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TEACHING STRATEGIES:
LECTURE DISCUSSION
FILM SHOWING
REPORTING
GROUP DYNAMICS
EVALUATIVE MEASURES:
RECITATION
PAPER AND PENCIL EXAMINATION
GROUP DISCUSSION
RESEARCH / ARTICLE WORKS
QUIZ BEE
CONCEPTS IN ADAPTATION AND HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS - a steady state within the body, the stability of the internal environment
STRESS a disruptive condition the occurs in response to adverse influences from the internal or
external environment.
Types of Stressors
1. physical
2. physiologic
3. psychosocial
Classification Of Stressors
Sympathetic Nervous System Responses increase heart rate, vasoconstriction, increase bp,
increase blood sugar, dilation of pupil, increase mental
activity, cold feet, clammy skin and hands, palpitations, the
person appears tense, muscle are tensed, respiration is
rapid and shallow
Different cells and tissues respond to stimuli with different patterns and rate of responses and some
cells are more vulnerable to one type of stimuli or stressors than the others
ei. Cardiac muscles cells respond to hypoxia more quickly than do smooth muscles cells
Negative Feedback Mechanism throughout the body monitors the internal environment and restore
homeostasis when condition shift out of the normal range
ei. accumulation of lactic acid in an exercised muscle stimulates dilation of blood vessels in the area to
increase blood flow and improve the delivery of oxygen and removal of waste products
Positive Feedback Mechanism - mechanisms are designed to accelerate or enhance the output created
by a stimulus that has already been activated.
Cellular Adaptation
A. Hypoxia
B. Nutrional imbalance
C. Physical Agents
1. Temperature
2. Radiation and electrical shock
3. Mechanical Trauma
G. Genetics Disorder sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, breast cancer, cardiovascular
disease etc
CELLULAR HEALING
Regeneration - ( revive, reproduce) proliferation of cells of the same type as those destroyed
Replacement 1. Primary intention healing
2. Secondary intention healing
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Interventions
Probable Nsg Dx Anxiety, ineffective coping pattern, impaired thought process
Goal - directed toward reducing and controlling stress ans improving coping mechanism
Health Risk Appraisal identification of habits or lifestyle ei. Smoking ( stop smoking )
I. COPING ENHANCEMENT STRATEGIES assisting patient to adapt, to perceived
stressors, changes or threat that interfere with
meeting life demands and roles
Steps : 1. Pick a brief phrase or word that reflects your basic belief system
2. Choose a comfortable position
3. Close your eyes
4. Relax your muscles
5. Become aware of your breathing ans star using you selected words
6. Maintain a passive demeanor
7. Continue for a set period of time
8. Practice the techniques twice daily
note: its a combination of meditation and relaxation, if the are distractions ( pain, noise ) do not fight
the distraction instead continue to repeat the focus phrase or words
Normal Immunity refers to the body specific protective response to an invading foreign agent or
organism, function as the body defense mechanism against invasion and
allows a rapid response to foreign substances in a specific manner
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
Physical surface barriers intact skin, mucous membrane and cilia of the respiratory tract which
prevents pathogens from gaining access to the body
Chemical barriers mucous, acidic gastric juice secretions, enzymes in the tears ans saliva and
substances in sebaceous and sweat secretions act in a non-specific way to
destroy invading bacteria and fungi
Response to Invasion
When the body is invaded on attacked by bacteria, viruses or other pathogens, it has 3 means of
defense
1. phagocytic immune response
2. humoral / antibody immune response
3. cellular immune response
TYPES OF IMMUNODEFICIENCY
A. Primary Immunodeficiency are genetic in origin and are caused by intrinsic defects in the
cells of the immune system ei. Thymic hypoplasia ( T lymphocytes ), Nezelof's syndrome ( B-T
lymphocytes
Treatment
1. Antibiotic therapy
2. Granulocyte transfusion
3. Stem cell transplantation / bone marrow transplantation
4. Immunoglobulin infusion
Treatment
1. Early treatment of underlying disease process
2. Teaching patient to avoid or control factors that contribute to immunosuppression
3. Using sound principle of infection controlling
4. Emotional, psychological and spiritual support
COMMON ALTERATIONS IN CIRCULATION
I. Arteriogram
Pharmacology:
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
1. Inflow Procedure improves blood supply from the aorta into the femoral artery
ei. Lumbar Sympathectomy, Balloon Catheter Dilation
2. Outflow Procedure provides blood flow supply to vessels below the femoral artery
ei. Bypass Grafting. Endarterectomy
NURSING MANAGEMENT
A. Improving Peripheral Arterial Circulation
C. Relieving Pain
Claudications
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
Pharmacologic Therapy
1. Pentoxifylline ( Trental ) - increases RBC flexibility, anitplatelet effect
2. Cilostazol ( Pletal ) - vasodilation, stops platelet aggregation
3. Clopidogrel ( Plavix ) - prevent thrombus formation
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
1. Vascular grafting
2. Endarterectomy
3. Arterial bypass
Characterized by recurring inflammation of the intermediate ans small arteries and veins of the
lower and in rare cases upper extremities; usually bilateral.
Causes :
occlusion of the vessels
autoimmune disease ( autoimmune vasculitis )
DIAGNOSTICS
Duplex Ultrasonography use to document patency of the proximal vessels and to visualize
the extent of distal diseases
ANEURYSM
Is a localized sac or dilation formed at a weak point in the wall of the artery
Clinical Manifestation
pain is the common symptom
dyspnea pressure against the trachea and the main bronchus
hoarseness, weakness or complete loss of voice pressure against laryngeal nerve
dysphagia due to impingement on the esophagus
DIAGNOSTICS
Chest xray
Transesophageal Echocardiography
CT scan
Aortography shows exact location of the Aneurysm
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
Clinical Manifestations
_ only 40% of patients with abdominal aortic aneurysm have symptoms
_ some complaint that they can fell their heart beating in their abdomen when lying down
_ if emboli is present may lodge to interosseuos or digital arteries so cyanosis & mottling
_ mid or low back pain
_ diminished peripheral pulses
DIAGNOSTICS
- same as Thoracic-
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
Pharmacologic Therapy
Antihypertensive ACE inhibitor, Betablocker, Diuretics
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Resecting the vessel ans sewing a bypass graft in place
Endovascular Grafting transluminal placement and attachment of a sutureless aortic
graft prosthesis
in an aorta disease by arteriosclerosis, a tear develops in the intima or the media degenerates,
resulting in a dissection
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:
dissection results
Clinical Manifestations:
severe persistent pain at the anterior chest or back which extend to the shoulders, epigastric area or
abdomen, pale, sweating and tachycardia
DIAGNOSTICS
MANAGEMENT
- same as Aortic Aneurysm -
Thrombosis a condition in which the blood changes from liquid to a solid state and produces a
blood clot. Thrombosis in an artery obstructs the blood flow to the tissue it supplies ei. Brain tissue
Embolism the condition in which an embolus becomes lodge in an artery and obstructs its blood
flow ei. Pulmonary Embolism
Clinical Manifestation:
The symptoms of arterial emboli depends primarily on the site, the organ involved abd the site of the
collateral vessels
6 P's associated with acute embolism are:
1. Pain
2. Pallor
3. Pulselessness
4. Paresthesia
5. Poikilothermia ( coldness )
6. Paralysis
DIAGNOSTICS
Transesophageal Echocardiograhpy, Chest Xray, Arteriography, Duplex Ultrasonography
MANAGEMENT
*Arterial Thrombosis depends on its cause
*Acute embolic occlusion usually requires surgery
Heparin Therapy to prevent development of emboli
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Pharmacologic Therapy
NURSING MANAGEMENT
1. The affected part is kept at room temperature and protected from trauma
2. Heating and cooling pads are contraindicated
3. Watch out to patient reaction to heparin therapy ei. bleeding
4. Minimize the number of punctures for inserting IV lines and obtaining blood samples,
IM injections etc.
5. Monitor patients who are on anticoagulant therapy to prevent thrombosis on the affected
artery and to diminish the development of subsequent thrombi at the initiating site
6. Monitor for systemic hemorrhage and mental status
7. Vital signs are monitored esp. pulses
RAYNUAD'S DISEASE
is a form of intermittent arteriolar spasm or vasoconstriction that results in coldness, pain,
and pallor of the finger tips or toes.
# Cause is unknown but theorist say it may occur with obstructive arterial disease, rheumatoid
arthritis. But may be triggered by emotional factors or by unusual sensitivity to cold and trauma
Clinical Manifestations
pallor due to constriction
cyanosis
rubor ( red color) occurs when proper blood circulation returns after vasospasm
Raynuads Phenomenon White, Blue and Red
numbness, tingling sensation and burning pain
atrophy of the skin and muscles
ulcerations and gangrene may rarely occur
MANAGEMENT
Avoid stimuli ei. Cold and tobacco that provokes vasocontriction
Calcium channel blockers ei. Nifedipine may be effective in relieving symptoms
Sympathectomy interupting sympathetic nerves by moving the sympathetic ganglia
Lifestyle modification and patient teaching and stress management
Inform patient about postural hypotension may result from medication ei. Nifedipine
VENOUS DISORDERS
HOMAN'S SIGN pain in the calf after the foot is sharply dorsiflexed can be manifested
Complication:
-chronic venous occlusion
-pulmonary emboli from dislodge thrombi
-valvular distraction ei. Venous ulcers and varicosities
-venous obstruction ei. Stasis, edema and venous gangrene
PREVENTION
1. Application of compression stockings
2. Use of intermittent pneumatic compression devices
3. Proper body positioning and exercise
4. Low Molecular Weight Heparin ( LMWH ) or subcutaneous unfractionated Heparin
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
Pharmacologic Therapy
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
- Thrombectomy removal of the thrombus. Vena cava filter may be in place at the surgical
time to filter / traps large emboli and prevent pulmonary embolism
NURSING MANAGEMENT
1. Monitor bleeding tendencies
2. Kidney and liver functions are closely monitored
3. Monitor hematologic studies ei. Hct level, coagulation time, platelet count, prothrombin time
4. Close monitoring of drug therapy: proper time, know drugs that potentiates or inhibit the
therapy
5. Providing comfort bed rest, elevation of the affected extremity to reduce swelling, elastic
compression stockings and analgesic therapy
6. Compression Therapy elastic compression stockings, usually are prescribed for patients with
venous insufficiency
7. Encourage exercise repetitive dorsiflexion of the foot, active and passive leg exercises
particularly involving the calf muscles should be encourage.
- gradual and early ambulation
- refrain from sitting or standing too long
CHRONIC VENOUS INSUFFICIENCY
results from obstruction of the venous valves in the legs or a reflux of blood through the
valves
Manifestations
When the calves in the deep veins become incompetent after a thrombus has formed, post thrombotic
syndrome may develop.
Chronic venous stasis, edema, pain and stasis dermatitis, dilated superficial veins, stasis ulcer may
develop as a result of the rupture of small skin veins
MANAGEMENT
People who are at risk : - sales people, hair stylist, teachers, nurses and ancillary medical personnel
and construction
*hereditary weakness of the vein wall
*pregnancy due to increase blood volume, increase pressure by the uterus
hormonal effect
Manifestation
dull aches, muscle cramping, increase muscle fatigue in the lower legs, ankle edema and a
feeling of heaviness of the legs and appearance of a tortuous superficial veins
DIAGNOSTICS
Venography injecting a radiopaque contrast
Duplex scan measure the severity of valvular reflux
Prevention
same as venous insufficiency -
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
1. Ligation and stripping of varicose veins
3. Sclerotherapy involve injection of an irritant chemical into a vein to produce phlebitis and
fibrosis thereby obliterating the lumen of the veins, performed on small veins
MANAGEMENT
Clinical Manifestation
*Lymphnodes along the coarse of lymphatic channels becomes enlarged, red and tender
( Acute Lymphadenitis )
*may form an abcess ( Suppurative Lymphadenitis )
*recurrent episodes may have Lymphadema
MANAGEMENT
1. Antibiotic therapy
2. Elastic stocking compression or sleeve to prevent edema
Clinical manifestation
*edema is soft pitting if it progresses becomes firm and non-pitting and unresponsive to
treatment
Clinical Manifestation
*swelling of extremities, high fever and chills. Persistent edema or swelling will lead to chronic
fibrosis,thickening of the subcutaneous tissue and hypertrophy of the skin
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
Goal: reduce and control edema and prevent infections
Interventions:
1. Active/passive exercise , assist in moving fluid into the bloodstream
2. External compress devices compression stockings and sleeves
3. If severe edema is present let patient rest and elevate legs
4. Manual lymphatic drainage is a highly specialized massage technique designed to direct or shift the
congested lymph through functioning lymphatics that have preserve drainage
5. Proper skin care
6. Antibiotic therapy and diuretic
CELLULITIS
occurs when an entry point through normal skin barriers allow bacteria to enter and relase
their toxins in the subcutaneous tissues
ofter misdiagnosed, usually as recurrent thrombophlebitis or chronic venous insufficiency
MANAGEMENT
1. Antibiotic therapy IV antibiotic
2. Skin hygiene and patient education
3. Elevate affected area above heart level, apply warm and moist pack to the site every 2-4hrs.
Caution for patient with DM
Hypertension is a systolic blood pressure greater then 140mmhg and a diastolic pressure greater
than 90mmhg. Sometimes called as a Silent Killer
Classification of Hypertension
Kinds
Risk Factors
cigarette smoking * atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis
alcoholism * high level of cholesterol
stress * age above 50 yo
renal problem increase reabsorption of sodium and water
patient with DM
obesity
genetics
Clinical Manifestation
1. Some may be asymptomatic for month and years however when specific sign and sypmtoms
appear they usually indicate vascular damage
2. Retinal damage hemorrhage
3. MI and Angina is a common consequence of HPN
4. Left ventricular hypertrophy
5. Increase S+BUN and creatinine indicates kidney failure
6. TIA or cerebrovascular may worsen for patient with uncontrolled HPN
7. Occipital headache, blurring of vision, dizziness/vertigo, faintness, nausea and vomiting and
epistaxis
DIAGNOSTICS
ECG
Electrocardiography
Blood chemistry ei. Na and K, BUN and creatinine, glucose and cholesterol levels
Urinalysis
2D echo
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
Goal: to prevent complication and death, lower blood pressure
Early detection
preventive measure is better then curative
controlling rather than curing
INCREASING KNOWLEDGE
1. Patient needs to know all about HPN
2. How lifestyle and medication are important to the regimen
3. Dietary instruction low Na, low fat, high in fruits and vegetable