Flight Dynamics and

Aircraft Performance
Lecture 8:
Helicopters
G. Dimitriadis
University of Liege

Textbooks
I Bramwells Helicopter Dynamics, A. R.
S. Bramwell, G. Done, D. Balmford,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001
I Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics, J.
Seddon, BSP (Blackwell Scientific
Publications) Professional, 1990
I Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics,
J. G. Leishman, Cambridge University
Press, 2000

Introduction
I Helicopters can do all this:
Hovering flight, reverse

Forward flight, backflips etc

Not helicopters

I Autogyros, gyrogliders etc are not

helicopters.
Cierva C.4, 1923
Cierva C.19,
1932

Focke-Wulf Fw 61, 1936

Fa 330,
Gyroglider (or
rotorkite),
1943

Helicopters Gyroplane de Breguet, 1907

Helicoptre de Paul Cornu, 1907

Pescara Helicopter No 3, 1924

Breguet-Dorand, Gyroplane
Laboratoire,1935

Belgian First
I The first ever tandem rotor helicopter was
built by Nicolas Florine.
I It first flew in 1933 at the Laboratoire
Arotechnique de Belgique (now Von
Karman Institute).

Modern helicopters

Bell 204/205, 1955

Mil Mi-26, Hind, 1977

Aerospatiale Alouette II, 1955

Kamov 50, 1982

CH-47, Chinook, 1957

Eurocopter Tiger, 1991

Largest helicopter ever built

I Mil-V12

How does a
helicopter fly?
I By accelerating downwards a column of
v=0
air through the rotor.
p

The rotor creates a

pressure difference p
which accelerates flow
through it. The velocity
far upstream is 0, at
the rotor vi and far
downstream v.

Disk

pi<p
pi+p>p
p

Flow field

Pressure
field

vi

v
Velocity
field

Pressure change
I Using Bernoullis equation on the
upstream flow (assuming
incompressibility) we have:
1
p = pi + v i2
2

I On the downstream flow we have:

1 2
1 2
p + v = p + pi + v i
2
2

I So that

1 2
p = v
2

(1)

Rotor thrust
I Mass flow through the rotor:
m
= Av i
I Far downstream: the momentum flow,
i.e. the momentum of the mass that
flowed through the rotor is equal to:
J downstream = m
v = Av iv
I The thrust is the difference in
momentum flow, i.e.
T = J downstream J upstream = Av iv

(2)

Airspeed at infinity
I Noting that the pressure change across
the rotor is a measure of the thrust,
T
p = = v iv
A

I We can combine with equation (1) to

show that v = 2v i
2

Av
T
=
2
i
I And that
I Define: vi=induced velocity
I Define w=T/A=disc loading
I Define P=Tvi=induced power of the rotor

Thrust for vertical climb

I If the helicopter is climbing at speed Vc
The airspeed upstream is equal
to Vc+vi.
Donwstream it is equal to Vc+v.
Bernoulli upstream:
1
1
2
2
p + (Vc ) = pi + (Vc + v i )
2
2
Bernoulli downstream:
1
1
2
2
p + (Vc + v ) = p + pi + (Vc + v i )
2
2

Vc

Vc+vi

Vc+v

Thrust for vertical climb (2)

I The pressure change is therefore
1
p = v (2Vc + v )
2

(3)

I The thrust is given by:

T = A(Vc + v i )(Vc + v ) A(Vc + v i )Vc = A(Vc + v i )v

I Combining with (3) gives v=2vi, i.e.

T = 2 A(Vc + v i )v i

I The induced power is

Pi = T (Vc + v i )

Induced velocity and

climb velocity
I Consider a hover case where the thrust
is equal to Th, the power to Ph and the
induced airspeed to vh.
I Consider climbing flight at the same
thrust, Th. The rotor climbs but also
induces a velocity vivh.
2
v
I It is easy to see that h = (Vc + v i )v i
2
I So that v i
# Vc &
Vc
vh

+ %
( +1
2v h
$ 2v h '

Induced power and

climb power
I Therefore, we can write that
I Leading to:
Pi Th (Vc + v i )
=
=
Ph
Th v h
2

" Vc %
Vc
+ $
' +1
2v h
# 2v h &

Pi = Th (Vc + v i )

Real climbing rotor wake

I The results
shown before
assume that the
wake is a
column with a
smooth and
continuous
vertical velocity
distribution
I A real wake is
much more
complex

Real climbing rotor wake

I Depending on
the rotation
speed, climb
speed, blade
span and blade
twist, the blade
can produce:

Lift near the tip

(the wake curls
upwards)
Downforce near
the root (the
wake curls
downwards)

Blade

Tip vortex

Inner
vortex
sheet

Real descending rotor wake

I When the
helicopter is
descending,
the rotor
descends into
its own wake.

Descent
I Climb is an easy case. The rotor wake lies
under the rotor and the rotor itself climbs into a
smooth airflow.
I On the contrary, when the helicopter is
descending, the rotor descends into its own
wake.
I There are three different possibilities:

Vortex ring flow: The rotor tips are caught inside

their own vortex rings.
Turbulent wake state: The rate of descent is so
high that the rotor wake develops upwards but is
quite turbulent.
Windmill brake state: The rate is even higher. The
rotor wake develops upwards but is well defined.

Descent cases
Vortex ring
flow, slow
descent

Vortex ring
flow, faster
descent

Turbulent
wake state

Windmill
brake state

Vortex ring state

I Denote by Vd the descent speed.
I If Vd=O(vh), i.e the induced velocity in hover,
then some of the air recirculates around the
rotor.
I Effectively, the rotor wake is squashed onto the
rotor.
I The phenomenon leads to very high descent
speeds and loss of stability.
I Recovery can be accomplished by moving the
helicopter forward so that the rotor encounters
clean air as its wake lies behind it.

Windmill brake state

I At much higher descent rates, i.e.
Vd>>vh, the rotor wake develops
upwards.
I The wake is well defined.
I The airflow decelerates on passing
through the rotor.
I The turbulent wake state lies between
the vortex ring and windmill brake
states. The rotor acts as a bluff body.

Safe descent
I So how can a helicopter achieve a safe
descent?
I There are two methods:

Descend very slowly so that Vd<<vh and the

rotor wake effectively descends with the rotor.
Descend with a forward velocity component so
that the rotor wake lies behind the rotor.

I It must be said that near the ground the

descent speed will be necessarily low.
I Additionally, near the ground the helicopter
can benefit from the ground effect.

Ground effect
I A helicopter hovering near the ground
benefits from a large improvement in
efficiency.
I The vertical velocity of the wake on the
ground must be equal to zero.
I Therefore, the induced velocity of the
rotor is very low. As P=Tvi, the power
required to produce the same amount of
thrust is much lower near the ground.

Induced velocity in
ground effect
I Induced velocity in ground effect divided
by induced velocity in free air.
h=height above
ground
r=distance from
centre of rotor
divided by R.

Blade Element Method

I Blade Element
Method (BEM),
also known as
strip theory in
aeroelasticity.
I It consists of
estimating the
aerodynamic
forces on a
small element of
a blade, dy.

y
c
dy

=azimuth angle

Blade Element
I The blade can have a pitch angle of . It
also features an inflow angle
=tan-1[(Vc+vi)/y].
I Its true angle of attack is given by
=-.

Blade element lift and drag

I The blade element lift and drag are given
1
by:
dL = U 2cc l dy
2
1
dD = U 2cc d dy
2

I Where cl and cd come from the sectional

characteristics of the blade element.
I The thrust is given by:
dT = dL cos dDsin

I The in-plane torque is given by

dQ = (dL sin + dDcos ) y

Approximations
I The inflow angle is assumed to be
small.
I The drag coefficient is assumed to be
much smaller than the lift coefficient.
I Therefore: dT dL
U y

dQ (dL + dD) y

Non-dimensionalizations
I Define the following non-dimensional
y
U
quantities: r = y /R = R
=
R
Vc + v i
= r = inflow factor
R
dT
dCT =
2
A(R)
dQ
dCQ =
2
A(R) R

I Also, for a rotor with N blades define the

solidity factor as:
=

blade area NcR Nc

=
2 =
disc area
R
R

Total thrust and torque

I After non-dimensionalization, the blade
element forces can be integrated over
the blade span to yield:
1
CT = dCT dr = CL r 2dr
0
2 0
1
1
CQ = dCQ dr = (CL + CD ) r 3dr
0
2 0
1

I The rotor power requirement is given by

P=Q. Non-dimensionalising:
P
CP =
3 = CQ
A(R)

Thrust Approximation
I For attached flow, the lift coefficient of a
blade element is given by
c l = a = a( )
I where a is the lift curve slope. The
thrust coefficient becomes

CT =
2

a 1 2
a ( *
0 a( )r dr = 2 0 (r r)dr = 2 ) 3 2 +
1

I So that, finally,
CT =

a & (
(4)

'
)
2 3 2

Thrust in hover
I If the rotor is in hover,
I Then, from (4),

T = 2 Av i2

and

CT = 22

a % 1 CT (

CT =
'
2 & 3 2 2 *)

I Which is a nonlinear equation relating

pitch angle to thrust. It can be solved
inversely as: = 6 C + 3 C
a

About twist
I As shown earlier, helicopter blades
produce little lift near the centre of the
rotor because of the low linear speed.
I Define the sectional lift as
1
dL 1
2
= U cc l = U 2ca( )
l=
dy

I For the case where a=2,

l
2
=

r
( )
2
I Define

(R) c
l
2
cl =
=

r
( )
2
(R) c

Effect of twist
I Adding geometric twist to the blade can
increase the sectional lift coefficient near
the centre of the rotor.
I This generally means increasing the twist
towards the centre.
I Consider two cases:

Case =0. The pitch is constant over the

blade.
Case =1+2r. The pitch varies over the
blade, i.e. there is geometric twist. For the
pitch to be higher near centre of the rotor, 2<0
and 1>0.

Twist example
Keep in
mind that
this result
was
obtained
using BEM.
3D effects
near the
wingtip
have been
ignored

Ideal twist

I The ideal twist distribution is obtained when r is

constant, i.e. r=0.
I This is a nonlinear twist that cannot be implemented at
the blade root but it is ideal because it corresponds to
the minimum induced power.

Forward Flight
I Forward flight
is different to
vertical climb
and hover!
I It creates a
total thrust that
is not centered
on the rotor.
I This thrust
causes a
significant
rolling moment
on the rotor,
making the
helicopter
impossible to
fly.

Forward velocity V

V+R
V

V-R
Reversed
velocity

Avoiding the rolling moment

I The way to cancel the rolling moment is to
allow the blade to flap.
I The additional lift of the advancing blade
causes an upward flapping motion.
I Similarly, the lower lift of the retreating
blade causes a downward flapping motion.
I Therefore, the rolling moment is not
transmitted to the helicopter.

Flapping
I Flapping is a stable motion because
flapping up causes the lift to drop and
flapping down to increase
Advancing blade
flaps upwards


r

<
V+r

Retreating blade
flaps downwards


r

>
r-V

Coriolis moments
I The flapping motion causes Coriolis
moments on the blades:
The Coriolis
moment is due to
the inequality of
the tip speeds of
the flapped and
unflapped blades.
It can cause a
yawing moment on
the helicopter

(1-e)Rcos+eR
R

Lagging motion
I The way to avoid the yaw moment due
to flapping is to allow the blade to lag:

Pitching (feathering)
I The rotor is not only the lifting surface but
also the propulsion and main control
system.
I The main means of control of the rotor is
the changing of the pitch of the blades
(also known as feathering).
I Pitch control can be either collective (all
blades change pitch at the same time) or
cyclic (the pitch change depends on
whether the blade is advancing or
retreating).

Westland Wessex hub

Flap hinge

Pitch
bearing

Lag hinge
Pitch control

Westland Lynx
Hingeless rotor: the
blades are not
hinged, they are
solidly connected to
the rotor hub.
However, they have
flexible elements
near the root which
allow flap and lag
degrees of freedom,
restrained by the
stiffness of these
elements.

Flexible elements

Pitch bearings

Lag dampers

Helicopter control
I Control of the helicopter is handled almost
exclusively by the rotor. There are two
parameters of importance:
Magnitude of rotor thrust
Line of action of rotor thrust

I Both of these parameters are controlled by

rotor pitch.

Collective pitch increases the magnitude of the

thrust.
Cyclic pitch can change the line of action of
the thrust

Collective vs cyclic pitch

The swashplate
mechanism:
-Lifting or lowering the
swashplate increases
or decreases collective
pitch.
-Tilting the swashplate
introduces cyclic pitch.
-In this case cyclic
pitch is used to
increase the angle of
attack of the retreating
blade.

Cyclic pitch
I Cyclic pitch changes the pitch angle with
azimuth angle .
I This change is usually expressed as a first
order Fourier series:
( ) = 0 A1 cos B1 sin
 A1, the lateral cyclic coefficient, applies
maximum/minimum pitch when the blades are
at =0o/=180o. The blade response is phased
by 90o, hence the lateral effect.
 B1, the longitudinal cyclic coefficient, applies
maximum/minimum pitch when the blades are
at =90o/=270o. Again, the blade response if
phased by 90o.

Tip Path Plane

I Using cyclic pitch it is possible to incline
the rotor without inclining the rotor shaft.
I The line of action of the thrust is
perpendicular to the blade Tip Path
Plane:
T

Forward flight, Forward C.G

T

Tip

C.G

ne

Pla
h
t
a
P

mg

Case where the

Centre of Gravity lies
in front of the rotor
shaft.
In this case, the
resultant of the
weight and drag on
the fuselage lies on
the same line of
action as the thrust.

Forward flight, Aft C.G

T

ane
th Pl

a
Tip P

C.G
D

mg

Case where the

Centre of Gravity lies
aft of the rotor shaft.
Again, the resultant
of the weight and
drag on the fuselage
lies on the same line
of action as the
thrust.
The pitch angle of
the fuselage is much
smaller than in the
forward C.G. case.

Direct Head Moment

Mf
T

C.G

Tip

lan
P
h
t
Pa

mg

In a more general
case, the drag on the
fuselage will also
cause a fuselage
pitching moment, Mf.
This moment will be
counteracted by the
fact that the thrust
and resultant of
fuselage weight and
drag are not colinear.

How to start going forward

I A hovering helicopter has no forward velocity.
I The pilot uses cyclic pitch to tip the Tip Path
Plane forward and tilt the thrust vector forward.
I The helicopter picks up forward speed.
I The fuselage develops drag and pitches nose
down.
I Now the rotor shaft is also pitched nose down;
there is no more need to apply cyclic pitch to
the rotor.
T

D
W

Longitudinal stability in
forward flight

 TD=rotor thrust
perpendicular
to TPP
 HD=rotor drag
parallel to TPP
 c=path angle
to horizontal
(climb rate)
 D=angle of
attack of TPP

Longitudinal equilibrium
equations
I Resolving forces horizontally and
vertically gives:
T cos( + ) H sin( + ) = W + Dsin
T sin( + ) + H cos( + ) = Dcos
D

I In forward flight the TPP is tipped

forward so that D+c is usually small.
The climb rate, c, on the other hand, is
not necessarily small. Hence:
TD T = W + Dsin c

T ( D + c ) + H D = Dcos c

Drag
I There are two main sources of drag:
Fuselage drag
Rotor drag

I Fuselage drag is usually calculated in

terms of the so-called equivalent flat
plate area
I Rotor drag is subdivided into
profile drag
induced drag

Fuselage Drag
I There are two source of fuselage drag:
Parasite drag
Interference drag

I Parasite drag has many sources:

I Interference drag is caused by the

interaction of flow coming from these
different components.

Parasite drag examples

Define D=1/2V2SFP, SFP being the equivalent flat plate area,

i.e. the area of a flat plate that has the same drag as the fuselage.

Rotor drag
I The rotor drag is given by HD=Hp+Hi,
where Hp is the profile drag and Hi the
induced drag.
I The profile drag is evaluated with respect
to the drag of the chosen airfoil section
and the angle of attack of the blade using
blade element theory.
I Making a polynomial approximation,
CHP=HP/A(R)2=0+1D+2D2

I The induced drag can be assumed to be

small for forward steady flight.

Longitudinal trim
I Therefore, the trim angle of attack of the
TPP can be obtained from
CT =

W
2 + C D sin c
A(R)

CT ( D + c ) + C H D = CD cos c

I Such that:
I Where

1 %1 2
'
D =
V d0 cos c + C H D c
(
CT & 2
V = V /R, d = S / A and T=W.
0

FP

Power required for

forward flight Maximum forward speed
V cos D
=
R

There is an
optimum
advance
ratio, ,
requiring
minimum
power.

Maximum climb rate