Writing in the Discipline

General objective
To write paragraphs and to understand how to write
essays
Specific Objective
To learn all the steps that you need to know in order to
write good paragraphs and, to write Process, Causeeffect, Comparison & contrast essays.

What is academic writing?

Academic writing is the kind of writing that you are
required to do at university.
In academic writing, your audience is primarily your
professors or instructors.
Academic writing is a process not a product

What is Academic Writing?

Why do you Write?

Express ideas & emotions
To compare or contrast two topics
To argue for a solution to a problem
To summarize information
To report on a laboratory experiment or
research

What is Academic Writing?

How do you Write?
Every student is expected to write clearly and to use
correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
In academic writing you can use two formats: paragraph
and the essay.

What is Academic Writing?

The style in academic writing
It is also important.
Students are expected to write in a somewhat
formal style. This means that their language
should be clear and direct and that they should
not use slang.

What is Academic Writing?

To whom do you Write?
The purpose of writing is communication, all writers need
to be aware of their audience. The question here is: Who
is the audience for students?
However, the purpose of writing is still the same: to
communicate a message.

Prewriting
Brainstorming techniques
You must think about a certain
topic and generate many ideas as
possible.
Journal Writing
Listing
Free-writing
Clustering

Pre-writing strategies
The purpose of this step is to think about a
certain topic and generate as many ideas as
possible.
Don't worry about spelling, grammar, or
writing in complete sentences.

Pre-writing strategies
There are four techniques which help you to generate
ideas, they are:
Journal Writing
The advantage of this technique is that you are writing
only for yourself. You can write down your thoughts
and explore ideas without worrying what other people
will think.
Listing
In this technique, you think about your topic and quickly
make a list of whatever words or phrases come into
your mind.

Pre-writing strategies
Free writing
The most important aspect of free writing is not to allow
yourself to stop. Just let your ideas and imagination flow.

Clustering
In this technique, in the center of your paper, write your
topic and draw a ballon around it.

Planning

Why create an outline?

Aids in the process of writing
Helps you organize your ideas
Presents your material in a logical form
Shows the relationships among ideas in your
writing
Constructs an ordered overview of your
writing
Defines boundaries and groups

Planning
How do I create an outline?
Determine the purpose of your paper.
Determine the audience you are writing for.
Develop the thesis of your paper.

Sample Outline
The College Application Process
I.

Choose Desired Colleges

A. Visit and evaluate college campuses
B. Visit and evaluate college websites
1. look for interesting classes
2. note important statistics
a. student/faculty ratio
b. retention rate

II.

Prepare Application
A. Write Personal Statement
1. Choose interesting topic
a. Describe an influential person in your
life
i. favorite high school teacher
ii. grandparent
2. Include important personal details
a. volunteer work
b. participation in varsity sports

III. Compile resume

A. List relevant coursework
B. List work experience
C. List volunteer experience
1. tutor at foreign language summer camp
2. counselor for suicide prevention hotline

Writing
You must remember that no piece of writing is
never perfect at the first time

Revising
You may start revising as soon as you finish writing. Read
what you have written, and ask yourself these questions:
Have I said what I wanted to say? and Have I made
myself clear to the reader? These are questions about the
content of your writing.

Revising
you also need to ask yourself about the organization of
your paragraph. The basic questions to ask are: Does
this paragraph have a topic sentence, What is my
topic?, What is my controlling idea? What are my
supporting sentences? Do I need more supporting
sentences?, and Do I have a concluding sentence?.

Editing
Suggestions for Editing (Proofreading) your Paper
Read your Paper Aloud
Any time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time
you have to pause or reread your text, revise this section.

Editing
Examine your Paragraphs
Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs,
looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and
topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are
significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting
information as well as those missing a topic sentence may
be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.

Editing
When you edit, you check to make sure the spelling,
capitalization, punctuation, vocabulary, and grammar
are correct. Editing is somewhat mechanical because
you are basically following rules. The rules of spelling,
for example, are clear; a word is either right or wrong.
In grammar and punctuation as well, we can usually
say that something is wrong and something else is
right.

Finding Common Errors

Proofreading can be much easier when you know what
you are looking for.
Spelling
Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheckit will not
get everything!
Examine each word in the paper individually by reading
carefully. Moving a pencil under each line of text helps
you to see each word.

Finding Common Errors

Spelling
If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is
spelled correctly.
Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling
nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like
your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.

Finding Common Errors

Left-out and doubled words
Reading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure
you haven't missed or repeated any words.

Finding Common Errors

Fragment Sentences
Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following
sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at
the OWL website.
Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the
following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete
verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying
to improve their writing skills.

Finding Common Errors

Fragment Sentences
See that each sentence has an independent clause;
remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own.
The following sentence is a dependent clause that would
qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students
read all of the handouts carefully.

Finding Common Errors

Run-on Sentences
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than
one independent clause. If there is more than one
independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are
separated by the appropriate punctuation.
Sometimes, it is just as effective to simply break the sentence
into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to
separate the clauses.

Finding Common Errors

Run-on Sentences
Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class
about extreme sports all I know about the subject is that I'm
interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class
about extreme sports, and all I know about the subject is that
I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class
about extreme sports. All I know about the subject is that I'm
interested in it.

Finding Common Errors

Comma Splices
Look at the sentences that have commas.
Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with
a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.

Finding Common Errors

Comma Splices
Another option is to take out the comma and insert a
semicolon instead.
Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's
a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about
basketball, because it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my
paper about basketball; it's a topic I can talk about at length.

Finding Common Errors

Subject/Verb Agreement
Find the subject of each sentence.
Find the verb that goes with the subject.
The subject and verb should match in number, meaning
that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and
vice versa.
Example: Students at the university level usually is very
busy.
Edited version: Students at the university level usually are
very busy.

Finding Common Errors

Mixed construction

Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that

they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to
another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed
construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go
out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go
out tonight.

Finding Common Errors

Parallelism
Look through your paper for series of items and make sure
these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills,
to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how
to listen, be considerate, and have fun.

Finding Common Errors

Pronoun Reference/Agreement
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change
the pronoun to a noun.
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and
person with your pronoun.

Finding Common Errors

Apostrophes
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end
in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there
should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for
it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words
plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added,
not an apostrophe and an "s."

Paragraph structure
The topic sentence
Supporting sentences
The Concluding sentence

What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single
topic.
The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph
The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one
paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a
new paragraph.

A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea
or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with.
In an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the
paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the
paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers,
although it is not the only way to do it).

Supporting sentences
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be
discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to
paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should
beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a
pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that
short.

The concluding sentence

Conclusions are shorter sections of academic texts which usually serve
two functions. The first is to summarise and bring together the main
areas covered in the writing, which might be called "looking back";
and the second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The
final comment may also include making suggestions for improvement
and speculating on future directions.

Unity and coherence

Unity
Coherence
Repetition of key nouns
key Noun Substitutes of Synomys
Transition signals
Coordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Pronouns

Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it
begins with a one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end
with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily
understandable to a reader.
You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating
logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Coherence
Logical bridges
The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges
Key words can be repeated in several sentences
Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

Transitions
Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition"
from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most
paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.

Supporting Details
Facts
Quotations
Statistics

FACTS, QUOTATIONS, AND STATISTICS

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:
Use examples and illustrations
Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and
paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is using the work of others without acknowledging your
source of information or inspiration.

Plagiarism
How to Avoid Plagiarising

Always note down exactly the source of information when you are
making notes. The title, author, page number, publisher and date,
and place of publication should be clearly written at the top of your
page of notes.

Plagiarism
If you are to claim that a piece of work is your own, then you must
acknowledge the source of any ideas that are not your own. You
must also show the source of any direct quotations these are words
for word quotations placed within parenthesis ( ). You must also
acknowledge the source of indirect quotations that is material that
you are quoting but which has been changed into your own words,
paraphrased, or summarized.

Plagiarism
You must be careful to record the sources of all information when
you take notes. If your work is not adequately referenced, you may
be accused of plagiarism and have your work disqualified.

From Paragraph to Essay

Parts of an essay

The introductory paragraph

Funnel introduction of general to specific
Dramatic, interesting of funny story
Surprising statistics of Facts
Historical background

From Paragraph to Essay

Paragraphs can be easily expanded to essay length. Similar to a
paragraph, an essay is also composed of three sections. They are:
introductory paragraph, supporting paragraphs, or a body; and a
concluding paragraph.

From Paragraph to Essay

The topic sentence of the paragraph becomes the thesis statement of the
essay which comes at the end of the introductory paragraph. The
supporting sentences of the original paragraph expand into three separate
body paragraphs in the essay. Finally, the concluding sentence is made
into a concluding paragraph.

Introductory paragraph
Your first paragraph should introduce the main point of your
paper. Your goal for the introductory paragraph is to clearly and
concisely let the reader know what your paper is all about, and exactly
what it is you are trying to communicate.

Funnel Introduction or general to specific

It begins with a general statement of the larger topic, and then each
sentence narrows it down until you get to the specific thesis
statement.
Ex:
Its difficult to grow up in this society. A teenager can get into all
kinds of trouble with school, smoking, drugs, and dating. One of the
worst kinds of trouble that a teenager can get into is getting involved
with a gang. Gang members commit crimes and get hurt or killed all
too often. Why do teenagers get involved in gangs? I think that
gangs are a direct result of the breakdown of the traditional family.

Dramatic, interesting or funny story

Its a brief story that illustrates your topic.
Ex:
My younger brother was a good student until our parents got
divorced. Then, while my parents lives became a war zone over
property and emotions, my brother withdrew into himself and felt
abandoned and unloved. He needed to feel that he was a part of
something. Thats when he got involved with a gang at his high
school. The gang he joined became his family and was more
important to him that anything. My parents didnt notice my
brother got badly hurt in a gang fight. I am convinced that gangs
are a direct result of the breakdown of the traditional family.

Surprising statistics of Facts

To write this kind of introduction, you need to be aware of
commonly known information. You can expand your knowledge of
facts and statistics by carefully reading newspapers and journals.
Ex:
It is estimated that there are nearly 5,000 gangs in the United States
with a total of almost 250,000 members. In fact, in inner cities,
where gangs are most common, 7 percent of all teenagers are gang
members. Why are all these young adults choosing to be gang
members? In my opinion, gangs are a direct result of the
breakdown of the traditional family.

Historical background
It simply provides general historical background.
Ex:
Gangs have existed in the United States for at least 100 years. At the
turn of the twentieth century, there were many gangs in big East
Coast cities. These gangs were mostly made up of members of the
same ethnic group and primarily protected the neighborhood where
their families lived. Nowadays, however, gang members have little
to do with protecting their relatives. Its my belief that gangs are
direct result of the breakdown of the traditional family.

From Paragraph to Essay

Body paragraphs
The concluding paragraph
Summary
Restatement
Final Comment

Body Paragraphs
This is the main component of your essay. The body must supply ample
evidence in support of your thesis. The correct format for presenting
your evidence is within body paragraphs, the fundamental units in
essay writing.
Each paragraph should represent and develop a single distinct idea.
Just as an essay, as a whole, needs clear and cohesive organization,
your paragraphs must also be organized around a central theme. This
theme is always stated in a topic sentence, which is most often the first
sentence in that paragraph.

Body Paragraphs
Body paragraph sentences can express different types of
information, all of which is potentially beneficial in developing string
paragraphs and essays.
For example, they can provide reasons for a particular point of view,
concrete details, specific examples, facts, statistics, or incidents and
anecdotes.
Individually or together, these sentence types will function in a
paragraph to support and prove the topic sentence and thesis
statement.

The concluding paragraph

Your final paragraph of your essay is the conclusion. This paragraph
should briefly draw together your evidence and reaffirm your thesis
statement. If you have a firm understanding of the material, wellselected evidence, and a strong thesis, your conclusion should write
itself. In other words, the conclusion summarizes what the essay
argues or sets out to demonstrate. It provides the culmination of the
evidence in a manner which you, as the writer, want to convince the
reader to discern, understand, and/or believe about the topic.

The concluding paragraph

Keep in mind that your conclusion is the place where your writing
needs to be strongest, clearest, and most concise since it is the part
of the essay that a reader will read last and be most
remembered. Be persuasive! Ultimately, the quality of your essay is
measured by whether or not the reader is persuaded by your thesis
and how well you supported it.

Process Essay
A process essay may explain, for example:
* how to properly re-pot a plant;
* how an individual came to appreciate hard work.
It describes how something is done. It can explain in detail how to
accomplish a specific task, or it can show how an individual came to a
certain personal awareness.

The essay could be in the form of step-by-step

instructions, or in story form, with the
instructions/explanations subtly given along the way.

Cause/Effect Essays

The cause/effect essay explains why or how some event happened, and what
resulted from the event.
The essay could discuss both causes and effects. A cause essay discusses the
reasons why something happened. An effect essay discusses what happens
after a specific event or circumstance.

Cause/Effect Essays
If this cause essay were about a volcanic eruption,
it might go something like: "Pressure and heat
built up beneath the earth's surface; the effect of
this was an enormous volcanic eruption."

If this effect essay were about a volcanic eruption

again, it might go something like: "The eruption
caused many terrible things to happen; it destroyed
homes, forests, and polluted the atmosphere."

Comparison/Contrast Essays

It discusses the similarities and differences between two things, people,

concepts, places, etc. The essay could be an unbiased discussion, or an
attempt to convince the reader of the benefits of one thing, person, or
concept.

Comparison/Contrast Essays
The compare/contrast essay It could also be written simply to
entertain the reader, or to arrive at an insight into human nature. The
essay could discuss both similarities and differences, or it could just
focus on one or the other.
A comparison essay usually discusses the similarities between two
things, while the contrast essay discusses the differences.

Paraphrase and Summary

When should I paraphrase, and when should I summarize?
To paraphrase means to express someone else's ideas in your own
language.
To summarize means to distill only the most essential points of
someone else's work.
Paraphrase and summary allow you to include other people's ideas
without cluttering up your essay with quotations. They help you take
greater control of your essay. You should be guided in your choice of
which tool to use by considerations of space.

Paraphrase and Summary

How do I paraphrase?
Whenever you paraphrase, remember these two points:
* You must provide a reference.
* The paraphrase must be entirely in your own words. You must do more
than merely substitute phrases here and there. You must also
completely alter the sentence structure.

Paraphrase and Summary

How do I summarize?
Summary moves much farther than paraphrase away from point-bypoint translation. When you summarize a passage, you need first to
absorb the meaning of the passage and then to capture in your own
words the most important elements from the original passage. A
summary is necessarily shorter than a paraphrase.

Paraphrase and Summary

EX.:
Here is a summary of the passage from "An Anthropologist on
Mars":
In "An Anthropologist on Mars," Sacks notes that although there is
little disagreement on the chief characteristics of autism,
researchers have differed considerably on its causes. As he points
out, Asperger saw the condition as an innate defect in the child's
ability to connect with the external world, whereas Kanner regarded
it as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices (247-48).