Discourse

(from Latin discursus, meaning "running to and from") generally refers to "written or spoken communication". [1] The following are three more
specific definitions:
In semantics and discourse analysis: A generalization of the concept of conversation to all modalities and contexts.

"The totality of codified linguistic usages attached to a given type of social practice. (E.g.: legal discourse, medical discourse,
religious discourse.)"

In the work of Michel Foucault, and social theorists inspired by him: "an entity of sequences of signs in that they are enouncements
(enoncs). An enouncement (l'nonc - often translated as "statement") is not a unity of signs, but an abstract matter that enables signs
to assign specific repeatable relations to objects, subjects and other enouncements. Thus, a discourse constitutes sequences of such
relations to objects, subjects and other enouncements. A discursive formation is defined as the regularities that produces such
discourses. Foucault used the concept of discursive formation in relation to his analysis of large bodies of knowledge, such as political
economy and natural history.

Discourse in the first sense is studied in corpus linguistics. Analysis of discourse in the second and third senses is carried out within a variety
of traditions that investigate the relations between language, structure and agency, including sociology, feminist
studies, anthropology, ethnography,cultural studies, literary theory, and the philosophy of science. Within these fields, the notion of
"discourse" is itself subject to discourse, that is, debated on the basis of specialized knowledge. Discourse can be observed in
multimodal/multimedia forms of communication including the use of spoken, written and signed language in contexts spanning from oral
history to instant message conversations to textbooks.
Discourses being corpuses of texts or communication have internal relations to themselves as well as external to other discourses. Thus, a
discourse is not locally isolated, rather interdiscourse and interdiscusivity takes part in the constitution of a discourse.

Argumentation/ Persuasion
one of the four forms of discourse which uses logic, ethics, and emotional appearls (logos, ethos, pathos)
to develop an effective means to convince the reader to think or act in a certain way .

Argumentation
The purpose of argumentation (also called persuasive writing) is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound
reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation with the additional
aim to urge the reader to take some form of action. Examples include:

Advertising copy

Job evaluation

Letters to the editor

Critical review

Job application letter

Rsums

Editorials

Letter of recommendation

Another form of persuasive rhetoric is satirical rhetoric, or using humor in order to make a point about some aspect of life or society.
Perhaps the most famous example is Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal."

Persuasive writing, could be referred to as a creative writing or an argument, in which the speaker uses words to convince the
reader of a writers view(s) regarding an issue. Persuasive writing involves convincing the reader to perform an action, or it may
simply consist of an argument(s) convincing the reader of the writers point of view. Persuasive writing is one of the most used
writing types in the world. Persuasive writers employ many techniques to improve their argument and show support for their claim.
Another definition is "an essay that offers and supports an opinion".

Rhetoricians dealt with persuasive writing and oration. Cicero most notably defined persuasive writing as the grand style in his
work Orator.

Cicero stated, This eloquence has power to sway mans mind and move them in every possible way.

He also stated, however, that the most effective orator, or in this case, writer, uses a combination of the plain, middle, and this grand
style to suit the context.

By appealing to credibility, writers can make their claims more believable. This is called an appeal to ethos, as defined by Aristotle.
The writer builds on his or her ethos by writing with clarity (an important element of style) and eliminating contradictions within the
text itself. The writer will be more credible to the target audience if there are no internal errors in syntax and mechanics as well as no
factual errors in the subject matter.

Writers can appeal to logic when writing to persuade using the appeal known as logos. This appeal is manifested in the supporting
statements for the writers claim. In most cases, a successful appeal to logos requires tangible evidence, e.g., a quote from
acknowledged written material. The writer will appeal to the rationality of the audience.

Possibly the most important appeal for persuasive writers is the appeal to emotions or pathos. A successful pathetic appeal will put
the audience in a suitable mood by addressing their knowledge of or feelings about the subject (Mendelson). This can be a very
effective way to win over an audience!

Most persuasive writing techniques use an effective combination of all three appeals. It is the best way to convince people.

Description
a form of discourse that uses language to create a mood or emotion

The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture
that which is being described. Descriptive writing can be found in the other rhetorical modes. Examples include:
Journal writing

Poetry

Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse), along with exposition, argumentation,
and narration. Each of the rhetorical modes is present in a variety of forms and each has its own purpose and conventions.

Description is also the fiction-writing mode for transmitting a mental image of the particulars of a story.

Fiction is a form of narrative, one of the four rhetorical modes of discourse. Fiction-writing also has distinct forms of expression, or
modes, each with its own purposes and conventions. Agent and author Evan Marshall (agent) identifies five fiction-writing modes:
action, summary, dialogue, feelings/thoughts, and background (Marshall 1988, pp. 143165). Author and writing-instructor Jessica
Page Morrell lists six delivery modes for fiction-writing: action, exposition, description, dialogue, summary, and transition (Morrell

2006, p. 127). Author Peter Selgin refers to methods, including action, dialogue, thoughts, summary, scene, and description (Selgin
2007, p. 38). Currently, there is no consensus within the writing community regarding the number and composition of fiction-writing
modes and their uses.

Description is the fiction-writing mode for transmitting a mental image of the particulars of a story. Together with dialogue, narration,
exposition, and summarization, description is one of the most widely recognized of the fiction-writing modes. As stated in Writing
from A to Z, edited by Kirk Polking, description is more than the amassing of details; it is bringing something to life by carefully
choosing and arranging words and phrases to produce the desired effect. (Polking, p. 106) The most appropriate and effective
techniques for presenting description are a matter of ongoing discussion among writers and writing coaches.

Exposition
one of the four major forms of discourse, in which something is explained or "set forth"

Business letters

The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and
appropriate discussion. Examples include:

How-to essays, such as

recipes and other instructions

News stories

Personal letters

Press releases

Textbooks

Reports

Wills

Scientific reports

Encyclopedia articles

Term papers

Cuisines

At the beginning of a narrative, the exposition is the author's providing of some background information to the audience about the
plot, characters' histories, setting, and theme. Exposition is considered one of four rhetorical modes of discourse, along
with argumentation, description, and narration. Aside from the common usage of exposition in narratives such as novels, films,
television shows, and plays, the concept may be used in some non-narrative settings, such as speeches or academic reports.

Exposition is divided into two methods:

Analytical Exposition

Hortatory Exposition

Exposition as a fiction-writing mode

Within the context of fiction, exposition is the fiction-writing mode for conveying information. According to Robert Kernen, "Exposition
can be one of the most effective ways of creating and increasing the drama in your story. It can also be the quickest way to kill a
plot's momentum and get your story bogged down in detail. Too much exposition, or too much at one time, can seriously derail a
story and be frustrating to the reader or viewer eager for a story to either get moving or move on." (Kernen 1999, p. 57)

Exposition in fiction may be delivered through various means. As noted by Ansen Dibell, the simplest way is to just place the
information between scenes as the all-seeing, all-knowing (but impersonal and invisible) narrator.(Dibell 1988, p. 51) Jessica Page
Morrell has observed that various devices, such as trial transcriptions, newspaper clippings, letters, and diaries may be used to
convey information.(Morrell 2006, p. 94) Another means of delivering information is through a character, either as dialogue or
through the character's thoughts.(Dibell 1988, pp. 5152) Exposition is also at the bottom of the story diagram.

Information dump

When the presentation of information in fiction becomes wordy, it is sometimes referred to as an "information dump," "exposition
dump," or "plot dump." Information dumps expressed by characters in dialogue or monologue are sometimes referred to as "idiot
lectures."

Information dumps are sometimes placed at the beginning of stories as a means of establishing the premise of the plot. In serial
television dramas, exposition in individual episodes often appears as a brief montage of scenes from earlier episodes, prefaced with
the phrase "Previously on [name of series]." Villain speech is a specific form of exposition in which the villaindescribes his sinister
plans to a helpless hero, often prefacing his exposition with the comment that it can't hurt to divulge the plan, since the hero will be
dead soon anyway (or the plan will be impossible to stop in the short time available). The villain's motivation sometimes includes his
desire to have his cleverness admired by the character most capable of appreciating it. Examples include Comic
book supervillains and villains in James Bond movies.

Information dumps can appear in science fiction where the author wants to ensure that the reader is aware of something, and so
has one character explain something to another. Why this can be poor writing is that information dump can mean characters explain
things to each other that they would already know. For example, if you need to call someone, you don't stop to explain to a
colleague that you are now going to use a device controlled with digital circuits to use radio waves to transmit your voice. Why?
Because your contemporaries already know how cellular radio telephones work.

In television, information dumps are common in sit-coms with the introduction of non-recurring characters which drive
the comedic plot of a particular episode. An example would be the use of the narrator in Arrested Development to sum up the
revelations and inner thoughts of characters in order to keep the viewer tuned to the plot.

In television sketch comedy, which borrows from the tradition of vaudeville comedy, exposition in the most exaggerated sense is
used for outrageous comedic effect.

Stories which are concerned with the unearthing of a secret past sometimes include lengthy exposition sequences. These may
include large quantities of exposition, complete with theorizing about the implications of the information. Examples include:

Dan Brown's The Da Vinci

Code

Neal Stephenson's Snow

Crash

Umberto Eco's Foucault's

Pendulum
HBO's Rome (TV series)

Narration
the form of discourse that tells about a series of events.

The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of
descriptive writing. Narration is an especially useful tool for sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical
order, usually chronological. Working with narration helps us see clear sequences separate from all other mental functions.
Examples include:

Anecdotes

Biography

Oral history

Autobiography

Novels

Short story

The narrative mode (also known as the mode of narration) is the set of methods the author of a literary, theatrical, cinematic, or
musical story uses to convey the plot to theaudience. Narration, the process of presenting the narrative, occurs because of the
narrative mode. It encompasses several overlapping areas of concern, most importantly narrative point-of-view, which determines
through whose perspective the story is viewed and narrative voice, which determines a set of consistent features regarding the
way through which the story is communicated to the audience.

The narrator may be a fictive person devised by the author as a stand-alone entity, or may even be a character. The narrator is
considered participant if an actual character in the story, and nonparticipant if only an implied character, or a sort of omniscient or
semi-omniscient being who does not take part in the story but only relates it to the audience.

Ability to use the different points of view is one measure of a person's writing skill. The writing mark schemes used for National
Curriculum assessments in England reflect this: they encourage the awarding of marks for the use of viewpoint as part of a wider
judgment.

The narrative mode encompasses not only who tells the story, but also how the story is described or expressed (for example, by
using stream of consciousness or unreliable narration).