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ROAD is an open, generally public way for the passage of vehicles, people, and
animals
PAVEMENT is a road finished with a hard smooth surface. It makes the road
durable and able to withstand traffic and the environment.
PAVEMENT FUNCTIONS
The primary functions of a pavement are to:
PROVIDE A REASONABLY SMOOTH RIDING SURFACE: A smooth riding
surface (Low Roughness) is essential for riding comfort, and over the years it has
become the measure of how road users perceive a road. Roughness can arise
from a number of causes, most often however it is from pavement distress due to
structural deformation. Roughness is the distress parameter used by the vehicle
operating cost sub-models of a pavement management system, to estimate the
timing, type and cost of maintenance needs.
PROVIDE ADEQUATE SURFACE FRICTION (SKID RESISTANCE): In addition
to a riding comfort, the other road user requirement is that of safety. Safety,
especially during wet conditions can be linked to a loss of surface friction
between the tyre and the pavement surface. A pavement must therefore provide
sufficient surface friction and texture to ensure road user safety under all
conditions.
PROTECT THE SUBGRADE: The supporting soil beneath the pavement is
commonly referred to as the subgrade, should it be over-stressed by the applied
axle loads it will deform and lose its ability to properly support these axle loads.
Therefore, the pavement must have sufficient structural capacity (strength and
thickness) to adequately reduce the actual stresses so that they do not exceed
the strength of the subgrade. The strength and thickness requirements of a
pavement can vary greatly depending on the combination of subgrade type and
loading condition (magnitude and number of axle loads).
PROVIDE WATERPROOFING: The pavement surfacing acts as a waterproofing
surface that prevent the underlaying support layers including the subgrade from
becoming saturated through moisture ingress. When saturated, soil loses its
ability to adequately support the applied axle loads, which will lead to premature
failure of the pavement.
TYPES OF PAVEMENT
Pavements are typically divided into the following three general categories: flexible, rigid
and unpaved (gravel or dirt). For the purpose of this document only flexible and rigid
pavements are discussed.
FLEXIBLE (BITUMINOUS) PAVEMENTS
Flexible pavements are constructed of several layers of natural granular material
covered with one or more waterproof bituminous surface layers, and as the name
implies, is considered to be flexible. A flexible pavement will flex (bend) under the load
of a tyre. The objective with the design of a flexible pavement is to avoid the excessive
flexing of any layer, failure to achieve this will result in the over stressing of a layer,
which ultimately will cause the pavement to fail. In flexible pavements, the load
distribution pattern changes from one layer to another, because the strength of each
layer is different. The strongest material (least flexible) is in the top layer and the
weakest material (most flexible) is in the lowest layer. The reason for this is that at the
surface the wheel load is applied to a small area, the result is high stress levels, deeper
down in the pavement, the wheel load is applied to larger area, the result is lower stress
levels thus enabling the use of weaker materials.
EARTHWORK
With a contractor on board, earthwork can begin. Earthwork is one of the most
important elements in road construction because it establishes a stable foundation. A
roadway with a substandard foundation will fail prematurely. That is why the road's base
layers are as important as the finished surface.
First, the contractor builds embankments using cuts and fills.
Next, a grader or bulldozer levels the screened dirt. Leveling bumps and filling in
dips creates a surface that will support a road for decades.
The screened dirt is sprayed with water and compacted to its maximum density.
During this stage, the contactor installs drains and sewers. The center of the road
must be higher than the edges so water will run off into the storm sewers.
Drainage is a critical element because improper drainage will greatly reduce the
new pavement's life expectancy.
All of this work must pass strict inspections before the project can continue.
To complete the earthwork, the contractor places gravel in 12-inch layers on the
road bed. Workers moisten and compact each layer. Layers are added and
compacted until the road bed reaches the height called for in the design.
The paver usually performs screeding, consolidation and initial finishing. A typical
track-mounted, self-propelled paver operates at speeds between 1 and 2.5 m/minute (3
and 8 ft./min) . Some pavers are equipped to place reinforcing steel (if needed), dowel
bars and tie rods as well. Figure 4 shows the basic slip form paving process as it occurs
underneath the paver. First, an auger spreads the PCC in front of the strike off plate.
Second, the strike off plate (screed) removes excess portions of the auger-placed PCC
and brings the slab near its final elevation. Third, the PCC is consolidated by a group of
vibrators. Fourth, a tamper (typically operating between 0 and 150 strokes per minute),
if present, pushes large aggregate particles below the slab surface. Finally, the profile
pans level off the slab at the right elevation and provide initial finishing. The remainder
of this section describes this process in more detail.
CONSOLIDATION
After screeding, the paver consolidates the fresh PCC using a series of vibrators
(Figure 5). Typically, the most effective vibrator position is after the strike-off mechanism
and at the final slab elevation. Depending upon mix design and slab depth, vibrators are
usually set in the 7,000 9,000 vibrations per minute (VPM) range. Vibrators are
positioned next to one another such that their influence zones overlap by about 50 75
mm (2 3 inches) at normal paver speed. Gaps between the influence zones (caused
by incorrect vibrator settings or excessively fast paver operation) can cause
segregation. Most pavers use fully adjustable vibrator spacing to account for different
conditions and mix types, while still providing adequate influence zone overlap.
INITIAL FINISHING
Initial finishing is accomplished by extruding the PCC mass through a moving form
made up of the base course (bottom), the side forms (vertical edges of the paver) and
the profile pan (flat paver pieces mounted behind the vibrator) (Figure 6). Extruding
PCC through the resulting rectangular shape provides the final slab dimensions and
also serves to imbed larger aggregate particles below the surface, which results in a
smooth finish. Some pavers are also equipped with a hydraulic tamper bar (sometimes
called a jitterbug), located just behind the vibrators. By moving up and down, the
tamper bar is thought to:
1. Assist in consolidation and finishing by tamping large aggregate particles below
the slab surface.
2. Keep the large aggregate moving in an area where it may have tendencies to
stop or stick.
3. Keep the material moving around the vibrators so as not to collect and cause
flow problems.
4. However, a tamper may not be necessary on many jobs. Although it forces the
coarse aggregate away from the surface, making finishing easier, it can also
creates a mortar-rich surface layer which could scale or craze. Usually, a tamper
is not necessary with a well designed PCC mixture, however, it may be helpful
when finishing a harsh, low-slump mixture.
Additional finishing, when needed, occurs just behind the profile pan and is usually
accomplished using simple floats (Figure 7). Microtexturing is usually accomplished by
dragging a section of burlap (Figure 8) or artificial turf (Figure 9) behind the paver.
Curing is typically done once finishing of an area is complete and the original wet sheen
has nearly disappeared. On tined pavements, curing is usually specified to occur in two
passes, one forward and one in reverse, to ensure both sides of the texture ridges are
coated with curing membrane.
In no case tie bars can be inserted into the fresh concrete once the slipform paver has
passed.
EXECUTION OF JOINTS
All the equipment that is necessary to make joints in the fresh or hardened concrete
must be present at the construction site.
The saw blades have to be suitable to the quality of the concrete, i.e. to the hardness
and the abrasion resistance of the aggregates. It is useful to have spare equipment
available in case of a defect.
The beam for making a construction joint shall be rigid and shall allow the realization of
a straight joint perpendicular to the axis of the road. This beam has to be adapted to the
type of pavement (jointed pavement, continuously reinforced concrete pavement).
REFERENCES:
http://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-basics/products/concrete-pavement
http://www.eupave.eu/documents/graphics/inventory-of-documents/febelcempublicaties/road-pavements-of-cement-concrete.pdf
http://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,1607,7-151-9615-129011--,00.html
http://www.nra.co.za/live/content.php?
Session_ID=f11ce1a49e0371f69ccd6725ae9aab0a&Category_ID=40
http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/slipform-paving/
http://www.slideshare.net/ravigupta9066/construction-of-cement-concrete