Data and Computer

Communications
Chapter 5 – Signal Encoding
Techniques

Eighth Edition
by William Stallings

Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Signal Encoding Techniques
 Digital Data, Digital Signal
 Digital signal
 discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
 each pulse is a signal element
 binary data encoded into signal elements
 Some Terms
 unipolar
 polar
 data rate
 duration or length of a bit
 modulation rate
 mark and space
 Interpreting Signals
 need to know
 timing of bits - when they start and end
 signal levels
 factors affecting signal interpretation
 signal to noise ratio
 data rate
 bandwidth
 encoding scheme
 Comparison of Encoding
Schemes
 signal spectrum
 clocking
 error detection
 signal interference and noise immunity
 cost and complexity
Encoding Schemes
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
 two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
 voltage constant during bit interval
 no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage
 such as absence of voltage for zero, constant
positive voltage for one
 more often, negative voltage for one value
and positive for the other
 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
 nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
 constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
 data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
 transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
 no transition denotes binary 0
 example of differential encoding since have
 data represented by changes rather than levels
 more reliable detection of transition rather than level
 easy to lose sense of polarity
 NRZ Pros & Cons
 Pros
 easy to engineer
 make good use of bandwidth
 Cons
 dc component
 lack of synchronization capability
 used for magnetic recording
 not often used for signal transmission
 Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
 Use more than two levels
 Bipolar-AMI
 zero represented by no line signal
 one represented by positive or negative pulse
 one pulses alternate in polarity
 no loss of sync if a long string of ones
 long runs of zeros still a problem
 no net dc component
 lower bandwidth
 easy error detection
 Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
 one represented by absence of line signal
 zero represented by alternating positive
and negative
 no advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI
 each used in some applications
 Multilevel Binary Issues
 synchronization with long runs of 0’s or 1’s
 can insert additional bits, cf ISDN
 scramble data (later)
 not as efficient as NRZ
 each signal element only represents one bit
• receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
 a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
 requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same
probability of bit error
 Manchester Encoding
 has transition in middle of each bit period
 transition serves as clock and data
 low to high represents one
 high to low represents zero
 used by IEEE 802.
 Differential Manchester
Encoding
 midbit transition is clocking only
 transition at start of bit period representing 0
 no transition at start of bit period representing 1
 this is a differential encoding scheme
 used by IEEE 802.5
 Biphase Pros and Cons
 Con
 at least one transition per bit time and possibly two
 maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
 requires more bandwidth
 Pros
 synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
 has no dc component
 has error detection
Modulation Rate
 Scrambling
 use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
 these filling sequences must
 produce enough transitions to sync
 be recognized by receiver & replaced with original
 be same length as original
 design goals
 have no dc component
 have no long sequences of zero level line signal
 have no reduction in data rate
 give error detection capability
B8ZS and HDB3
 Digital Data, Analog Signal
 main use is public telephone system
 has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
 use modem (modulator-demodulator)
 encoding techniques
 Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
 Frequency shift keying (FSK)
 Phase shift keying (PK)
Modulation Techniques
 Amplitude Shift Keying
 encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
 usually have one amplitude zero
 susceptible to sudden gain changes
 inefficient
 used for
 up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 very high speeds over optical fiber
 Binary Frequency Shift
Keying
 most common is binary FSK (BFSK)
 two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
 less susceptible to error than ASK
 used for
 up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 high frequency radio
 even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax
 Multiple FSK
 each signalling element represents more
than one bit
 more than two frequencies used
 more bandwidth efficient
 more prone to error
 Phase Shift Keying
 phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data
 binary PSK
 two phases represent two binary digits
 differential PSK
 phase shifted relative to previous transmission
rather than some reference signal
 Quadrature PSK
 get more efficient use if each signal
element represents more than one bit
 eg. shifts of π/2 (90o)
 each element represents two bits
 split input data stream in two & modulate onto
carrier & phase shifted carrier
 can use 8 phase angles & more than one
amplitude
 9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of
which have two amplitudes
QPSK and OQPSK
Modulators
 Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes
 bandwidth
 ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
 multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
 in presence of noise:
 bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB
superior to ASK and FSK
 for MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between
bandwidth efficiency and error performance
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
 QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
 combination of ASK and PSK
 logical extension of QPSK
 send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
 use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
 each carrier is ASK modulated
 two independent signals over same medium
 demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Modulator
 QAM Variants
 two level ASK
 each of two streams in one of two states
 four state system
 essentially QPSK
 four level ASK
 combined stream in one of 16 states
 have 64 and 256 state systems
 improved data rate for given bandwidth
 but increased potential error rate
 Analog Data, Digital Signal
 digitization is conversion of analog data
into digital data which can then:
 be transmitted using NRZ-L
 be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
 be converted to analog signal
 analog to digital conversion done using a
codec
 pulse code modulation
 delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 sampling theorem:
 “If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all information
in original signal”
 eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample
per sec
 strictly have analog samples
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 so assign each a digital value
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Non-Linear Coding
Companding
 Delta Modulation
 analog input is approximated by a
staircase function
 can move up or down one level (δ) at each
sample interval
 has binary behavior
 since function only moves up or down at each
sample interval
 hence can encode each sample as single bit
 1 for up or 0 for down
Delta Modulation Example
Delta Modulation Operation
PCM verses Delta Modulation
 DM has simplicity compared to PCM
 but has worse SNR
 issue of bandwidth used
 eg. for good voice reproduction with PCM
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
 data compression can improve on this
 still growing demand for digital signals
 use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
 PCM preferred to DM for analog signals
Analog Data, Analog Signals
 modulate carrier frequency with analog data
 why modulate analog signals?
 higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
 permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
 types of modulation
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
 Analog
Modulation
Techniques
 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation
 Summary
 looked at signal encoding techniques
 digital data, digital signal
 analog data, digital signal
 digital data, analog signal
 analog data, analog signal