CE416

Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Vertical Alignment 1

CE 416 Lecture 6

Vertical Alignment 1

The vertical alignment of a road

consists of gradients(straight
lines in a vertical plane) and
vertical curves.
The vertical alignment is usually
drawn as a profile, which is a
graph with elevation as vertical
axis and the horizontal distance
along the centre line of the road
as the horizontal axis.
Vertical curves connect two
gradients. When these two
curves meet, they form either
convex (summit/crest curve) or
concave (valley/sag curve).

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Vertical Alignment

Grade line

Design line / profile

Design level
Road level
Formation level

Ground
level GL

Vertical Alignment

Cut

Fill

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Grade / Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the
vertical curve.

Before finalizing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular

operation cost and the practical problems in the site also has to be
considered.
Usually steep gradients are avoided as far as possible because of the
difficulty to climb and increase in the construction cost.

Representation of gradient
The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +G and
the negative gradient as-G .
The deviation angle A is: when two grades meet, the angle which
measures the change of direction and is given by the algebraic difference
between the two grades

(G1-(-G2))=G1+G2= g1+ g2 .

Example:

1 in 30 = 3.33% 2 is a steep gradient

While 1 in 50 = 2% 1 10 is a flatter gradient

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Vertical Alignment

G = Grade = gradient
= rise / run
= percent (%)
= decimal ( 0.00)

For example:
G = + 1% or g = 0.01 , 1m rise in 100 m horizontal distance
G = - 3% or g = - 0.03 , 3m drop in 100 m horizontal distance
+ G or +g upward , upgrade , ascending grade
- G or - g downward , down grade , descending grade

How to connect GRADES ?

Vertical Alignment

Vertical Curve

+ G1

-G2

+G4

+G3

Vertical Alignment = Grades (tangent) + Vertical Curves

Maximum Grade = Gmax
Minimum Grade = Gmin
Design Grade = Gd
Critical Grade length = Lc

Design of Vertical Curve

Curve Type
Curve Length
Curve Properties
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Grades
Types of gradients

G1

Gmax
G2

Ruling gradient / Design gradient

limiting gradient
exceptional gradient
minimum gradient
Maximum gradient

G3
Gd
Gn-1

Gn
Gmin

Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with
which the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road.
This depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of
the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve.
In flatter terrain, it may be possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly
terrain it is not economical and sometimes not possible also.
The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by considering a
particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with
standard dimensions.

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Maximum Grades
Passenger cars : 4% to 5% no problem
Upgrades: trucks average 7% decrease in speed
Downgrades: trucks average speed increase 5%
Maximum grade selection depends on speed and terrain
Speed (km/h)

Maximum Grade (%)

110

50

7 - 12

60 - 100

Within the range

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Minimum grades
uncurbed highways
where the cross slope is adequate to drain the pavement surface
laterally, flat profile may be used with no problem
curbed highways or streets
longitudinal grades should be provided to facilitate surface
drainage.
An appropriate minimum grade is typically 0.5 percent
grades of 0.30 percent may be used where there is a high-type
pavement accurately sloped and supported on firm subgrade. Use
of even flatter grades may be justified in special cases.
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Effect of gradient
The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable.
This is particularly important in roads where the proportion of heavy
vehicles is significant.
Due to restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients the speed of traffic is
often controlled by these heavy vehicles.

As a result, not only the operating costs of the vehicles are increased,
but also capacity of the roads will have to be reduced.
Further, due to high differential speed between heavy and light vehicles,
and between uphill and downhill gradients, accidents abound in
gradients.

Grades
Vehicle traversing upgrade

Vf

+G
Vi

Lc

Speed drop = V = Vf Vi
Lc = Critical Length of Grade
= distance traveled on grade till speed drop V
Critical length of the grade
The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate
without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of the grade
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Ascending Grades
120
0

Speed (km/h)

110
100

90

Driving 300 m on 6% upward grade

will result in a speed drop of 43 km/h

80

70
3

60
43 km/h

50

5
6
7
8
9

40
30
300 m

20
10 750 m

1050 m
2000

0
0

1000

3000

5000

4000

6000

Distance (m)
15

Critical length
9
Speed reduction
8

Percent upgrade (%)

50 km/h
7

40
6

30

15 km/h

25

20
15

10
3
2
1
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Length of grade (m)

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Climbing lanes
When flatter grades cannot be accommodated,
consider climbing lane when all 3 of the
following criteria are met:
1. Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200
vehicles per hour.
2. Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20
vehicles per hour.
3. One of the following conditions exists:
o A 15 km/h or greater speed reduction is
expected for a typical heavy truck.
o Level-of-service E or F exists on the grade.
o A reduction of two or more levels of service
is experienced when moving from the
approach segment to the grade.

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Climbing lanes

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Vertical Curves

Crest
Summit
Sag
Valley

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Vertical Curves

Types of crest and sag curves

-G2
+G1

Crest / Summit Curve

+G1

Sag / Valley Curve

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Vertical Curve Design

Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory
results, the common practice has been to use
parabolic curves.
This is primarily because of the ease with it can be
laid out as well as allowing a comfortable transition
from one gradient to another.
the use of parabolic curves were found to give
excellent riding comfort.
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Equal Tangent Parabola Review

parabola ?
Results from conic slice
Constant rate of change of slope

y = ax2 + bx + c
2

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Properties of Parabola
y

I Intersection

y = ax2 + bx + c
C
Curvature

L/2

T
Tangency

L
Length
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Parabola as a Vertical Curve

PVI

-G2

+G1

PVC

PVT

L/2
L
Length
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Purpose of the parabolic Vertical Curve

Provides a transition between two grades
Provides a constant rate of change of grade
rate of change of grade r = (|G2 G1|)/L

Equal tangents Parabola

means, PVC to PVI =L/2

Used for both crest curves and sag curves

Notations
Curve point naming is similar to horizontal curves,
with addition of V for vertical
PVC: Point of Vertical Curvature
PVI: Point of Vertical Intersection
(of initial and final tangents)
PVT: Point of Vertical Tangency

Stations: stations represent 100 m

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Notations (cont.)
G1 is initial roadway grade
also referred to as initial tangent grade
G2 is final roadway grade
A is the absolute value of the difference in grades
(generally expressed in percent)
A = |G2 G1|
L is the length of the vertical curve measured in a
horizontal plane

Equal Tangent Parabola

Parabolic curves are generally used for design
Parabolic function y = ax2 + bx + c
y = roadway elevation
x = distance from PVC
c = elevation of PVC
Also usually design for equal-length tangents
i.e., half of curve length before PVI and half after

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

First derivative of equation

2
First derivative of y = ax + bx + c gives slope

= +

At PVC, x=0, so b=dy/dx = G1 (by definition)

G1 is initial slope (in m/m) as previously defined

Second derivative of equation

Second derivative gives rate of change of slope
2
= 2
2
The average rate of change of slope, by observation,
can also be written as
2 (2 1 )
=
2

Thus, = ( )

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Offsets
Offsets are vertical distances from initial tangent to the curve

800

200

K Value
The rate of change of grade at successive points
A constant amount for equal increments of horizontal distance
The algebraic difference between intersecting tangent grades,
|G2 G1| or (A), divided by the length of curve (L), or A/L in percent
per m

The reciprocal, L/A is the horizontal distance required

to effect a 1% change in gradient and is, therefore, a
measure of curvature
The quantity L/A is termed K

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

K Value (cont. )
The K-value can be used directly to compute the
high/low points for crest/sag vertical curves (provided
the high/low point is not at a curve end) by,
Xhl = K.|G1|
Where X= distance from the PVC to the high/low point

K-values: important applications in the design of

vertical curves,
The quantity L/A is termed K

Vertical Alignment Relationships

2
200

y = ax2 + bx + c

= 2 +

=
800

(2 1 )
2

200

= 1
=

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Xhl = K.|G1|

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Example: Calculations for Parabolic Curve

G1 = -1%
G2 = +2.2%
Elevation of VPC = 125.230 m
Station of VPC = 25+00 (= 2500 m)
Station of VPI = 26+00
a) What is length of curve? K-value?
b) Find
Station and Elevation of Low Point,
Elevation at station 25+50 and 26+50.
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SOLUTION
100 m

100 m

EVPC = 125.230 m
Sta.VPC = 25+00

A = |2.2 (-1.0)|=3.2

EVPT =
Sta.VPT =
EVPI= 124.230 m
PVI Sta.VPI = 26+00

L/2 = Station of VPI - Station of VPC = 2600-2500 = 100 m

L= 200 m
K = L/A = 200 / 3.2 = 62.5
Station and Elevation of PVI:
Sta.VPI = 26+00
EVPI= EVPC G1*L
EVPI= 125.230 0.01*100 = 124.230 m
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

SOLUTION
100 m

100 m

EVPT =126.43
Sta.VPT =27+00

EVPC = 125.230 m
Sta.VPC = 25+00

Station and Elevation of PVT:

Sta.PVT = Sta.VPC +L
Sta.PVT = (25+00) +(2+00)
Sta.PVT = 27+00

EVPI= 124.230 m
PVI Sta.VPI = 26+00

EPVT= EVPI + G2*L

EPVT= 124.230 + 0.022*100
EPVT= 126.430

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SOLUTION

Station and Elevation of Low Point:

Using K:
K =62.5

G1 = -1

EVPC = 125.230 m
Sta.VPC = 25+00 100 m

Xhl = K |G1|

100 m

EVPT =126.43
Sta.VPT =27+00

Xhl= 62.5 m
25+62.50

Xhl = 62.5 |-1|= 62.5 m

Station of Low Point = Station PVC + Xhl

EVPI= 124.230 m
PVI Sta.VPI = 26+00

Station of Low Point = (25+00) + (0+62.50) = 25+62.50

Elevation of Low Point:
y = ax2 + bx + c

( )

(.())

b= G1 =-0.0001

= 0.000055
c= 125.23 m

y = 0.000055(62.5)2 + (-0.0001)(62.5) + 125.23

y = 124.82 m
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

X(25+50.00)
EVPC = 125.230 m
Sta.VPC = 25+00

X(26+50.00)

Elevation at station 25+50

PVI

y = ax2 + bx + c
Distance (X) of Station 25+50 = 50 m
Elevation (y) of Station 25+50 = 0.000055(50)2 -0.0001(50) + 125.23 = 124.87 m
Elevation at station 26+50
Distance (X) of Station 26+50 = 150 m
Elevation (y) of Station 25+50 = 0.00825(150)2 -0.0001(150) + 125.23 = 124.97 m

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Example
A curve has initial and final grades of +3% and -4%,
respectively, and is 213.360 m long. The PVC is at elevation
100 m.
Graph the vertical curve elevations and the slope of the
curve against the length of curve.
Compute the K-value and use it to locate the high point of
the curve (distance from the PVC).
PVI
EPVC=100 m

PVC

-4%

+3%

PVT
L = 213.36 m
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

PVI
-4%

+3%

Solution:

EPVC=100 m
PVC

( )
=

PVT

L = 213.36 m

G1 = +3% , G2 = -4% & L = 213.36 m

( )
(+)
= = +.
=

(. )
= .
y = ax2 + bx + c
y = -0.000164x2 + 0.03 x+100
=

= +

= (. )

.
=

()

Xhl = K |G1|

+.

= . +.

= .

Xhl = 30.48 |3|= 91.44 m

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y = -0.000164x2 + 0.03 x+100

x
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
213.36

y
100.00
100.53
100.94
101.21
101.35
101.36
101.24
100.98
100.60
100.09
99.44
98.93

Elevation, m

Change of Curve elevation

101.50

y = ax2 + bx + c

101.00
100.50
100.00
99.50
99.00
98.50
0

50

100

150
200
250
Distance from PVC, m

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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

= 0.000328

+0.03

x
dy/dx
0
0.03
20
0.02
40
0.02
60
0.01
80
0.00
100
0.00
120
-0.01
140
-0.02
160
-0.02
180
-0.03
200
-0.04
213.36 -0.04

Slope, dy/dx

Change of curve slope

0.04

/ =. +.

0.03
0.02
0.01

0.00
-0.01

50

100

150

200

250

-0.02

-0.03
-0.04
-0.05

Distance from PVC, m

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101.50

y = ax2 + bx + c

101.00
100.50

Slope, dy/dx

Elevation, m

Change of curve elevation and slope

100.00
99.50
/ =. +.

99.00
98.50
0

50

100

150
200
250
Distance from PVC, m
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Lecture 6: Vertical Alignment 1

Next Lecture
Design of Vertical Curves
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