Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous

Rock Structures

Basalt dikes hosted

in a granitoid pluton,
with metasediment
roof pendant;
Wallowa Mts,
Oregon
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Igneous Structures
Intrusive (Plutonic)
Magma cools slowly at
depth
Characteristic rock texture
Characteristic structures

Extrusive (Volcanic)
Magma cools quickly at
surface
Characteristic rock textures
Characteristic structures

Igneous Structures
Intrusive

Batholith
Stock
Lopolith
Laccolith
Volcanic
neck
Sill
Dike

Extrusive
Lava flow
or plateau
Volcano
(many
types)
Crater
Caldera
Fissure

Intrusive Igneous Structures

Contacts (boundary
between two rock
bodies) can be:
Concordant
Does not cross cut country
rock (surrounding rock)
structure, bedding, or
metamorphic fabric
Ex: laccolith, sill

Discordant
Cross cuts country rock
structure
Ex: dike, batholith, stock
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Intrusive Igneous Structures

Categorized by depth of emplacement
Epizonal

Mesozonal

Catazonal

Depth

Shallow
<6-10 km

Intermediate
~8-14 km

Deep
>~12 km

Contacts

Discordant

Variable

Concordant

Size

Small to
moderate

Small to large

Small to large

Contact
metamorphism

Very common

Uncommon

Absent

Age

Cenozoic

MesozoicPaleozoic

Paleozoic or
older

Intrusive Igneous Structures:

Large Scale
Major scale intrusive bodies: Plutons
Batholith: >100 km2 in map area (usually discordant)
Stock: <100 km2 in map area
Lopolith: dish-shaped layered intrusive
rocks (concordant)

Intrusive Igneous Structures:

Intermediate Scale
Concordant intrusives
Sill: tabular shape
Laccolith: mushroom-shaped
Roof pendant (remaining country
rock)

Discordant intrusives
Dike: tabular shape
Volcanic neck: cylindrical

Intrusive Igneous Structures:

Small Scale
Apophyses:
Irregular dikes extending
from pluton

Veins:
Tabular body filling a fracture
(filled with 1-2 minerals)

Xenoliths:
Unrelated material in an
igneous body

Autoliths:
Genetically related inclusions
(related igneous material)
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Extrusive Igneous Structures

Volcanism
Directly observable petrologic process
Redistributes heat and matter (rocks) from the interior to the exterior
of the earths surface
Occurs in oceanic & continental settings

Volcano:
Anywhere material reaches earths surface

Extrusive Igneous Structures:

Scale
Large scale structures
Lava plateau (LIP; flood
basalt)
Ignimbrite (ash flow tuff;
pyroclastic sheet)

Intermediate scale
structures
Shield volcano
Composite volcano
(stratovolcano)
Caldera, crater
Lava flow or dome

Small scale structures

Tephra (pyroclastic material)
Lava flow features
Cinder cone
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Extrusive Igneous Structures:

Eruption Styles
Effusive Eruptions
Lava flows and domes
Erupted from localized fissures or
vents
Generally low silica content
(basalt, primitive magma)

Explosive Eruptions

Tephra (fragmental material)

Pyroclastic falls or flows
Erupted from vents
Generally high silica content
(felsic, recycled magma)

Photo glossary of volcano terms

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Extrusive Igneous Structures:

Eruption Controls
Two main controls on eruption style:
VISCOSITY
A fluids resistance to flow
Determined largely by fluid composition

DISSOLVED GAS CONTENT

Main magmatic gasses: H2O, CO2, SO2 (or H2S)
At high pressure, gasses are dissolved in the magma
At low pressure (near surface), gasses form a vapor, expand,
and rise = boiling

Interaction controls eruption style:

Gas bubbles rise and escape from low viscosity magma
= EFFUSIVE ERUPTION
Gas bubbles are trapped in high viscosity magma;
increase of pressure = EXPLOSIVE ERUPTION
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Extrusive Igneous Structures:

Eruption Controls
Two main controls on eruption style:
VISCOSITY and DISSOLVED GAS CONTENT

In general, both viscosity and gas content are related to

magma composition
High silica content > higher viscosity, more dissolved gas
Low silica content > lower viscosity, less dissolved gas

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Types of Volcanic Products: Effusive

Lava Flow
Dominantly basalt (low viscosity and gas)
Thin and laterally extensive sheets
Pahoehoe flows: smooth, ropey flows
Aa or block flows: rough and irregular flows
Baked zones: oxidized zones due to contact
with high temperature lava flow

Lava Dome
Dacite or rhyolite (high viscosity, low gas
content)
Thick,
steepsided
flows
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Types of Volcanic Products: Explosive

Pyroclastic particles
Fragmental volcanic
material (TEPHRA)
Vitric (glass shards)
Crystals
Lithic (volcanic rock
fragments)

Bombs

Tephra

Broken during
eruption of magma
Typically higher
silica, high gas
content
Categorized by size:
Ash (< 2.0 mm)
Lapilli (2-64 mm)
Blocks and bombs
(>64 mm)

Ash

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Types of Volcanic Products: Explosive

Pyroclastic fall (mainly Ash fall)
Material ejected directly from volcano
(fallout, air fall)
Ash, lapilli (pumice, scoria), blocks,
and bombs
Sorted (small particles carried further)
Laterally extensive, mantles
topography

Pyroclastic flow (nue ardante or

ignimbrite)
Fast moving, high density flow of hot
ash, crystals, blocks, and/or pumice
Follow topographic lows
Can be hot enough after deposition16to
weld, fuse vitric fragments

Types of Volcanic Products: Explosive

Hydroclastic Products
Water-magma interaction (phreatomagmatic) causes
explosive fragmentation
Typically basaltic lavas
Any water-magma interaction (sea floor, caldera lake,
groundwater)
Great volumes of
hydroclastics on the sea
floor and in the edifice of
submarine volcanoes
Highly subject to
alteration > clay
minerals, microcrystalline
silica, and zeolite
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Styles of Volcanic Eruption: Effusive

Lava Plateaus and
Flood Basalts (LIPs)
Generally low viscosity,
low gas content effusive
lava flows (basalt)
Hot spot and
continental rift settings
Great areal extent and
enormous individual
flows
Erupted from fissures
Examples (no modern):
Columbia River Basalt
Group
Deccan Traps

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Styles of Volcanic Eruption: Effusive

Shield volcanoes
Generally low viscosity, low gas content effusive lava
flows (basalt)
Hot spot and continental rift settings
Central vent and surrounding broad, gentle sloping
volcanic edifice
Repeated eruption of
mainly thin, laterally
extensive lava flows
Modern examples:

Mauna Loa, Hawaii

Mauna Loa, Kiluaea

(Hawaii)
Krafla (Iceland)
Erta Ale (Ethiopia)

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Styles of Volcanic Eruption: Effusive

Submarine eruptions and
pillow lava
Generally low viscosity, low gas
content effusive lava flows
(basalt)
Divergent margin (mid-ocean
ridge) settings
Produces rounded pillows of lava
with glassy outer rind
Can produce
abundant hydroclastic
material (shallow)
Modern examples:
Loihi, Hawaii
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Styles of Volcanic Eruption: Explosive

Cinder cone
Generally low viscosity, high gas content (basalt)
Subduction zone settings (also continental rifts and
continental hot spots)
SP Crater, Arizona

Small, steep sided pile of loose

tephra (mainly lapilli, blocks, and
bombs)
Scoria or cinder

Often form on larger volcanoes

(shield or stratovolcano)
Modern example:
Parcutin, Mexico
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Styles of Volcanic Eruption: Explosive

Composite cones and
Stratovolcanoes

Mayon Volcano
Philippines

Generally higher
viscosity, high gas
content (andesites)
Dominantly subduction
zone settings
Composed of layers of loose pyroclastic material (fallout
and flows) and minor lava flows, some shallow intrusions
Form from multiple eruptions over hundreds to thousands
of years
Examples:
Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Rainier (USA)
Pinatubo (Indonesia)

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Styles of Volcanic Eruption: Explosive

Calderas and
pyroclastic sheet
(ignimbrite) deposits

Generally high viscosity,

high gas content
(rhyolite)
Subduction zone and
continental hot spots
Form by collapse of volcano following
evacuation of the magma chamber
Often produce widespread ash,
ignimbrite (pyroclastic flow)
Examples:
Krakatoa, Indonesia (modern example)
Crater Lake, Yellowstone (USA)

Crater Lake,
Oregon

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Volcanic Hazards
~500 million people live in
high hazard regions
Eruptions and hazards are
largely predictable
Main hazards:

Tephra (mainly ash)

Lava flows
Pyroclastic flows
Lahar
Avalanche/landslide
Volcanic gas
Tsunami
Climate change

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