AS Physics Practical Notes

Experimental Uncertainty
Random Error upon multiple measurements, will result in readings being scattered around the
accepted value. This can be reduced by repeating and averaging results or by plotting a graph and
drawing a line of best fit e.g. reaction time, temperature fluctuation, pressure fluctuation
Systematic Error a consistent error which causes readings to be larger or smaller than the accepted
value. This cannot be eliminated by repeating and averaging e.g. zero error, calibration error
Accuracy a measure of how far away the mean is from the expected value. This can be improved
by reducing or eliminating systematic errors.
Precision a measure of how close repeated measurements are from each other. Precision is
affected by random errors.

Probability Density

Reference (Expected) Value

Accuracy

Value

Precision

Absolute Uncertainty the smallest scale division on a measuring device and is always rounded to 1
s.f. If more than five measurements are taken, the absolute uncertainty can be half the range. The
measurement will always be rounded to the same place value as the uncertainty.
Rules for Uncertainty

Adding and Subtracting add the absolute uncertainties

e.g. 16.5 0.2 cm + 9.3 0.3cm = 24.8 0.5cm
Multiplying and Dividing add the percentage uncertainty
e.g. (2.6 2%) (6.1 1%) = 15.86 3% = 15.9 0.5
Exponents multiply the percentage uncertainty by the exponent
e.g. (5.0 2%)3 = 125.0 6% = 125.0 7.5
Multiplying or dividing by a constant multiply or divide the uncertainty by the constant
e.g. 10T = 14.7 0.2s; T = 1.47 0.02s
Multiplying or dividing by a constant does not change the percentage uncertainty
e.g. 5 5.0 2% = 25.0 2% = 25.0 0.5

Measurements
Vernier Scale a small sliding scale which is usually 9mm long but is divided into 10 equal divisions.

Micrometer screw gauge a device that is used to incorporate a calibrated screw. Its measurement
of small objects is very precise up to 0.001 cm. You twist it so it is tight around the object; stop
twisting when it clicks three times.

Ammeter a device used for measuring current in Amperes. It must be connected in series in the
circuit.
Voltmeter a device used for measuring the voltage in Volts. It must be connected in parallel in the
circuit.
Stopwatch a timer used in measuring the time taken for something to occur, in seconds. Due to
human reaction time, this will always have an uncertainty of 0.2s. Your measurements in seconds
should always be to 1d.p.

When measuring something that cannot be read electronically (i.e. from an ammeter) multiple
readings should always be taken and averaged
All measurements should be given to the maximum amount of significant figures your measuring
device allows.

Tables
Marks are awarded for:

The correct number of readings (usually 6) these must show a correct trend i.e. x increases
with y. If you do the incorrect number of readings you will lose a mark for each reading you
forget to do i.e. if you do 5 readings instead of 6, you lose 1 mark. Often, you are asked to
calculate a value in a question before the table; you can use this value in your table.

No Assistance if you call for assistance by a supervisor, you will lose marks in your examination
in the table section of the paper. However, if you are very sure your equipment is faulty, you
may call over the examiner, and if correct, you will be able to receive new equipment and carry
on with the examination without any penalty.

Range the question will often give you a range of values to choose from i.e. from 1cm to 6cm.
Your values must have fairly equal intervals and you should always include the upper and lower
class boundaries provided, if you do not include values close to the boundaries you will lose
marks.

Column Headings each column heading must contain a quantity and a unit i.e. d/m (distance,
d, in metres). Units should not be included in the table itself, only in the headings.

Consistency of Readings all values of a measured quantity should generally always be given to
the same number of significant figures i.e. all values of m must be givento the nearest g

Significant Figures in any calculations, the calculated value should take the same number of
significant figures as the value used in the calculation that has the lowest number of significant
figures i.e. all values of 1/x should have the same number of significant figures as x OR all values
of (x-d)2 should have the same number of significant figures as x if x was to 3s.f. and d was to
4s.f.

Calculation all calculated values must be calculated correctly

Example Table: Repeat question b) until you have six sets of values of x and T. Values of x should be
in the range of 1cm<x<6cm. In your table of results, include values of .
x/cm

T/s

/m-1

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0

3.2
6.9
10.1
12.8
15.7
19.0

1.0
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2

Graphs
Marks are awarded for:

Axes sensible scales must be used, i.e. for every 10 squares it goes up in 1s, 2s, or 5s. The
scale must be chosen so that the plotted points on the grid occupy at least half the graph grid in
both x and y directions. Scale markings should not be more than three large squares apart. Axes
should be labelled correctly; the question will tell you which quantity to plot on each axis.

Plotting of Points all observations in the table must be plotted as required. Plotted points
should be crosses, and take up no more than half a small square. Any blobs will not be accepted
by examiners.

Quality All points in the table must be plotted to achieve this mark. This mark is awarded for
the quality of your results, judged by the amount of scatter of the points around the best fit line.
If your scatter is uneven due to rounding of correct s.f. in your table, this will be accounted for in
the mark scheme.

Line of Best Fit there must be an even distribution of points either side of the line along the
whole length. Line must not be thick (use a sharp pencil) and will always be straight at AS level. If
you have a curve as your line of best fit you have most likely done something wrong.

Correct Gradient Calculation - the gradient, m, of line AB =

. The points used in calculating

the gradient must be shown clearly on the graph paper with lines drawn from the points to their
axes. The points used in these calculations should be far apart with at least half the line length
between them.

Correct y-intercept Calculation - this can be read off of the graph is a false origin is not used. If it
is read off the graph, it must be accurate to half a small square. This can also be calculated with
the equation, y = mx + c, with m being the gradient and c being the y-intercept. Inputting your
gradient into m and the coordinates of a point into x and y, you are able to solve for c, the yintercept.
Relationships

Following your graph, a relationship will likely be suggested between the two quantities on the axes,
and asks you to find values of a and b. You must use your y-intercept and gradient in this calculation,
by relating the suggested relationship to y = mx + c.
e.g. It is suggested that the relationship between

, on the y axis, and

, on the x axis is:

a = gradient (unit equal to y-value unit/x-value unit e.g. m kg-1 m-1 = kg-1
b = y-intercept (unit same as the unit for the y-axis e.g. m kg-1)

Limitations and Improvements

You will always be asked to describe the limitations that you noticed during an experiment in
Question Two, and to describe improvements that could be undertaken to fix these limitations.
Common Limitations and Improvements include:

2 readings are not enough to support a conclusion/take more readings and plot a graph
every Question Two experiment will only make you find two readings. To gain a more accurate
view of the relationship more readings should be taken and compared with a line of best fit.
This applies for every Question Two Experiment.

Time too quick to measure accurately/playback a video frame by frame with timer(if
measuring time) or scale (if measuring distance) often, experiments in Question Two involve
fast moving objects or pendulums, in which you must record the time taken for something to
occur or distance something moves in a short period of time. This is often very fast, therefore
making it difficult to record the time due to the error in human reaction time.
This applies for any question in which values concerning fast moving objects must be recorded.

Difficult to release object without applying force/mechanical release method such as remote
operated clamp when dropping an object, and recording values that depend on the objects
velocity i.e. time taken for object to reach a point, distance it travels in x seconds, if an initial
force is applied when releasing the object, the results will be inaccurate as an initial velocity is
present.
This applies for any question in which an object is dropped or released however NOT for
pendulum questions.

Small objects measured with high uncertainties from using a metre rule/micrometer or vernier
calliper could be used in measurements metre rules are only accurate to the nearest
millimetre, but other tools such as the micrometer or vernier calliper could be used instead for
more accurate results, allowing less uncertainties in the final readings, particularly for objects
such as small marbles.
This applies for any question in which very small objects are measured with a metre rule or
30cm ruler.

String or spring or rubber band stretches over time/take quick readings and remove masses
from string or spring or rubber band between measurements due to elasticity, it is possible
for the string/spring/rubber band to be deformed over time due to the force applied on it. This
may influence results in which extension of such object is measured as it will no longer return to
the initial 0 extension.
This applies for any question in which strings/springs/rubber bands are used in holding a mass.

Difficult to measure height of an object due to parallax or ruler not vertical/use a set square to
ensure vertical when measuring the height of something in which the ruler must be held or is
stood against a surface that is not flat, it becomes difficult to read the exact measurement as the
hand positioning may not allow for correct measurements in these situations. The set square can
be used in positioning the ruler into ensuring the ruler is 90 from the surface and therefore can
be measured accurately.
This applies for any question in which a distance must be measured from a ruler that is being
held by the candidate.

Movement of equipment that should be stationary (i.e. the stand) throughout

experiment/method of preventing movement (i.e. clamp stand to bench) when a large
amount of movement is occurring during the experiment, such as during a pendulum swing, it is
possible for the stationary equipment to move due to the force created by such movement,
causing disruptions in the experiment, such as the stand moving or the a loop sliding along a nail.
This applies to any question in which large movements in the experiment cause some movement
of the apparatus.

Difficulty in ensuring loops are exact size/tie loops around fixed points some questions
involve using loops that would be stated to be tied into a specific size. However, in tying this, the
candidate may find difficulty in making this size exactly as prescribed due to the process of tying.
Loops can be tied around two fixed points of the exact length apart i.e. two nails, allowing the
loop to be of the exact length.
This applies to any question in which loops are involved.