KYAMBOGO

UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL & BUILDING ENGINEERING

TSV226 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION II

LECTURE NOTES
FLOORS, WINDOWS AND DOORS
2011/2012
BACHELOR OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES WITH TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION II
PREPARED BY AMBROSE. Mubialiwo (COURSE FACILITATOR)
Mob: +256 774 021408 /+256 704 917662
Email: mambroze@gmail.com

CHAPTER ONE
FLOORS
A floor refers to a horizontal structure which carries both the imposed and live loads in the building
and divide the building in storeys.
The Functional Requirements of floors

Stability
The stability of a roof may be affected by foundational movement, eccentric loading, lateral forces
(wind and rain), and expansion due to temperature and moisture changes, seismic forces.

Strength
A floor should be designed to safely support its own weight, wind loads and loads imposed by the
walls and roofs. The strength depends on materials used.

Durability
A floor of sound material suited to the characteristics and designed with due regard to the exposure of
the driving rain should be durable for anticipated life.

Fire resistance
The resistance of the elements to collapse from penetration and heat transmission during a fire is
expressed in periods from 1.5 6 hours depending on the size, nature and occupancy of the building so
that notional/ nominal/ minimum periods and assumed to be sufficient for the safe escape of the
occupants.

Resistance to sound transmission and absorption
Sound is transmitted as airborne sound and impact sound.
Airborne sound is generated as cyclical disturbance of air from e.g. a radio that decreases the intensity
where as impact sound is caused by contact with the surface as e.g. the slamming of a door or footsteps
of the floor.
The floor should be made from such materials that sound is kept to the minimum.
Factors Considered While Choosing a Floor Structure
Topography
For sloping sites, suspended ground floors are cheaper to construct than the solid ground floors.
Appearance
The appearance required also determines the choice of floor but buildings like cinema and disco halls
can appear good with timber floor while solid concrete floors improves on the outlook of other
buildings like shopping arcades..
Economies
This is in respect to both capital and maintenance; suspended ground floors are much easier to
maintain unlike the solid ground floors.
Ease with which services and supplies can be accommodated
Here a suspended ground floors favour installation of services easily than the solid floors. Services
include; water supply, electricity e.t.c.
Purpose of the floor
For a floor which is to be used in fire places, a concrete floor is more appropriate than a timber floors.

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Types of Floor Structures and Construction

1. Ground floors (solid and hollow or suspended ground floor)
2. Suspended upper floors (the course participant should read more about it)
A. GROUND FLOORS
Ground floors are floors that bear directly on the ground. The materials used are usually concrete,
bricks or timber with timber sometimes resting on dwarf walls.
Concrete is the name given to a mixture of particles of stone bound together with cement. The material
which binds the aggregate is the cement and this is described as the matrix.
Solid Concrete Ground Floors
Concrete
House foundations are invariably formed in concrete. It is available in a range of strengths and is
usually brought onto site ready-mixed or mixed in-situ as, and when, required.
What is concrete?
The word concrete is derived from the Latin word concretus, meaning grown together. It is a mixture
of several constituents which behaves as a single material. In its simplest form concrete comprises
cement, aggregate and water. The major constituent by weight in concrete is aggregate - stone with a
range of particle size from 40mm down to 0.1mm. The aggregate is a mixture of:
Coarse aggregate - naturally occurring gravel or crushed rock
Fine aggregate - sand or crushed rock.
The aggregate is bound together by cement paste, a mixture of cement and water.
Properties
The properties of the cement paste are extremely important and largely determine the properties of the
concrete:
it must be fluid enough for some time after mixing to allow the concrete to be placed and
compacted into its final shape
it must then set and gain strength so that it binds the aggregates together to make a strong
material.
The mechanism by which cement sets and hardens depends on the type of cement, usually due to a
chemical reaction between the cement and the mixing water.
Uses/ advantages of concrete
The great advantage of concrete as a construction material is that after mixing it is a fluid (plastic)
material which can be compacted into any shaped mould or formwork. This may be done on site (in
situ concrete), or for very high quality finishes, under factory conditions (precast concrete). When the
cement paste solidifies due to the hydration reaction between cement and water it becomes a
structural material. Concrete is very strong in compression. Its compressive strength makes concrete an
ideal material for foundations and floor slabs and other structural elements that are mainly loaded in
compression.
However, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low, about one tenth of the compressive
strength. Therefore in structural elements such as beams, which, when loaded, are in compression at
the top and tension at the bottom, it is necessary to use reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete
contains steel reinforcing rods, usually 20-30mm in diameter. These rods are positioned where the
principal tensile stresses will occur in the structure, and then the concrete is poured and compacted
around the reinforcement. Reinforced concrete is therefore a composite material, where the
concrete takes the compressive forces and the reinforcing steel takes the tensile forces.
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Elements of solid concrete ground floors

Sub-grade

Sub-base; this is constructed from selected materials to form a levelled, smooth working
platform on which to construct the slab. On very god sub-grades such as gravels, the sub base may
be omitted.

Filling; the materials to be used for filling should have a high permeability to minimise upward
movement of water. In most cases hardcore is used

Slip membrane-damp proof membrane is to minimise/prevent dampness rising to the concrete

slab; it also reduces internal friction between the concrete slab and the sub-base
Slip membrane
Materials for the slip membrane are polythene, mastic asphalt, building paper and where the water
table is high use tanking, mastic asphalt and bituminous felt
Concrete slab
This is the main concrete structural element forming the floor and may be from plain or reinforced
concrete. This shall depend on the site conditions, loading or function of the structure
Wearing surface
Screed
This is the finishing of mortar done on the oversite concrete. Screed done immediately after casting is
termed as monolithic. The advantage is that it saves time and bonds better with the oversite concrete,
cheaper in terms of the materials and has no joint
Concrete slab can be cast in portions to minimise shrinkage and subsequent cracking.
Control joints: Control joints to minimise cracking due to expansion and contraction should always be
allowed for which are usually inform of longitudinal and transverse joints. It is of advantage to make
these joints coincide with the bay lengths and widths
Hardcore
This is the name given to the infill of materials such as broken bricks, stone or concrete, which are
hard and do not readily absorb water or deteriorate. This hardcore is spread over the site within the
external walls of the building to such thickness as required to raise the surface of the site concrete. The
thickness is usually from 100 to 300.
The hardcore bed serves as a solid working base for building and as a bed for the oversite concrete. If
the material for the hardcore is hard and irregular in shape they will break the capillarity which would
make dampness to weaken the oversite. It is important the materials are kept clean and free from old
plaster or clay which in contact with broken bricks or gravel would present a ready narrow capillary
path for moisture to rise. The materials for hardcore should also be chemically inert and not
appreciably affected by water. The materials commonly used for hardcore are: bricks or rubble,
concrete rubble, gravel and crushed hard rock, chalk, pulverized fuel ash, blast furnace slag, colliery
spoil etc
Blinding
Before the concrete is laid it is usual to blind the top surface of the hardcore. The purpose of this is to
prevent the wet concrete running down between the lumps of stones or bricks as this would make it
easy for water to rise up by capillarity through the concrete. To blind or seal the top the top surface of
the hardcore a thin layer of very dry course of clinker or ash can be used. A weak mix of concrete of
1:4:8 cast to 50 can also be used.
Damp proof membrane
The model Health Bylaws of 1936 required concrete oversite as a barrier to moisture rising from the
ground. Concert is to some degree permeable to water and will absorb moisture from the ground. A
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damp oversite concrete slab will be cold and draw appreciable heat from rooms if it is to be maintained
at an ad equable temperature. A damp oversite concrete slab may cause damage and deterioration in
moisture sensitive floor finishes such as wood. On building sites that retain moisture due to a high
water table and on sloping sites where water may run down to the building and wherever the site
concrete is likely to be damp, it is good practice to used proof membrane under, in or on the site
concrete. The damp proof membrane may be on top, sandwiched in or under the concrete slab.
The materials for dpm are: hot pitch or bitumen, mastic asphalt or pitch mastic, polythene sheets, tar,
rubber emulsion etc.
Damp proof Courses (dpc)
The function of dpc is to act as a barrier to the passage of moisture or water between the parts
separated by the dpc. The movement of moisture or water may be upwards in the foundation of walls
and ground floors, downwards in parapets and chimneys or horizontal where a cavity wall is closed at
the jambs openings. Dpc should always be at a minimum of 150 above the finished ground level or 150
above the splash apron
The materials for dpc are:
Flexible dpc
Lead, copper, bitumen dpc, polythene sheets,
Semi -Rigid dpc: mastic asphalts
Rigid dpc: slates, bricks, etc
wearing surface

dpc
oversite concrete

min 150

slip membrane
hardcore{ sub-base}

atleast 600
filled material

sub-grade( can be
imported
materials)

Figure 1.1 Section through a solid ground concrete floor

Suspended Timber Ground Floors
These are composed of timber boards which are fixed to joists that span over slipper walls.
Its a more expensive form of construction compared to concrete slabs, for it incorporates a solid
ground floor on compacted hard core. However, the expense can be justified when the site is sloppy
and would require a lot of filling to make up to the required level for the floor.
The slipper walls (honey comb walls) are usually 2 3 courses high just to allow thorough ventilation
to the timber members of a floor.
Slipper walls are placed at 200mm c/c and the size of the joists can be 50x125mm. The suspended
timber floors are subject to dry rot; however, this can be overcome by ventilation underneath.
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The moisture content of the timber members should be kept below that which favours fungi growth.
Sketch of a suspended timber ground floor
FLOOR FINISHES
These include: Cement screed
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tiles
Terrazzo (made from coloured Portland cement & crushed marble aggregates to a mix of 1:2)
Linoleom, Rubber, cork carpet and tiles, concrete tiles
Wood block and floor boards.
Granolithic floor finish (from a mixture of crushed granite & is spread to a thickness of 20mm)
Factors considered while selecting finishes
Appearance; chosen mainly for their aesthetic appeal or affect but should however bear reasonable
wearing properties.
High resistance; chosen mainly for wearing and impact resistance properties and for high usage
areas such as kitchen.
Hygiene; chosen to provide an impervious and easy to clean surface with reasonable aesthetic
appeal.
Resistance to wear
Durability
Sound insulation
Type of floor construction

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CHAPTER TWO
WONDOWS AND DOOR
2.1 WINDOWS
Definition
A Window is an opening formed in a wall or roof to admit daylight through some transparent or
translucent material fixed in the opening. The primary function of a window is served by a sheet of
glass fixed in a frame in the widow opening. This is a simple widow and is termed a dead light window
because no part can be opened.
As the window is part of the wall, it should serve the functional requirements of a wall like exclusion
of wind and rain, act as a barrier to excessive transfer of heat and sound and should be fire resistant in
the same way just like the surrounding wall and roof.
The function material of a window (glass) is efficient in admitting day light and excluding wind and
rain but is a poor barrier to the transfer of heat, sound and the spread of fire.
The traditional window is usually designed to ventilate rooms through one or more parts that open to
encourage an exchange of air between inside and outside. It is important to separate windows from
ventilations so that the window may be made more effectively wind and weather tight and ventilation
can be more accurately controlled.
FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING WINDOWS
Cost
Availability; Certain window types although standard may have a long delivery period.
Appearance
Amount of natural light required in the room as it will determine the minimum size of window
required.
The amount of ventilation required will determine the number o opening lights.
Maintenance costs; this takes the ease with which a window may be kept in its operating order and
the mount of paint required.
FUNCTIONS AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF WINDOWS
The primary function of a window is admission of light and a means of ventilation. The secondary
functions are: view purposes, resist water penetration, allow some degree o privacy, and provide
resistance to wind pressure and air penetration.
The functional requirements of a window as a component part of a wall or roof are:
Strength and stiffness.
Exclusion of wind and rain
Thermal insulation
Sound insulation
Fire resistance
Weather stripping
Day light
Ventilation
 Strength and stiffness
A window should be strong enough when closed to resist the likely pressures and suctions due to wind,
and when open be strong and stiff enough to resist the effect of gale force winds on opening lights. A
window should be sufficiently strong and stiff against pressures and knocks due to normal use and
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appear to be safe, particularly to occupants in high buildings. A window should be securely fixed in the
wall opening for security, weather tightness and the strength and stiffness given by fixings.

 Exclusion of wind and rain

Air tightness: to conserve heat and avoid cold draught it is good practice to design windows so that
there is little unnecessary leakage of air. Leakage around window frames, around glass and through
glazing joints can be avoided by care in design, construction and maintenance. The flow of air through
windows is caused by changes in pressure and suction caused by wind and may cause draughts of
inward flowing cold air and loss of heat by excessive inflow of cold and outflow of warm air.
 Exclusion of rain
Penetration of rain through cracks around opening lights, frames or glass occurs when rain is driven on
to vertical windows by wind so that the more the window is exposed to driving rain, the greater the
likely wood of Rain penetration.
To minimize the penetration of driven rain through vertical windows the followings should be done:
Set the face of the window back from the wall face so that the projecting head and jamb will to some
extent give protection by dispersing rain
Ensure that external horizontal surfaces below openings are as few and as narrow as practicable to
avoid water being driven into the gaps.
Ensure that there are no open gaps around opening lights by the use of lapped and rebated joints.
Restrict air penetration by means of weather stripping on the room side of the window so that the
pressure inside the joint is the same as that outside.
Ensure that any water entering the joints be drained to the outside by open drainage channels that run
to the outside.
 Weather stripping
In modern window design weather stripping used depends on the opening movement of the windows,
compression strips being used for hinged and pivoted opening lights and wiping sliding seals for
sliding windows. The material used is resilient rubber compounds in the form of compression strips
and seals or nylon pile strip.
 Thermal insulation
Unlike the wall around it, a window which is a component part of a wall, will affect internal thermal
comfort in two ways: by its transmittance of heat and through the penetration of the radiant heat of the
sun that causes solar heat gain.
Heat is transferred through a wall or window by conduction, convection and radiation.
 Sound insulation
There is a considerable variation in the level and type of noise that different people can tolerate
without discomfort. In order to establish an acceptable noise level it is necessary to assume a measure
of sound level that corresponds to subjective judgment of noise.
The audible frequencies of sound are from about 20Hz to 20000Hz, where Hz represents the unit hertz
where one hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
Noise is the general term used for the subjective judgement of level of sound that is distracting or
uncomfortable and therefore unacceptable. Tolerable sound level depends on the activities of those
inside particular rooms and the general background level of sound within the room.
The transmission of sound through materials depends on their mass, the more dense or heavier the
material the more effective it is in reducing transmission of sound. Insulation of a glass can be done by
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use of thicker glass or doubling the glass. Doubling the glass by sealed double glazing is not so
effective. It is advisable to use double windows with two separate sheets 200 to 300 apart.
 Fire resistance
Ordinary glass cracks and breaks within a few minutes when subjected to the heat generated by fire.
To limit the spread of fire, regulations require fire breaks to windows to limit the spread of fire to
adjacent buildings. Fire breaks are solid incombustible upstands or projections to windows that serve
as a barrier to the spread of fire. Wired glass also limits the spread of fire as the broken glass will be
held in place.
 Day light
The prime function of a window is to admit daylight for day time activities in sufficient quantity for
efficient performance. The quantity of light admitted depends in general terms on the size of the
window or windows in relation to the area of the room lit and the depth inside the room to which
useful light will penetrate depends on the area of the window and the height of the head of the window
above floor level. In a room with windows on one long side with no external obstructions and a room
surface reflectance of 40%, where the glass area is 1/5th 0r 20% of the floor area, the average day light
factor will be 4 and the minimum half of 4.
Example: Determine the size of a window in a room measuring 4x3 with a daylight factor of 6.
Solution: Floor area..12m 2
The average day light factor in side lit rooms is roughly equal to 1/5th of the percentage ratio of
glass to floor area.
Conversely required glass area = ...6x12x5/100
. = 3.6 m 2
Window sizes say 2.4x1.5 or two windows of 1.2x1.5
 Ventilation
For the comfort and well being of people it is necessary to ventilate rooms by allowing a natural
change of air between inside and outside or to cause a change by mechanical means. The necessary
rate of change will depend on the activities and numbers of those in the room. The total area of
ventilation for any habitable room can be calculated as 1/20th of the floor area. The size of a ventilating
opening, by itself, gives no clear indication of the likely air change as the ventilating effect of an
opening depends on air pressure difference between inside and outside and the size of opening or
openings through which air will be evacuated to cause air flow.
MATERIALS USED FOR WINDOWS
The common materials for making windows are: Wood, steel, Stainless steel, aluminium, bronze, and
plastics
 Wood
The traditional material used for making windows is wood, which is easy to work by hand or machine,
can readily be shaped for rebates, drips, grooves and mouldings, has a favorable strength to weight
ratio, and with good thermal properties.
The disadvantages of wood are the considerable moisture movement that occurs across the grain with
moderate moisture changes and liability to rot. Where windows are made of soft wood timber it should
regularly be painted besides treatment with preservatives. This is to avoid rot.
 Steel
Steel section windows have been in use for quite a long time and it is gaining popularity over timber
windows. Steel windows often rust, and corrode therefore care must be taken by use of zinc coating or
regular painting. The advantage it has is the slender sections for both frame and opening lights that are
possible due to inherent strength and rigidity of the material. The disadvantages are high thermal
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conductivity that makes the window framing act as a cold bridge to the transfer of heat and the very
necessary regular painting required to protect the steel from rusting.
 Aluminium
Aluminium windows are made from aluminium alloy of magnesium and silicon that is extruded in
channel and box sections with flanges and grooves for rebates and weather stripping. Aluminium
windows have adequate strength and stiffness with good resistance to corrosion and can also be readily
welded and brazed.
The advantages of aluminium windows are the variety of sections available for the production of a
wide range of window types, and the freedom from destructive corrosion.
The disadvantage is however the high thermal conductivity of the material which acts as a cold bridge
to heat transfer and aluminium window is relatively very expensive.
 Stainless steel
It is made from an alloy of steel and chromium making it corrosion-resistant and expensive. Because
of its cost it is used in windows as a thin surface coating to other materials such a wood and aluminium
for its appearance and freedom from corrosion.
 Bronze
Manganese brass is the material commonly used for bronze windows. The material is rolled or
extruded to form window sections. It has advantages of freedom from corrosion, high strength to
weight ratio, and attractive colour and texture of the material.
 Plastics
This is the latest material to be used as windows with a particular advantage of being maintenance free.
The disadvantage of plastic is that it is less rigid than the wood or steel and does not resist heat and
fire.
WINDOW TYPES
Fixed light window
A fixed light or dead light is a window opening in which one square, pane or sheet of glass is fixed
either directly to the wall structure or more usually to a frame which is in turn fixed to the wall so that
no part of the window will open.
Opening light window
An opening light is the whole or part of parts of a window that can be opened by being hinged or
pivoted to the frame or can slide open inside the frame. Windows with opening lights are classified in
accordance with the manner in which the opening lights open inside the frame as below
Pivoted
Hinged
Sliding and
Composite action
And as a broad classification as:
Side hung, Top hung and Bottom hung
Horizontally pivoted and vertically pivoted
Vertically siding and horizontally sliding and sliding folding

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to p h u n g

s id e h u n g

h o r r iz o n ta lly p iv o te d

b o tto m

v e r t . p iv o t e d

h u n g

lo u v r e

h o r r iz o n ta lly s lid in g

v e r t s lid in g

Side hung
The traditional casement consists of a square or rectangular window frame of wood with the opening
light or casement hinged at one side of the frame to open in or out. The side hung opening part of the
window is termed the casement and it consist of glass surrounded and supported by a wooden frame as
below with a simple one light casement, opening out.
head

h in g e
w in d o w fr a m e
fr a m e o f c a s e m e n t
or sash

g la s s
s ill

post

c a s e m e n t h in g e d a t
s id e to o p e n o u t
S id e h u n g c a s e m e n t w in d o w

A window of two casements can be designed with the casements hinged so that when closed they meet
in the middle of the window. It is usually considered better to construct the window frame with vertical
wood members, called mullions, to which each casement closes to avoid jamming of casements where
they meet in the middle.
Because a casement does not provide close control of ventilation it is common to provide small
opening lights, called vent lights, which are usually hinged at the top to open out

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head
head

ventlight open
transom

hinge
hinge
frame of casement
or sash

glass

mullion
glass

sill

glass

mullion
glass

sill
casement hinged at
side to open out

casements close to mullion

casement hinged at
side to open out

casements close to mullion

with ventlights

Wood
casement windows
For years wood casement windows have been the traditional windows for small buildings. To provide
adequate strength and stiffness in the frame, casements and ventlights of casement windows and to
accommodate rebates for casements and ventlights and for glazing, timber of adequate section has to
be used and joined. The traditional joint used is the mortice and tenon joint in which a protruding
tenon, cut on the end of one section fits into a matching mortice on the other, the joint being made
secure with glue and wedges as below:

head

tenon

hinge

glass

dead light

mullion
mortice

sill
wedge
casement hinged at
side to open out

casements with a dead light on one side

and open ventlights

style

Where mass production of wood windows is expected, combed joints are used. This involves
interlocking tongues cut on the ends of members which are put together, glued and pinned.
A casement window frame consists of a head, two posts (jambs) and a sill joined with mortice and
tenon depending on the number of casements and ventlights.

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Wood members
The members of a wood window frame are cut from 100x75 or 75x50 sawn timbers for the head, posts
and mullion and from 150x75 or 100x63 for sill and transom. Similarly the rails and stiles of
casements and ventlights are cut from 50x50 or 50x44 sawn timbers which are planed (wrought) and
whose finished sizes are about 45x45 or 39. The sawn timbers are planed smooth (wrought) and this
reduces their sizes by about 5mm on both sides.
Window
The members of the frame are joined with wedged mortice and tenon joints. The posts of the frames
are tenoned to the head and sill with the ends of the sill and head projecting some 40mm or more each
side of the frame as horns. These projecting horns can be built into the wall in the jambs of openings or
they may be cut off on sites if the frame is built in flush with the outside of the wall. The reason for
using a haunced tenon joint between posts and head is so that when the horn is cut off there will be a
complete mortice and tenon left.
Fixing windows
Wood window frames are usually built in to solid walls as the walls are raised. The other method is to
fix the window in position after the wall is built. Wood window frames are secured in position in solid
walls by means of galvanized steel cramps or lugs that are screwed to the back of the frame and built
into horizontal brick or block work as the wall is raised. The spacing is the cramps should be between
300 and 450. The other approach is to do the finishing according to the sizes of the frames and use raw
bolts to fix them.
Casement
The four members of the casement are two stiles, top rail and bottom rail. The stiles and top rail are cut
from 50x44 timbers and the bottom rail from 75x44 timbers. The stiles and rails are rebated fro glass
and rounded or moulded on their inside edges for appearance sake. The rails are tenoned to mortices in
the stiles and put together in glue, cramped up and wedged
Ventlights: The four members are cut from the same timbers as the stiles of the casement and are
rebated, moulded and joined in the same way as for the casement.
Some standard wood casement sizes.
Heights
Widths
900
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2400
1050
1200
1500
The manufactures of standard windows produce a range of standard windows. The advantage of
having standard windows is in the economy of mass production. In line with the move to
dimensionally co-ordinate building components and assemblies the standard range of windows may fit
with such allowances for tolerances and joints as appropriate. The purpose of dimensional coordination is to rationalize the production of building components and assemblies through the
standardization of sizes within a frame work of basic spaces into which the standard components and
assemblies may fit.

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Hinges and fasteners

Wood casements and ventlights are hung on standard steel butt hinges or on metal offset hinges. The
offset hinge is designed with the pin offset outside the window so that when the casement is open there
is a gap between the hinged edge of the casement and the frame wide enough for access for cleaning
the outside of glass from within the building. (Find out the type of hinges and fasteners)
Steel windows:
Steel casement windows are made either from standard Z-sections or the universal sections. Steel
casements are assembled by welding the joints.
Standard steel casements are made from the hot rolled steel Z-sections which are used both for the
frame, casement and ventlights. The section is cut to length and mitred and welded at the corners. The
assembled and cleaned parts of the window are then rust proofed by the hot dip, galvanizing process in
which the window parts are dipped in a bath of molten zinc.
Hinges and fasteners: Steel casement windows are fitted with steel butt or offset hinges and lever
catches and stay similar to those used for wood windows, the fittings being welded to frame and
casement.
Fixing steel windows
Standard steel windows are usually built in to openings in solid walls and secured with building-in lugs
or ties that are bolted to the back of the frames through a slot that allow adjustment for building into
horizontal brick or block courses.
Window sills
It is good practice to set the outside face of widows back from the outside face of the wall in which
they are set so that the reveals of the opening give some protection against driving rain. Wind driven
rain which will run down the impermeable surface of the window glass to the bottom of the window
should be run out from the window by some form of sill. The function of an external sill is to conduct
the water that runs down from windows, away from the window and to cover the wall below the
window and exclude rain from the window. The material from which the sills are made should be
sufficiently impermeable and durable to perform its function during the life of the building. External
sills are formed either as an integral part of the window frame, as an attachment to the underside of the
window or as a sub-sill, which is in effect a part of the wall designed to serve as a sill.
The materials used for the construction of window sills are: natural stone, cast stone, concrete, slates,
tiles and bricks.

w e a th e r e d w in d o w
s ill w it h
a th r o a t b e lo w

S e c tio n

th ro u g h

w in d o w

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

SASH WINDOWS
 Pivoted Sash Window
These can be pivoted vertically or horizontally
Sash

Frame

Pivot
Advantages
Since its weight is carried equally by pivots, it is less likely to lose shape.
It can consist of one large square of glass that offers more light and less obstruction to view.
It can be fitted with double glazing more easily than other windows
The whole area of window can be open
The sash is made in such a way that it can be turned through 180o and so it is possible to clean glass
from both sides.
It can be operated mechanically for tall heights.
Demerits
It is difficult to open it sufficiently to allow ventilation without causing draught.
It takes up space inside the building.
 Vertically Sliding Sash Window
1

Advantages
As the sashes are suspended vertically, they do not tend to sink or loose shape.
Other than the central horizontal sash members where sashes meet when closed, the window is
entirely of glass and its appearance is very good.
It can be opened in cold weather just sufficiently to ventilate without causing drought.
Demerits
With continued use, if not well maintained, the sashes will jump inside the frame
They are very expensive compared to other types of windows of similar size
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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

 Their construction is very difficult

They are difficult to clean outside from the inside.
 Horizontally Sliding Sash Window
Demerits
Unless accurately made, the sashes are likely to jam.
If dust gets into the running track, they are likely to jam.
Difficult to clean from inside.

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

2.2 DOORS
A door is a solid barrier to a doorway or opening that can be opened for access and closed to deny
access for privacy and security and serves as a thermal, acoustic and fire barrier as part of an external
wall.
A doorway is an opening in a wall or partition for access and a door frame or lining is the timber or
metallic or plastic frame or lining fixed in the doorway or opening to which the door closes on hinges,
pivots or runners
Functional Requirements
The primary function of a door is to provide access.
The secondary functions as components part of a wall or partition are:
Strength
Shape stability
Privacy
Security
Thermal insulation
Sound insulation
Fire resistance
Exclusion of wind and rain as a part of an external wall.
Means of access
The operating characteristics of a door to serve this function depend on the weight of the door itself
and the hardware such as hinges and locks and fitments such as door closers fixed to the door and
frame and draught stripping which cause operating difficulties.
Door(s) leaf
The traditional domestic door is of one leaf which is hinged on one side to open in one direction for the
convenient entry or exit of people. Double-leaf, double swing, sliding, and sliding and folding doors,
revolving doors, roller shutter doors are also used for both domestic and other purposes. The word
leaf refers to the opening part of a door.
Doors are made of timber, aluminium, steel and plastics just like the windows
STANDARD DOORS
The standard size of door leaf are height 2040, width 526, 626, 726, 826 and 926 for internal doors and
height 1994, width 806 and 906 for external doors and thickness 40 or 44. A door set is a standard
combination of door leaf with frame or lining and hinges and furniture packed as a unit ready for fix.
Types of Doors
1. Wood Doors
Wood doors may be classified as:(i)
Flush doors
(ii)
Panelled doors
(iii) Match boarded doors.

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

t o p r a il

b ra c e

s t ile

m id d le r a il

panel
b o t t o m r a il
p a n e lle d d o o r

m a tc h b o a rd e d d o o r

f lu s h d o o r

 Flush Doors
The fashion in buildings has been for plain surfaces devoid of decorative mouldings that will collect
dust. Hence the use of flush doors which are surfaced with sheets of hardboard or plywood fixed
either to a cellular skeleton or solid core.

Cellular core flush doors
These doors are made with cellular, fibreboard or paper core in a light softwood frame with lockage
blocks covered with plywood or hardboard both sides.

Skeleton frame flush doors
In skeleton core flushed doors, a small section in timbers is constructed as illustrated below. The main
members of this structural core are stiles and rails, with intermediate rails.

core strips glued together

soft wood fram e

lock block

lock block

ply wood or hardboard

facing glued to fram e
& cellular core

ply wood or hardboard

facing glued to fram e
& cellular core

Cellular core flush

door

Skeleton fram e
flush door

Solid core Flush

door

Solid core flush doors

Plywood and hardboard facings bonded to cellular or skeleton flush doors do not always remain flat
and waves on their surface may be apparent particularly if the door is painted with gloss paint. A flush
door with a solid core of timber, clipboard, flax board or compressed fibreboard can be used for public
buildings and other buildings with high levels of use externally and as fire door. It has better thermal
and acoustic properties than cellular core or skeleton core flush doors. Refer to sketch above.
Fire doors
The term fire is used as a general description of all doors that serve to control the spread of fire or the
smoke and gases resulting from the fires in buildings. The term fire resisting is used more specifically
to describe a door, together with its frame, that has resistance to collapse, flame penetration and
excessive temperature rise for a stated period of time during fires.

Page 18 of 24
Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

Fire check door

This most accurately describes the function of a fire door in checking the spread of fire for a stated
period of time.
Smoke control doors
This accurately describes the purpose of fitting a door solely to check the spread of smoke
Function
Most fires in buildings come from small sources which develop quantities of smoke and other
combustion products in the early stage of the fire. Pressure differences may force smoke through gaps
around the door. As the fire develops and the temperatures rise on the effect of the heat of the fire
without collapsing and be capable of serving as a barrier to the spread of excessive quantities of heat
and hot gases a fire door here comes to have performed its function.
Construction
A range of wood doors has been tested to give fire resistance from 30 to 60 minutes. These include
skeleton-core flush with a plasterboard core and solid-core flush door with solid timber, compressed,
straw, chipboard, flax board or compressed fibre board strips. The resistance of a door set to the
spread of smoke and fire depends on the door frame, the door and its fittings.
Use of Intumescent Strip:
This is a material that swells when heated by foaming and expanding. The material is used with
aluminium or PVC cover strips fixed in rebates to the edges of the door or frames so that in fires the
Intumescent material expands and seals the gaps between the door and frame as a barrier to the spread
of smoke and fire. The seals incorporate a neoprene draught strip that serves as a smoke seal in the
early stages of a fire and Intumescent material acts as a seal against the spread of fire in the later
stages.
Hinges, locks and door closers
For a door to be effective as a barrier to smoke and frame, it must be held securely in position on its
hinges and firmly on the closed position by the latch and be self closing for the period of minutes
specified for stability and integrity. The purpose three steel hinges are generally recommended. The
latch must be strong and engage the latch plate at least 10 to maintain the door in the closed position.
 Panelled Doors
Panelled doors are framed with stiles and rails around a panel or panels of wood or plywood. The
stiles and rails are cut from timbers of the same thickness and some of the more usual sizes of timber
used are; stiles and top rails 10038 or 10050; middle rail 17538 or 17550, bottom rail 20038 or
20050. Because the door is hinged on one side to open, it tends to sink on the lock stile. The stiles
and rails have to be joined to resist the tendency of the door to sink and the two types of joint used are
a mortice and tenon joint or a dovetail joint.
Mortice and tenon joint
This is the strongest type of joint used to frame members at right angles in joinery work. The panels
are usually jilted into stiles, rails and cramped after gluing and wedging around the panels. For
economy and mass production, dowel joints should always be used.

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

Panels
Timber panels, more than 250 wide are made up from boards 150 wide that are tongued together. The
term tongued describes the operation of jointing boards by cutting grooves in their edges into which a
thin tongue or feather of wood is cramped and glued.
Plywood
This is made from three, five, seven or nine piles or thin layers of wood firmly glued together, so that
the long grain of one ply is at right angles to the grain of the plies to which it is boarded. The most
pronounced shrinkage in wood occurs at right angles to the long grain of the wood and any shrinkage
of the centre ply is resisted by the outer plies, hence the odd number of plies used. Plywood does not
shrink appreciably and because of the opposed long grains, it does not warp or twist. The three
plywood 5 or 6.5 mm thick is generally used for door panels.
Fixing panels
This is done by fixing panel in the grooves cut in the edges of the stiles and rails. If any shrinkage of
the members of the door occurs, gaps will not appear around the panels. A panel set in grooves to
stiles and rails with square edges may leave an unfinished look which can be modified by cutting
mouldings on the edges of the members. An inferior method of fixing panels is to plat nail timber
beads each side of the panel.
Sketch of a metal framed glazed panelled door

 Matchboarded doors
Matchboarded doors are made with a facing of tongued, grooved and V-jointed boards fixed vertically
to either ledges and braces or a frame. These doors are used for cellars, sheds and stores where the
appearance of the door is not important.
Ledged Matchboarded door. Matchboarding is nailed to horizontal ledges directly. The direct nailing
does not strongly frame the door which is liable to sinking and losing shape.
Ledged and braced Matchboarded: This type of door is strengthened against sinking with braces
between the rails and is fixed at an angle to resist sinking on the lock edge. The braces are nailed to the
boarding
Framed and braced ledged Matchboarded door: the match boarding is fixed to a frame of stiles and
rails that are framed with mortice and tenon joints with braces to strengthen the door against sinking

m a tc h b o a rd in g 2 5 , T & G , V -jo in t
b o th s id e s
15 0

le d g e 1 0 0 x 3 2

m a tc h b o a rd in g
n a ile d to le d g e s

m a tc h b o a r d in g 2 5 , T & G , V -jo in t
b o th s id e s

le d g e 1 5 0 x 2 5

s itle 1 0 0 x 5 0
le d g e 1 5 0 x 2 5
b ra c e 1 0 0 x 2 5

le d g e 1 5 0 x 3 2

le d g e 1 5 0 x 2 5

L e d g e d m a rtc h b o a rd e d d o o r

le d g e 1 5 0 x 3 2

L e d g e d & b ra c e d m a rtc h b o a rd e d d o o r

F ra m e d , b ra c e d & m a rtc h b o a rd e d d o o r

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

Double swing doors

Doors are hunged to swing both ways to provide ready access to and from parts of buildings used in
common by the occupants and users at points where it is convenient to provide an opening barrier, for
example from halls to corridors, to provide some separation of the public and the more private parts of
the building. These doors, which are liable to heavy use, are usually constructed as panelled doors with
a glazed panel at eye level to prevent accidents due to simultaneous use for each side. The door leaf is
hung either on double action hinges or pivoted on a double-action floor spring and top pivot (sketch)
Sliding and sliding folding doors
Sliding doors are designed for intermittent use to provide either a clear opening or a barrier between
adjacent rooms or spaces to accommodate change use or function, and in narrow spaces to avoid the
obstruction caused by hinged leaf. They are also designed for intermittent use to provide a larger
opening than is practical with sliding doors, and to divide large spaces into smaller by closing back to
one by opening. (Sketch)
Hardware for doors
Hardware is the general term for the hinges, locks latches and handles for a door. Ironmongery was a
term used when most of these were made of steel or iron.
Examples of hinges are; pressed steel butt hinges, cast iron butt hinges, brass butt hinges, steel skew
butt hinges, hook and band hinges. Read about them
Latches and locks
The word latch is used to describe any wood or metal device which is attached to a door or window to
keep it closed and which can be opened by the movement of the latch operated by a handle, lever or
bar, a lock is any device of wood or metal attached to a door which can be used to keep it closed by
application of a loose key. Examples of locks are mortice locks, rim lock and mortice dead lock.
Door frames and linings
A door frame is a surround in a door way or opening, to which the door is hung and to which it closes,
which sufficient strength in itself to support the weight of the door. A door lining is a surround inside a
door way or opening , as wide as the reveal of the opening, to which the door is hung and closes, which
is not in itself strong enough to support the weight of the door without support from the surrounding
wall or partition. Door frames and linings maybe made of wood, metal or plastic.
Wood door frames
A door frame consists of three or four members which are either rebated 13mm deep for the door or a
wood stop 13mm is planted to the frame. A frame consists of two posts and a head member and may
also have the fourth member, a threshold or sill to assist in weather exclusion.

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

head 100 x 75

Ends of head project 100 as horns for

building in the wall
100
posts of frame 100 x 75 rebate
for door
50
13
40/44
section through the post

Dowels
Door frames that do not have a threshold or sill are often secured to the floor by a mild steel dowel,
12mm diametre and 50 long that is driven into the foot of the posts and set the concrete floor.
Fixing door frames
Door frames are usually built in, which describes the operation of building walls or partitions around
the frame. The frame is secured onto the walls with L-shaped galvanized steel building-in lugs which
are screwed to the back of the frames. Frames are also fixed in by screwing in through to wood plugs
fitted in the walls during finishing
Threshold or sill
A wood sill to an external door is usually of some wood, such as oak, and the sill is joined to the posts
of the frame with haunced mortice and tenon joints. The sill is usually wider than the frame and is
rebated for the door 13 deep for an outward opening door and grooved for water bar for an inward
opening door and weathered and throated.
Standard wood door frames and door sets
There are no generally available standard wood door frames and linings for standard doors.
Manufacturers offer standard frames for standard doors of sections from ex. 104x64 to ex 89x64,
rebated for doors with co-ordinating dimensions of frame, 900, 1000, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100 wide and
2100 high.
Metal door frames
These are manufactured from mild steel strip pressed into one of the three standard profiles. The same
profile is used for head and jambs of the frame. The three pressed steel members are welded together at
angles. Two loose pin butt hinges are welded to one jamb of the frame and an adjustable lock strike
plate to the other. Two rubber buffers are fitted into the rebate of the jambs to which the door closes to
cushion the impact sound of the door closing. Metal door frames are built in and secured with
adjustable metal building in lugs. The frames may be used externally or internally.

Page 22 of 24
Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

GLASS AND GLAZING

Glass is made by heating soda, lime and sand to a temperature at which they melt and fuse. Molten
glass is drawn, cast, rolled or run onto a bed of molten tin to form flat glass. The followings types of
glass are in use in buildings:
Float glass, patterned glass, wired glass, toughened glass, clear sheet glass (used in sun gurgles),
polished plate glass, double glazing units. Glass are manufactured in thicknesses of 3 to 19mm
Wind loading
Glass should be sufficiently thick in relation to its area to safely withstand wind pressure and suction.
The likely wind pressure depends on the exposure of the building and three grades of exposure are
defined as sheltered, moderate and severe
Glazing
The operation of fixing glass in windows, doors and openings is termed glazing. Glass must be
accurately cut to size to provide an edge clearance between the edges of the glass and the bed of the
rebate to allow for variations in the sash or frame and of the glass and to facilitate setting the glass in
position. An edge clearance of 2mm for putty glazing and 3 for other methods of glazing for glass upto
6 thick and upto 5 for thicker glass must be made. To secure glass in the glazing rebates with the
requisite edge clearance all round, setting locks are placed below the glass. The setting glass are made
of pvc, hammered lead, hard nylon or hard wood from 25 to 150 long and of the same thickness as the
edge clearance.
Methods of Glazing
 Utilising the glazing compound
These include; the linseed oil putty which is used with prime timber frames and the metal casement
putty used with metal frames.
 By use of beadings
Here the glass is held in position by timber or metal beadings which are fixed by nails or screws in
order to maintain a weather seal in an exterior window.
 Gasket
This method depends on the gasket being compressed against the glass both to form a water tight seal
and to grip the glass holding it in position.

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Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo

Page 24 of 24
Lecture Notes for B.Voc II Semester II 2012:
@Ambrose Mubialiwo