1

Introduction
This book covers the quantitative modeling of the unit operations of mineral
processing. The population balance approach is taken and this provides a
unified framework for the description of all of the unit operations of mineral
processing. Almost all of the unit operations, both separation and
transformation operations, can be included. Many ore dressing operations
are sufficiently well understood to enable models to be developed that can be
usefully used to describe their operation quantitatively. Experimental data
that has been obtained by many investigators over the past couple of decades
has provided the basis for quantitative models that can be used for design
and simulation of individual units in any flowsheet. Quantitative methods are
emphasized throughout the book and many of the old empirical methods that
have been in use since the early years of the twentieth century are passed over
in favor of procedures that are based on an understanding of the behavior of
the particulate solids that are the basic material of mineral processing operations.
The focus is quantitative modeling. All mineral processing equipment
exhibits complex operating behavior and building quantitative models for
these operations is not a straightforward task. In some cases the basic
fundamental principles of a particular type of equipment are ill understood.
In most cases the complexity of the operation precludes any complete analysis
of the physical and chemical processes that take place in the equipment and
control its operation. In spite of these difficulties much progress has been
made in the development of useful models for almost all of the more important
types of mineral processing equipment.
The style of modeling usually referred to as phenomenological is favored
in the book. This means that the physical and, to a limited extent, the chemical
phenomena that occur are modeled in a way that reflects the physical realities
inherent in the process. This method cannot always be made to yield a complete
model and often some degree of empiricism must be used to complete the
model. This approach has a number of advantages over those that are based
on empirical methods. Phenomenological models are not based entirely on
available experimental data and consequently do not need to be substantially
modified as new data and observations become available. If the basic principles
of a particular operation are properly formulated and incorporated into the
models, these can be continually developed as more information and greater
understanding of the principles become available. Generally speaking,
phenomenological models are not so prone to catastrophic failure as operating
conditions move further from known experimental situations. Overloaded
and underloaded operating conditions will often emerge as the natural

2 Modeling and Simulation of Mineral Processing Systems

consequences of adding more material to the model and scale-up principles
can usually be more confidently applied if these are based on a sound
description of the operating principles of the equipment concerned and an
understanding of the detailed behavior of solid particles in the equipment.
Extrapolation of operation outside of the normal region is less hazardous if
the phenomena have been modeled with due care having been taken to ensure
that the models have correct asymptotic behavior at more extreme conditions.
A common feature of all of the models that are developed in the book is
the role played by solids in the particulate state in the unit operations that are
considered. The very essence of mineral processing is the physical separation
of minerals and, given the most common occurrence patterns of minerals in
naturally occurring exploitable ore bodies, successful separation techniques
require the reduction of the solid raw material to the particulate state with
particle dimensions commensurate with the scale of the mineralogical texture.
Both the size and the composition of the particles play important roles in the
models because the behavior of the particles in the equipment is influenced
in a significant way by these parameters. Often the effect of particle composition
is indirect because the mineralogical content of a particle directly influences
its density, surface characteristics, magnetic and electrical properties. These
physical attributes in turn influence the behavior in the equipment that is
designed to exploit differences in physical and chemical properties among
the particles to effect a separation.
Physical separation of minerals requires that the various mineral species
must be liberated by comminution and this imposes some strong requirements
on the models that are developed. Mineral liberation is quite difficult to
model mainly because of the complexity of naturally occurring mineralogical
textures and the associated complexity of the fracture processes that occur
when an are is crushed and ground prior to processing to separate the minerals.
In spite of the complexity, some effective modeling techniques have been
developed during the past two decades and the models that are used here are
effective at least for describing the liberation of minerals from ores that have
only a single mineral of interest. Modeling of liberation phenomena has been
greatly facilitated by the development of computer based image analysis
systems. These methods have made it possible to examine the multicomponent
mineral bearing particles and to observe the disposition of mineral phases
across the particle population at first hand. Modem instruments can reveal
the mineral distribution in considerable detail and digital images are the rule
rather than the exception now. Computer software for the analysis of digital
images is readily available and these range from comparatively simple programs
that provide rudimentary image processing and image analysis capabilities
to special purpose programs that provide facilities to manipulate and process
images and subsequently analyze their content using a wide variety of
algorithms that have been developed specifically to measure mineral liberation
phenomena in naturally occurring ores.
Mineral liberation is the natural link between comminution operations
and mineral recovery operations, and it is not possible to model either type

Introduction 3
effectively without proper allowance for the liberation phenomenon. The
approach that is taken to liberation modeling in this book keeps this firmly in
mind and mineral liberation is modeled only to the extent that is necessary to
provide the link between comminution and mineral recovery.
The population balance method is used throughout to provide a uniform
framework for the models. This method allows the modeler to account for
the behavior of each type of particle in the processing equipment and at the
same time the statistical properties of the particle populations are correctly
described and accounted for. In the unit operations such as grinding machines
where particles are transformed in terms of size and composition, the population
balance models are particularly useful since they provide a framework within
which the different fracture mechanisms such as crushing and attrition can
be modeled separately but the effects of these separate subprocesses can be
accounted for in a single piece of equipment. Population balance methodology
is well developed and the models based on it can be coded conveniently for
computation.
Models for the performance of mineral processing equipment are useful
for many purposes - plant and process design and development, performance
evaluation and assessment, equipment and process scale-up but most
importantly for simulation. Many of the models that are described in this
book were developed primarily to provide the building blocks for the simulation
of the operation of complete mineral processing plants. As a result the models
all have a common structure so that they can fit together seamlessly inside a
plant simulator. The population balance method facilitates this and it is
comparatively simple for the products of anyone unit model to become the
feed material for another.
All of the models developed are particularly suited to computer calculations.
Simulation of a wide range of engineering systems is now accepted as the
only viable procedure for their analysis. Purely theoretical methods that are
aimed at complete and precise analytical solutions to the operating equations
that describe most mineral processing systems are not general enough to
provide useful working solutions in most cases. Very fast personal computers
are now available to all engineers who are required to make design and
operating decisions concerning the operation of mineral processing plants. A
variety of software packages are available to analyze data within the framework
of the quantitative models that are described in this book.
All of the models described here are included in the MODSIM mineral
processing plant simulator. This is a low-cost high-performance simulation
system that is supplied on the compact disc that is included with this book.
It can be used to simulate the steady-state operation of any ore dressing
plant. It has been tested in many ore dressing plants and has been shown to
be reliable. It is fully documented in a user manual, which is included in
digital form on the compact disc. The theoretical and conceptual base for the
simulation method that is embodied in MODSIM is described in detail in this
book and the models used for simulation are fully described. The simulator
should be regarded as a resource that can be used by the reader to explore the

4 Modeling and Simulation of Mineral Processing Systems

implications of the models that are developed in the book. With very few
exceptions, all of the models that are discussed in the book are included in
MODSIM. It is a simple matter to simulate single unit operations and the
reader is thus able to observe the effect of changing parameter values on the
models and their predictions. In many cases multiple interchangeable models
are provided for individual unit operations. This makes it easy for the reader
to compare predictions made by different models under comparable conditions
and that can be useful when deciding on the choice of unit models to include
in a full plant simulation. A number of interesting plant simulations are
included on the compact disc and the reader is encouraged to run these and
explore the various possibilities that the simulator offers.
Many people have contributed to the development of models for mineral
processing operations. No comprehensive attempt has been made in this
book to attribute models to individual researchers and formal referencing of
specific papers in the text has been kept to a minimum to avoid this distraction
for the reader. A brief bibliography is provided at the end of each chapter and
this will provide the user with the main primary references for information
on the models that are discussed.

Bibliography
This book is not meant to be a primary textbook for courses in mineral
processing technology and it should be used together with other books that
provide descriptions of the mineral processing operations and how they are
used in industrial practice. Wills' Mineral Processing Technology (1997)is specially
recommended in this respect. The two-volume SME Mineral Processing Handbook
(Weiss, 1985) is an invaluable source of information on operating mineral
processing plants and should be consulted wherever the mechanical details
of a particular unit operation need to be clarified. Theoretical modeling
principles are discussed by Kelly and Spottiswood (1982) and Tarjan (1981,
1986). Woolacott and Eric (1994) provide basic quantitative descriptions for
several of the mineral processing operations. Gaudin's superlative 1939 text,
although dated, is still an excellent source of fundamental scientific information
on the unit operation of mineral processing.

References
Gaudin, A.M. (1939) Principles of Mineral Dressing. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Kelly, E.G. and Spottiswood, D.}. (1982) Introduction to Mineral Processing. Wiley, New
York.
Tarjan, G. (1981) Mineral Processing. Vol 1. Akademai Kiado, BUdapest.
Tarjan, G. (1986) Mineral Processing. Vol 2. Akademai Kiado, BUdapest.
Weiss, N.L. (ed.) (1985) SME Mineral Processing Handbook. Vols 1 and 2. 5ME, Lyttleton,
CO.
Wills, B.A. (1997) Mineral Processing Technology. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Woolacott, L.C. and Eric, R.H. (1994) Mineraland Metal Extraction. An Overview. 5. Afr.
Inst. Min. Metall. Johannesburg