Essay

HISTORICAL INVESTIGATION
KING ARTHUR

Sources
SOURCE A: Artognou Stone (Also known as the Arthur Stone), retrieved from
https://tenthmedieval.wordpress.com/2009/02/19/tintagel-newly-arthurable/

SOURCE B: A remake of King Arthurs burial cross, retrieved from

http://nicolequinnnarrates.blogspot.com.au/2013/12/king-arthurs-burial-cross.html

SOURCE C: King Arthurs burial site in Glatonsbury as it is today, photographed by Tom

Ordelman, retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey

SOURCE D: Winchester Round Table, with King Henry VIII depicted as King Arthur.
Retrieved from http://mccandlessa.people.cofc.edu/Winchester.htm

Source E: The character of King Arthur from the popular TV Show Merlin. Retrieved
from: http://herocomplex.latimes.com/tv/merlin-co-creator-julian-murphy-on-seriesemotional-conclusion/#/0

Historical question: Assess whether King Arthur of Camelot was a real

historical figure or simply a myth, and investigate the ways in which his
legend has been altered throughout history.
King Arthur as he is known today is a collection of various myths, written by various
authors, at various times, all united by the common belief that King Arthur was a British
leader who directed the defence of Britain against the Saxon Invasion during the late
fifth to early sixth century.1 Fifteen hundred years after his death, his enigmatic
character continues to intrigue historians and everyday individuals alike, inspiring
various popular culture readaptations in a number of mediums, including writings, films
and art. His legend is one that is immersed in folklore and myth, but it is argued by
many historians that the fables may simply be an exaggerated version of the truth
meaning King Arthur may have, at some point, been a real British ruler.
The central reasoning disproving the theory that King Arthur existed is the lack of
primary documents verifying his existence. It is claimed in all accounts of his legend
that the British defence against the Saxons was led by Arthur, but he is never so much
as mentioned in the only surviving source about the Saxon Invasion written by Celtic
monk Gildas.2 Though there are some mentions of a name Arthur or a similar variation
in some early texts, such as the Welsh poem Elegy for Geraint,3 there is no indication
that the name is related to King Arthur of Camelot.4 In fact, the first definitive reference
to Arthur was in a manuscript written by the Welsh monk Nennius around 830 AD, 5 at
least three centuries after the death of King Arthur. Historia Brittonum (History of the
Britons) was an evidently fabricated account of twelve battles fought by Arthur and his
Knightsthough Arthur was depicted to be a military leader, not a king. Nenniuss tale
not only made Arthur into a local Welsh hero, but also later inspired the publication of
Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain") by Geoffrey of Monmouth,
written around 1136, which became one of the most influential Arthurian texts.
However, though this publication was widely-acclaimed, it, too, had no real academic
valuein fact, it was criticised even in the twelfth century, with William of Newburgh
writing: It is clear that Geoffreys entire narration about Arthur, his successors and
predecessors, was invented [his] motive was either an uncontrolled passion for lying,
or secondly a desire to please the Britons.6 Thus, it can be concluded that due to the
lack of reliable primary written sources about King Arthur, but the abundance of
1 The Real King Arthur. (2015). Retrieved from History.co.uk:
http://www.history.co.uk/shows/king-arthurs-round-table-revealed/articles/the-real-kingarthur
2 History Staff. (2012, August 29). Was King Arthur a real person? Retrieved from Ask
History: http://www.history.com/news/ask-history/was-king-arthur-a-real-person
3 Elegy for Geraint. (500 AD). Retrieved from Britannia:
http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/llngbrth.html
4 Ibid.
5 The Real King Arthur. (2015), loc. cit.

secondary fictitious writings, it is likely that King Arthur is simply a literary hero, as
opposed to a historical figure.
However, the conclusion that King Arthur is merely a myth fails to take into account the
various archaeological sources evidenced by Arthurian enthusiasts as verification of his
existence. The two main sources of evidence are the so-called Arthur Stone in
Tintagel, and the burial site in Glastonbury.7 Tintagel, Cornwell, is a village in England
that is claimed by Geoffrey of Monmouth to be the birthplace of Arthur. 8 Excavations
have demonstrated that Tintagel was a fortified home of the ruler of Cornwall in about
500AD,9 and new evidence of a castle in Tintagel has recently been found.10
Furthermore, in 1998, an ancient stone bearing a sixth century Latin inscription was
unearthed at Tintagel. The stone, as seen in Source A, featured the name Artognou,
which is suggested by many to be a variation of Arthur.11 However, according to Dr.
James Wade, Any student of onomastics will tell you that the name thats written on the
slate-- Artognouits in no way related to the name Arthur.12 The extensive research of
historian John Koch supports this theory.13 Additionally, there is no conclusive evidence
to prove that Tintagel was the birthplace of King Arthur, 14 and hence this source cannot
be used as evidence to prove the existence of King Arthur. The second piece of primary
archaeological evidence relating to Arthur is the burial site discovered by the monks of
Glastonbury Abbey in 1191, in which the bodies of a dead man and woman were found.
The monks mention an ancient lead cross that was found with the burial, a replica of
which can be seen in Source B. It was inscribed: Here lies buried the famous King
6 Gidlow, C. (2007). The Reign of Arthur: From History to Legend. The History Press.
Pages 183-184
7 Baker, S. (Director). (2015). The Truth Behind King Arthur [Documentary].
8 Walker, A. A. (1998, September 23). Was King Arthur Real? Retrieved from
Archaeology: A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America:
http://archive.archaeology.org/online/news/arthur.htm
9 Gidlow, C. (2010, July 12). Top 10 clues to the real King Arthur. Retrieved from
Independent: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/top-10-clues-to-the-realking-arthur-2024729.html
10 Beall, A. (2016, August 4). Has the real birthplace of King Arthur been found?
Retrieved from Daily Mail: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3721915/HasCamelot-Royal-palace-Dark-Ages-unearthed-legendary-site-King-Arthur-s-birth.html
11 Ford, D. N. (1998). Arthurian Inscription Found at Tintagel. Retrieved from Britannia:
http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/artstone.html
12 Baker, S. (Director). (2015). The Truth Behind King Arthur [Documentary].
13 Koch, J. T. (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CILO. Page 129
14 Baker, S. (Director), loc. cit.

Arthur with Guinevere his second wife, in the Isle of Avalon. 15 However, in 1539, the
Abbey was destroyed, and there has been no sign of the bones or cross since. Source C
shows the site of the burial as it is today. Many skeptics theorise that the monks created
the burial themselves as an elaborate hoax to benefit financially.16 Due to fact that this
source cannot be verified, it therefore cannot be used as definitive proof of the
existence of King Arthur. Thus, by disproving the reliability of the primary archaeological
and written sources on King Arthur, it can be concluded that King Arthur never existed.
So, Arthur as he is known todaythe romanticized King of a mystical land called
Camelotevidently never existed, but many argue that the origins of his character may
have been developed from a real historical figure. There are several historical figures
rumored to be the real King Arthur,17 some of the most famous examples being
Riothamus, Ambrosius Aurelius, and Owain Ddantgwyn.18 Riothamus is a verified
historical figure who lived in the fifth century.19 His real name is unknownRiothamus is
most likely a title, translating to High King.20 He led 12,000 soldiers against the
invading Goths,21 and was called King of the Britons by the sixth century
historian Jordanes.22 Geoffrey Ashe suggests that Riothamas is the closest candidate to
the real King Arthur.23 Another potential nominee who may have inspired the legend of
15 Gidlow, C. (2010, July 12). Top 10 clues to the real King Arthur. Retrieved from
Independent: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/top-10-clues-to-the-realking-arthur-2024729.html
16 Kennedy, M. (2015, November 24). Glastonbury myths 'made up by 12th-century
monks'. Retrieved from The Guardian:
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/nov/23/glastonbury-myths-made-up-by12th-century-monks
17 The Real King Arthur. (n.d.). Retrieved from Medieval Life and Times:
http://www.medieval-life-and-times.info/medieval-kings/the-real-king-arthur.htm
18 Charlotte, L. (2010). Theories. Retrieved from Who was King Arthur?:
http://www.lydwien.nl/kingarthur/theories.htm
19 Floyde, M. (2007). King Arthur's French Odyssey. Retrieved from Burgundy Today:
http://www.burgundytoday.com/historic-places/myths-legends/arthur-riothamus.htm
20 Wilford, J. N. (1985, March 19). A New Theory Points to Model for King Arthur.

Retrieved from The New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/1985/03/19/science/anew-theory-points-to-model-for-king-arthur.html?pagewanted=all

21 Kessler, P. (2012, November 25). Riothamus. Retrieved from The History Files:
http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishRiothamus.htm
22 King Arthurs French Odyssey, loc. cit.
23 Ibid.

King Arthur is Ambrosius Aurelius. He is mentioned in four separate ancient

manuscripts, including the only surviving primary account of the Saxon Invasion by St.
Gildas.24 Gildas characterizes him as a fifth century Roman leader who ruled over the
Britons.25 According to the eighth-century monk the Venerable Bede, "under
[Ambrosiuss] leadership the Britons took up arms, challenged their conquerors to
battle, and with God's help inflicted a defeat upon them."26 Geoffrey of Monmouth also
mentions him in his History of the Kings of Britain, linking him with Arthurs magician
Merlin, and calling him the heir to the British throne.27 Clearly, Ambrosius is a plausible
contender for the real identity of King Arthur. Owain Ddantgywn is a third historical
figure rumoured to be King Arthur. He was the ruler of Powys, the most powerful
stronghold in England during the late fifth century.28 His battle name was Bear, which
can be translated in Brythonic to Arth.29 Historian Graham Phillip suggests Arth
could have been transmuted into Arthur throughout the centuries. 30 These theories are
all credible and well-developed; however, there is no definite evidence to prove that
Nenniuss Arthur was inspired by any of these historical figures. The only logical
conclusion that can be reached is that the character of King Arthur may have been
influenced by various possible historical figuresmaking him real to some extent but
there is no certain evidence to prove this. Furthermore, due to the major variations
made to the legend of Arthur over the centuries, his character has evolved into a new
person; someone who is clearly distant to any prominent figure from the fifth or sixth
century. Thus, King Arthur of Camelot is not a historical figure, but simply a myth.
This begs the question: if King Arthur is nothing more than a myth from over a
millennium ago, why has his legend continued to remain popular and relevant in
contemporary society? Most scholars agree that this is because with every new era, the
story is adjusted to fit the present-day impression of the ideal hero. After Nenniuss
original ninth century account, many writers have adapted the story into their own
social context. For example, in the eleventh century, following the Norman conquest of
24 Ambrosius Aurelianus. (2009, August 22). Retrieved from New World Encyclopedia:
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ambrosius_Aurelianus

25 Ibid.
26 Ambrosius Aurelianus. (2007). Retrieved from Britannia History:
http://www.britannia.com/history/bb438.html
27 Ibid.
28 Baker, M. (2003, October 27). Owain Ddantgwyn and the Identity of King Arthur.
Retrieved from The History Files:
http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/CymruOwain&Arthur.htm
29 Charlotte, L. (2010). Owain. Retrieved from Who Was King Arthur?:
http://www.lydwien.nl/kingarthur/owain.htm
30 Baker, S. (Director). (2015). The Truth Behind King Arthur [Documentary].

England, Celtic literature flourished with stories of Welsh and other Celtic Britons in
glorious victories against their new conquerors.31 Subsequently, in the early twelfth
century, Geoffrey of Monmouth released his History of the Kings of Britain, changing
Arthur into a Welsh King, as opposed to a war chief, who saved his people against
foreign invadersas a result, the popularity of King Arthur soared throughout Europe. 32
Around this time, the Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine, uniting the two countries,
and hence the stories of Arthur also began to bloom in France. The French poets
incorporated their own culture into the legend, transforming it from a political fable to a
tale of chivalric romance.33 The most famous example of this must be the series of
Arthurian works written by Chrtien de Troyes in the late twelfth century, which
incorporated the tale of Guinevere and Lancelet into the legend.34 The next major
change to the legend came in the fifteenth century, in which Sir Thomas Malory
published his work the Le Morte Darthur (The Death of Arthur)one of the first books
to be printed in England.35 Malory altered the legend to transform Arthur into a Christian
King, which was the accepted religion among English society at the time. 36 During this
time under the Tudor rule, Arthur was a recurring political symbol, particularly for
monarchs attempting to associate their reign to the magnificent one of King Arthur. 37
King Henry VII famously baptized his first son as Prince Arthur, and though the Prince
died before coming into power, his younger brother took the throne to become King
Henry VIII.38 He made the notorious alteration to the Winchester Round Table of Edward
III, repainting himself at the top in place of King Arthur, 39 as seen in Source D. Currently,
in the twenty-first century, the legend of King Arthur has lost none of its appeal;
thousands of rewriting have been published, each adding new elements to the tale. The
31 Wood, M. (2011, February 17). King Arthur, 'Once and Future King'. Retrieved from
BBC History: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/arthur_01.shtml
32 Geoffrey of Monmouth and his History of the Kings of Britain. (2016). Retrieved from
The Hero of Camelot: http://www.heroofcamelot.com/literature/history-of-the-kings-ofbritain
33 Wood, M. loc. cit.
34 Noble, P. (1972). The Character of Guinevere in the Arthurian Romances of Chrtien
de Troyes. The Modern Language Review, 524-535.
35 Wood, M. loc. cit.
36 Armstrong, D. (2014). Christianity and Social Instability: Malorys Galahad,
Palomides, and Lancelot.
37 Wood, M. loc. cit.
38 Ibid.
39 The Great Hall. (2013, March 12). Retrieved from Hantsweb:
http://www3.hants.gov.uk/greathall/roundtable.htm

legend has also been translated into other mediums such as film and art, with Merlin
being one example of a popular contemporary TV show based on Arthurian legends, as
seen in source E. In a period where social equality is flourishing, the idea of King Arthur
as a righteous and honorable leader is appealing to the publicin fact, in the 1960s,
President John. F. Kennedys government was dubbed as Camelot.40 Hence, it can be
seen that as time passed, the legend of Arthur was altered in various ways to
accommodate changes in societal attitudes. As said in the documentary The Truth
Behind King Arthur, Every generation brings Arthur up-to-date.41 This allows the
legend of Arthur to eternal; it will continue to change and grow, but with each new era,
Arthur will always represent the ideal leader and hero. As said by scholar Mary-Ann
Ochota, Arthur is who we want him to be.42
Therefore, it has been concluded that King Arthur was not a real historical figure, but his
legend may have been influenced by onenamely Riothamus, Ambrosius Aurelius, or
Owain Ddantgwyn. Throughout the years, this legend has been altered by various
writers to adapt it to their own social context, and it will continue to change in order for
Arthur to be depicted as an ideal hero in each new era.

40 Baker, S. (Director). (2015). The Truth Behind King Arthur [Documentary].

41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.

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