quite large. With today's production, which reached a large
scale, the whole industry production of solar cells has been developed and, due to low production
cost, it is mostly located in the Far East. Photovoltaic cells produced by the majority of todays
most large producers are mainly made of crystalline silicon as semiconductor material.
Solar photovoltaic modules, which are a result of combination of photovoltaic cells to increase
their power, are highly reliable, durable and low noise devices to produce electricity. The fuel for
the photovoltaic cell is free. The sun is the only resource that is required for the operation of PV

systems, and its energy is almost inexhaustible. A typical photovoltaic cell efficiency is about
15%, which means it can convert 1/6 of solar energy into electricity. Photovoltaic systems
produce no noise, there are no moving parts and they do not emit pollutants into the
environment. Taking into account the energy consumed in the production of photovoltaic cells,
they produce several tens of times less carbon dioxide per unit in relation to the energy produced
from fossil fuel technologies.
Photovoltaic cell has a lifetime of more than thirty years and is one of the most reliable
semiconductor products. Most solar cells are produced from silicon, which is nontoxic and is
found in abundance in the earth's crust.

Fig.4.1.photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic systems (cell, module, network) require minimal maintenance. At the end of
the life cycle, photovoltaic modules can almost be completely recycled. Photovoltaic modules
bring electricity to rural areas where there is no electric power grid, and thus increase the life
value of these areas. Photovoltaic systems will continue the future development in a direction to
become a key factor in the production of electricity for households and buildings in general. The
systems are installed on existing roofs and/or are integrated into the facade. These systems
contribute to reducing energy consumption in buildings. A series of legislative acts of the
European Union in the field of renewable energy and energy efficiency have been developed,
particularly promoting photovoltaic technology for achieving the objectives of energy savings
and CO2 reduction in public, private and commercial buildings. Also, photovoltaic technology,

as a renewable energy source, contributes to power systems through diversification of energy

sources and security of electricity supply.
By the introduction of incentives for the energy produced by renewable sources in all
developed countries, photovoltaic systems have become very affordable, and timely return of
investment in photovoltaic systems has become short and constantly decreasing. In recent years,
this industry is growing at a rate of 40% per year and the photovoltaic technology creates
thousands of jobs at the local level.

4.3.2 FUNCTIONING OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

The word photovoltaic consists of two words: photo, a greek word for light, and voltaic,
which defines the measurement value by which the activity of the electric field is expressed, i.e.
the difference of potentials. Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity.
Converting solar energy into electricity in a photovoltaic installation is the most known way of
using solar energy.
The light has a dual character according to quantum physics. Light is a particle and it is a
wave. The particles of light are called photons. Photons are massless particles, moving at light
speed. The energy of the photon depends on its wavelength and the frequency, and we can
calculate it by the Einstein's law, which is:

where:
E photon energy
h Planck's constant h = 6.62610 34Js
photon frequency
In metals and in the matter generally, electrons can exist as valence or as free. Valence
electrons are associated with the atom, while the free electrons can move freely. In order for the
valence electron to become free, he must get the energy that is greater than or equal to the energy
of binding. Binding energy is the energy by which an electron is bound to an atom in one of the

atomic bonds. In the case of photoelectric effect, the electron acquires the required energy by the
collision with a photon. Part of the photon energy is consumed for the electron getting free from
the influence of the atom which it is attached to, and the remaining energy is converted into
kinetic energy of a now free electron. Free electrons obtained by the photoelectric effect are also
called photoelectrons.

4.3.3 TYPES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

Electricity is produced in solar cells which, as noted, consist of more layers of
semiconductive material. When the sun's rays shine down upon the solar cells, the electromotive
force between these layers is being created, which causes the flow of electricity. The higher the
solar radiation intensity, the greater the flow of electricity. The most common material for the
production of solar cells is silicon. Silicon is obtained from sand and is one of the most common
elements in the earth's crust, so there is no limit to the availability of raw materials.

Fig.4.2 photovoltaic cell

Solar cell manufacturing technologies are:

Monocrystalline,
Polycrystalline,
Barcrystalline silicon,
Thin-film technology.
Cells made from crystal silicon (Si), are made of a thinly sliced piece (wafer), a crystal of silicon
(mono crystalline) or a whole block of silicon crystals (multicrystalline); their efficiency ranges
between 12% and 19%.

4.4 SIMULATION RESULTS

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
This paper spotlights both Voltage and Current quality improvement in a Grid connected
DFIG based wind power system. The PQ problems -voltage sag and current harmonics are
simulated using MATLAB in a grid connected wind power system. The fuzzy controlled UPQC
is implemented for PQ enhancement to diminish both voltage sag and current harmonics and the
simulation results are also compared with conventional PI controller. From the simulation results,
the PI controlled UPQC completely mitigates voltage sag but the load current harmonics
obtained is not within the acceptable bounds. The proposed Fuzzy Logic Controlled UPQC
completely mitigates voltage sag. In addition, the load current harmonics are mitigated in a
superior way by keeping THD level of load current within acceptable bounds as per IEC norms.
Thus the proposed Fuzzy controlled UPQC is successfully proven as efficient device through its
outstanding performance for improving PQ in a grid connected wind power system.

5.1 FUTURE SCOPE

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