SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2011, 39(7), 925-934

Society for Personality Research

DOI 10.2224/sbp.2011.39.7.925

GOAL ORIENTATION AND SELF-EFFICACY AS PREDICTORS

OF MALE ADOLESCENT SOCCER PLAYERS MOTIVATION TO
PARTICIPATE
ZISAN KAZAK ETINKALP
Ege University, Bornova, Turkey
AYSE TURKSOY
Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
The purpose in this investigation was to determine whether or not goal orientation and
self-efficacy level could predict the motivation to participate in adolescent male soccer
players. Participants were 159 male soccer players aged 13 and 14 (M = 13.43, SD = .49).
Multiple regression analysis was used to analyze data. Achievement/status and competition
were positively predicted by ego orientation. Skill development was positively predicted by
task orientation. Team affiliation, being active/movement, and fitness/energy were positively
predicted by self-efficacy. Goal orientation and self-efficacy were not found to be significant
predictors of fun and friendship.
Keywords: goal orientation, self-efficacy, participation, motivation, soccer player, adolescent.

Numerous explanations are given for the factors affecting individuals decisions
to participate in and to continue to participate in sports activities (Biddle, Soos,
& Chatzisarantis, 1999; Ryckman & Hamel, 1993). Descriptive approaches
related to individuals motives for participating in and continuing to participate
in sports activities provide important information that helps scientists in the bid
to increase individual participation in sports activities. Individuals motives for
participating in physical activity are correlated to many psychological structures.

Zisan Kazak Cetinkalp, School of Physical Education and Sport, Ege University, Bornova, Turkey;
Ayse Turksoy, School of Physical Education and Sport, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Appreciation is due to reviewers including: Zeynep Dinc, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey,
Email: zulzeynep@cu.edu.tr
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Zisan Kazak etinkalp, Ege University,
School of Physical Education and Sport, 35100, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey. Email: f.zisan.kazak@
ege.edu.tr

925

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GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

Goal orientation and self-efficacy of individuals, which have an important place

in explaining participation motivation, have been assessed from various points of
view in correlated structures.
Researchers have shown that there are links between goal orientation, namely
as task orientation and ego orientation (Duda, 1992; Nicholls, 1989), and the
perceived purpose of sport (Duda, 1989). In achievement goal theory, important
differences in behavior are related to how success is perceived and competence
evaluated (Nicholls, 1989). Individuals who adopt task orientation are interested
in learning and developing skills, demonstrating mastery in the task, and
working hard. The demonstration of ability is based on maximum effort and is
self-referenced (Jagacinski & Strickland, 2000; Roberts, Spink, & Pemberton,
1999). Task-oriented individuals have been consistently linked to more intrinsic
motivational patterns such as skill development and enjoyment (Papaioannou &
Theodorakis, 1996). Nieminen, Varstala, and Manninen (2001) reported that task
orientation was positively correlated with physically active/mastery and reaching
for high standards. Duda (1989) found that task orientation was negatively
related to the view that sport should improve social status. White, Duda, and
Keller (1998) found that individuals high in task orientation tended to perceive
that mastery/cooperation, and being physically active were important purposes
for young people taking part in sport. Biddle, Soos, and Chatzisarantis (1999)
emphasized the relationship between intention for physical activity and task
orientation in adolescents. Individuals who orient towards ego goals, on the other
hand, are more concerned with social comparisons, proving their ability, and
receiving desirable, or avoiding negative, judgments about their performance. An
ego-oriented person participates in an activity in order to demonstrate high ability
and to minimize the demonstration of low ability compared to others (Duda,
1992). Ommundsen and Roberts (1996) reported that ego-oriented athletes view
the purpose of sport as improving ones social status and recognition. Chie-der,
Chen, Hung-yu, and Li-kang (2003) found ego orientation to be positively related
to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support. In another
study, White and Duda (1994) found that ego orientation was related to extrinsic
sport participation motives such as recognition/status in adolescents.
The other important attribute associated with participation in physical activity
is self-efficacy. Efficacy is defined as a persons belief in his or her ability and
capacity to enact goal-directed behaviors within an activity context (FrederickRecascino, 2004). Participating in physical activity has been found to be strongly
influenced by an individuals self-efficacy beliefs (Blanchard et al., 2007).
Self-efficacy has been examined as a predictor of physical activity (Luszczynska
et al., 2010). The findings of Reynolds et al. (1990), Zakarian, Hovell, Hofstetter,
Sallis, Trost et al. (1997), and Allison, Dwyer, and Makin (1999), and Keating

GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

927

(1994) also indicated that there is a relationship between self-efficacy and

physical activity in adolescent males.
The determination of the sport participation motives of adolescent sportsmen,
and the structures related with their motives for sport participation, seem
particularly important from the point of view of making plans with the aim
of increasing adolescents participation in sports, because adolescence is a
period during which the number of young people stopping sports activities has
been increasing. In this context, it was our belief that this study would make a
contribution to explaining motivation for sports participation.
The purpose in this study was to examine the relationships of the two types
of goal orientation and self-efficacy with forms of participation motivation
in adolescent male soccer players. We expected that the eight dimensions of
participation motivation would be related to the two goal orientations and to
self-efficacy in a selected group of top-level adolescent male soccer players.
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
Participants in this study were 159 adolescent male soccer players who
participated in the U14 national team preselections conducted by the Turkish
Football Federation in Istanbul, Turkey. They were all aged either 13 or 14, with a
mean age of 13.43 0.49. In terms of sporting experience, 40.3% of participants
had between three and four years of experience; 32.7% of participants had
between five and six years of experience; 17.6% of participants had between
one and two years of experience; and 9.4% of participants had between seven
and eight years of experience. On average, participants reported that they were
training for 2.53 0.99 days per week.
MEASURES
Participation motivation We used the Participation Motivation Questionnaire
(PMQ), developed by Gill, Gross, and Huddleston (1983) and adapted into
Turkish by Oyar, Asci, Celebi, and Mulazimoglu (2001). The Turkish version of
this scale consists of 30 items, which originally included eight possible factors
pertaining to why children participate in sport (i.e., achievement/status, skill
development, team affiliation, being active/movement, competition, fitness/
energy, fun, and friendship). Construct validity and internal reliability of the
PMQ have been successfully demonstrated within a physical activity context.
The internal consistency of the PMQ subscales ranged from .61 to .78 (Oyar et
al., 2001).
Goal orientation We used the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ:
Roberts, Treasure, & Ballague, 1998) that has been adapted into Turkish by

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GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

Kazak Cetinkalp (2006) to measure dispositional goal orientation. The scale is a

12-item measure of task and ego orientation with six statements comprising each
subscale. Answers are given on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree). A principal components factor analysis with oblique
rotation with a sample of Turkish athletes yielded two factors, ego and task. This
scale has been demonstrated to have acceptable internal consistency in research
with Turkish athletes (e.g., .79 for task orientation and .77 for ego orientation).
The results of test-retest were found to be .61 for task orientation and .88 for ego
orientation (Kazak Cetinkalp, 2006).
Self-efficacy We used the General Self-efficacy Scale to determine soccer
players self-efficacy levels. The scale was designed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem
(1995) to assess self-efficacy, that is the belief that ones actions are responsible
for successful outcomes, and has been translated into Turkish by Luszczynska,
Gibbons, Piko, and Tekozel (2004). The scale consists of 10 Likert-type items
and each item has four choices. Possible responses were 1 = not at all true, 2 =
hardly true, 3 = moderately true, and 4 = exactly true. The internal consistency
of the General Self-efficacy Scale is .82 (Luszczynska et al., 2004).
PROCEDURE AND DATA COLLECTION
The Turkish version of the scales and a form asking for information about
demographic variables, including participants age, gender, number of years of
experience, and level of play, were used to collect the data. Participants were
briefly given information about the research project and were encouraged to
answer the questionnaire honestly. They were also asked not to put their names
on the forms and told that their answers would be used only for research purposes
and their anonymity was guaranteed. Each player then completed all forms,
which took approximately 10-15 minutes.
DATA ANALYSIS
In the analysis of the data obtained from the research, stepwise multiple
regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among goal
orientations, self-efficacy, and participation motivation levels.
RESULTS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, are reported in
Table 1. These descriptive statistics for the entire sample revealed high levels of
task orientation, ego orientation, and self-efficacy for the sample. The forms of
participation motivation values were found to be high in this sample.

929

GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

TABLE 1
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR THE VARIABLES OF SCALE
Variable
Task orientation
Ego orientation
Self-efficacy
Achievement/status
Skill development
Team affiliation
Being active/movement
Competition
Fitness/energy
Fun
Friendship

SD

4.47
4.13
3.46
2.68
2.97
2.94
2.75
2.74
2.78
2.38
2.77

.58
.65
.41
.26
.09
.15
.36
.29
.23
.39
.29

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSES

Stepwise multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine whether
or not the different categories of participation motivation were best predicted by
dispositional goal orientations (i.e., task and ego orientations), and self-efficacy.
Three independent variables (task orientation, ego orientation, and self-efficacy)
were entered into the regression analysis and results are summarized in Table 2.
TABLE 2
SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR FOOTBALL PLAYERS PARTICIPATION
MOTIVATION SCORES (N = 159)
Variable
Achievement/status
Constant
Ego orientation
Skill development
Constant
Task orientation
Team affiliation
Constant
Self-efficacy
Being Active/movement
Constant
Self-efficacy
Competition
Constant
Ego orientation
Fitness/energy
Constant
Self-efficacy

SE (b)

2.21
.11

.13
.03

17.32
3.67

.28***

2.84
.03

.06
.01

48.72
2.18

.17*

2.58
.11

.09
.03

26.83
3.81

.29***

2.14
.18

.24
.07

8.99
2.55

.20**

2.42
.08

.14
.03

16.83
2.24

.18*

2.37
.12

.15
.04

15.77
2.81

.22**

Note: R2 = .08 for achievement/status; R2 = .03 for skill development; R2 = .09 for team affiliation;
R2 = .04 for being active; R2 = .03 for competition; R2 = .05 for fitness.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

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GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

For achievement/status, we observed that ego orientation emerged as a

significant unique positive predictor (F(1, 157) = 13.49, p < .001), explaining
8% of the variance. Both task orientation and self-efficacy were unrelated
to achievement/status. For skill development, task orientation appeared as
a significant predictor (F(1, 157) = 4.77, p < .05), accounting for 3% of the
variance. It was found that ego orientation and self-efficacy were unrelated to
skill development. Team affiliation was significantly predicted by self-efficacy
(F(1, 157) = 14.49, p < .001), which explained 9% of the variance. Neither task
orientation nor ego orientation were related significantly to team affiliation.
Self-efficacy emerged as a unique significant positive predictor (F(1, 157) =
6.52, p < .01) for being active/movement, accounting for 4% of the explained
variance. None of the other variables entered the regression equation. In terms
of competition, ego orientation appeared as a significant positive predictor
(F(1, 157) = 5.00, p < .05), accounting for 3% of the variance. Task orientation
and self-efficacy were unrelated. Self-efficacy was found to be a positive
predictor of fitness/energy (F(1, 157) = 7.92, p < .01), which explained 5%
of variance, whereas task orientation and ego orientation were unrelated. No
variable predicted fun and friendship variables. However, it should be noted that
the variance explained in these regressions was relatively small.
DISCUSSION
In this study we examined how constructs of goal orientation and self-efficacy
are related to forms of participation motivation in adolescent male soccer players
who were participating in the U14 national team preselections. Determining
the factors affecting individuals motives for participating in sports activities
is crucial in getting more individuals, especially children, to participate in
sports. When the literature on motivation is scrutinized, it can be seen that
some psychological characteristics such as goal orientation, and self-confidence
make an important contribution to individuals decisions to participate in sports
activities. In this study, the psychological constructs that sports participation (as
a parameter) predict, or are thought to predict, have also been considered.
Regression analysis showed that task orientation was predictive of skill
development. This finding is supported by the findings in most studies in the
literature, indicating that task orientation is related to skill development in
adolescents (Papaioannou & MacDonald, 1993; Papaioannou & Theodorakis,
1996; White & Duda, 1994; Zahariadis & Biddle, 2000). In their study, Altintas,
Hacioglu, Sagturk, Belman, and Asci (2010) found that task orientation was a
significant predictor of the skill development motive for young soccer players.
Results gained in other studies have indicated that task orientation is related
to team atmosphere motives, status/recognition motives (Zahariadis & Biddle,

GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

931

2000), competition motives (Andrade, Salguero, Gonzalez-Boto, & Mrquez,

2008; White & Duda, 1994), and fitness and team membership (White & Duda,
1994). If it is taken into account that task-oriented individuals are more focused
on learning and mastering new skills (Boyd, Weinmann, & Yin, 2002) and are
more intrinsically motivated (Brunel, 1999; Jagacinski & Strickland, 2000;
Kavussanu & Roberts, 1996), the findings in our research are inconsistent with
the literature.
Of the two goal orientation subscales, ego orientation positively predicted
achievement/status and competition subscales of participation motivation. This
finding may be because individuals with ego orientation participate in sport
for mainly extrinsic reasons. This result is in line with those gained in several
previous studies. For example, White and Duda (1994) found that ego-oriented
individuals were more likely to report motives associated with competition and
recognition/status. Similarly, Zahariadis and Biddle (2000) reported that ego
orientation was positively and highly correlated with status/recognition motives.
However, the results of another study (Andrade et al., 2008) showed that ego
orientation predicted motive for participation and was related to status. Duda
(1989) reported that ego orientation was positively correlated with the competitiveness and social status subscales. Although some researchers reported
that ego orientation was negatively associated with team atmosphere motives in
adolescents (Zahariadis & Biddle), we did not find a relationship between ego
orientation and team affiliation.
Furthermore, the results gained in this study indicate that self-efficacy was
predictive of team affiliation, being active/movement, and fitness/energy.
Ryckman and Hamel (1993), in their work on perceived physical ability
differences of young athletes affecting their motives for participation in sports,
concluded that one of the reasons athletes who have a higher perceived physical
ability participate in sports is their motive for team affiliation. We have not
encountered any findings in previous studies that allowed us to assess the
relationship between the being active/movement subscales and fitness/energy
subscales. Compared to the findings of studies conducted with different ages and
groups, our findings extend data reported by Booth, Owen, Bauman Clavisi, and
Leslie (2000), who observed that high self-efficacy was significantly associated
with being active. Moreover, self-efficacy has received considerable support as
a predictor of initiation and maintenance of an exercise program for health and
fitness (Jessup, Horne, Vishen, & Wheeler, 2003).
In this study, fun and friendships subscales of participation motivation were
not predicted by either goal orientation or self-efficacy variables. In contrast to
these findings, Allen (2003) found that task orientation was related to affiliation
and interest/enjoyment and Duda (1994) reported that task orientation is related
to enjoyment and satisfaction in achievement domains such as sport. In addition,

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GOAL ORIENTATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MOTIVATION

there is no concurrent contribution of goal orientation and self-efficacy to the

subscales of participation motivation, although there is a statistically significant
relationship between self-efficacy and task orientation.
When our findings are evaluated on a general basis, it can be said that both
goal orientations and self-efficacy are the factors that should be taken into
consideration in explaining the reasons for participation in sports.
Finally, future studies in which more variables, such as athletes age, type
of athletic participation, athletic experiences, and other personality traits are
taken into consideration may contribute to a deeper understanding of the topic.
In our view, studies dealing with the self-efficacy and the motives for sports
participation will be a particularly valuable addition to the findings of both
previous studies and our own study. In addition, studies with various sporting
codes may result in different conclusions.
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