Introduction to Integration

Integration is a way of adding slices to find the whole.

Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points and
many useful things. But it is easiest to start with finding the area
under the curve of a function like this:

What is the area under y = f(x) ?

Slices
We could calculate the function at a few
points and add up slices of
width x like this (but the answer won't
be very accurate):

We can make x a lot smaller and add up

many small slices(answer is getting
better):

And as the slices approach zero in

width, the answer approaches thetrue
answer.
We now write dx to mean the x slices
are approaching zero in width.

That is a lot of adding up!

But we don't have to add them up, as there is a "shortcut".
Because ...

... finding an Integral is the reverse of finding a

Derivative.
(So you should really know about Derivatives before reading
more!)
Like here:

Example: What is an integral of 2x?

We know that the derivative of x2 is 2x ...

... so an integral of 2x is x2

Notation
The symbol for "Integral" is a
stylish "S"
(for "Sum", the idea of
summing slices):

After the Integral Symbol we put the function we want to find the
integral of (called the Integrand),
and then finish with dx to mean the slices go in the x direction
(and approach zero in width).
And here is how we write the answer:

Plus C
We wrote the answer as x2 but why + C ?
It is the "Constant of Integration". It is there because of all the
functions whose derivative is 2x:

The derivative of x2+4 is 2x, and the derivative of x2+99 is

also 2x, and so on! Because the derivative of a constant is zero.
So when we reverse the operation (to find the integral) we only
know 2x, but there could have been a constant of any value.
So we wrap up the idea by just writing + C at the end.

Tap and Tank

Integration is like filling a tank from a tap.

The input (before integration) is the flow rate from the tap.
Integrating the flow (adding up all the little bits of water) gives us
thevolume of water in the tank.

Imagine the flow starts at 0 and gradually increases (maybe a

motor is slowly opening the tap).

As the flow rate increases, the tank fills up faster and faster.
With a flow rate of 2x, the tank fills up at x2.
We have integrated the flow to get the volume.

Example: (assuming the flow is in liters per minute) after 3

minutes (x=3):
the flow rate has reached 2x = 23 = 6 liters/min,
and the volume has reached x2 = 32 = 9 liters.

We can do the reverse, too:

Imagine you don't know the flow rate.

You only know the volume is increasing by x2.
We can go in reverse (using the derivative, which gives us the
slope) and find that the flow rate is 2x.
Example: at 2 minutes the slope of the volume is 4, meaning it is
increasing at 4 liters/minute, which is the flow rate. Likewise at 3
minutes the slope is 6, etc.

So Integral and Derivative are opposites.

We can write that down this way:

The integral of the flow rate 2x tells us the

2x dx =

volume of water: x2 + C

And the slope of the volume increase x2+C gives

(x2 + C)
us back the flow rate: = 2x

And hey, we even get a nice explanation of that "C" value ...
maybe the tank already has water in it!

The flow still increases the volume by the same amount

And the increase in volume can give us back the flow rate.

Which teaches us to always add "+ C".

Other functions
Well, we have played with y=2x enough now, so how do we
integrate other functions?

If we are lucky enough to find the function on the result side of a

derivative, then (knowing that derivatives and integrals are
opposites) we have an answer. But remember to add C.

Example: what is

cos(x) dx ?

From the Rules of Derivatives table we see the derivative of sin(x)

is cos(x) so:

cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C
But a lot of this "reversing" has already been done (see Rules of
Integration).

Example: What is

x3 dx ?

On Rules of Integration there is a "Power Rule" that says:

dx = xn+1/(n+1) + C

We can use that rule with n=3:

dx = x4 /4 + C

Knowing how to use those rules is the key to being good

at Integration.

So get to know those rules and get lots of practice.

Learn the Rules of Integration and Practice! Practice!
Practice!

Definite vs Indefinite Integrals

We have been doing Indefinite Integrals so far.
A Definite Integral has actual values to calculate between (they
are put at the bottom and top of the "S"):

Indefinite Integral

Definite Integral

Definite Integrals
You might like to read Introduction to Integration first!

Integration
Integration can be used to find areas,
volumes, central points and many useful
things. But it is often used to find
the area under the graph of a
function like this:

The area can be found by adding slices

that approach zero in width:
And there are Rules of Integration that
help us get the answer.

Notation
The symbol for "Integral" is a
stylish "S"
(for "Sum", the idea of
summing slices):

After the Integral Symbol we put the function we want to find the
integral of (called the Integrand),
and then finish with dx to mean the slices go in the x direction
(and approach zero in width).

Definite Integral
A Definite Integral has start and end values: in other words
there is an interval (a to b).
The values are put at the bottom and top of the "S", like this:

Indefinite Integral
(no specific values)

Definite Integral
(from a to b)

We can find the Definite Integral by calculating the Indefinite

Integral at points a and b, then subtracting:

Example:
The Definite Integral, from 1 to 2, of 2x dx:

The Indefinite Integral is:

2x dx = x

At x=1:

2x dx = 1

+C

At x=2:

2x dx = 2

+C

+C

Subtract:

(22 + C) (12 + C)
22 + C 12 C
41+CC=3
And "C" gets cancelled out ... so with Definite Integrals we can
ignore C.
In fact we can give the answer directly like this:

We can check that, by calculating the area of the shape:

Yes, it has an area of 3.
Let's try another example:

Example:
The Definite Integral, from 0.5 to 1.0, of cos(x) dx:

(Note: x must be in radians)

The Indefinite Integral is:

cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C

We can ignore C when we do the subtraction (as we saw above):

= sin(1) sin(0.5)
= 0.841... 0.479...
= 0.362...
And another example to make an important point:

Example:
The Definite Integral, from 0 to 1, of sin(x) dx:

The Indefinite Integral is:

sin(x) dx = cos(x) + C

Since we are going from 0, can we just calculate the area at x=1?
cos(1) = 0.540...
What? The Area at x=1 is negative? No, we need to subtract
the integral at x=0. We shouldn't assume that it is zero.
So let us do it properly, subtracting one from the other (and C
gets cancelled so we don't need to show it):

= cos(1) (cos(0))
= 0.540... (1)
= 0.460...
That's better!
But we can have negative areas, when the curve is below the
axis:

Example:
The Definite Integral, from 1 to 3, of cos(x) dx:

Notice that some of it is positive, and some negative.

The definite integral will work out the net area.

The Indefinite Integral is:cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C

So let us do the calculations:
= sin(3) sin(1)

= 0.141... 0.841...
= 0.700...
Try integrating cos(x) with different start and end values to see
for yourself how positive and negative areas work.

Continuous
Oh yes, the function we are integrating must
be Continuous between a and b: no holes, jumps or vertical
asymptotes (where the function heads up/down towards infinity).

Example:
A vertical asymptote between a and b affects the definite integral.

Properties
Reversing the interval

Reversing the direction of the interval gives the negative of the

original direction.

Interval of zero length

When the interval starts and ends at the same place, the result is
zero:

Adding intervals

We can also add two adjacent intervals together:

Integration Rules

Integration
Integration can be used to find areas,
volumes, central points and many useful
things. But it is often used to find
the area underneath the graph of a
function like this:

The integral of many functions are well known, and there are
useful rules to work out the integral of more complicated
functions, many of which are shown here.

Common Functions
Constant

Function

Integral

a dx

ax + C

Variable

x dx

x2/2 + C

Square

x3/3 + C

dx

(1/x) dx

Reciprocal
Exponential

Trigonometry (x in radians)

dx

ex + C

dx

ax/ln(a) + C

ln(x) dx

x ln(x) x + C

cos(x) dx

sin(x) + C

sin(x) dx

-cos(x) + C

sec (x) dx

tan(x) + C

Function

Integral

cf(x) dx

cf(x) dx

Rules
Multiplication by constant
Power Rule (n-1)

ln|x| + C

dx

xn+1/(n+1) + C

Sum Rule

(f + g) dx

f dx + g dx

Difference Rule

(f - g) dx

f dx - g dx

Examples
Example: what is the integral of sin(x) ?
From the table above it is listed as being cos(x) + C
It is written as:

sin(x) dx = cos(x) + C
Power Rule
Example: What is

x3 dx ?

The question is asking "what is the integral of x3 ?"

We can use the Power Rule, where n=3:

dx = xn+1/(n+1) + C

x
Example: What is

dx = x4/4 + C

x dx ?

x is also x0.5
We can use the Power Rule, where n=:

dx = xn+1/(n+1) + C
0.5

dx = x1.5/1.5 + C

Multiplication by constant

Example: What is

6x2 dx ?

We can move the 6 outside the integral:

6x

dx = 6x2 dx

And now use the Power Rule on x2:

= 6 x3/3 + C
Simplify:

= 2x3 + C

Sum Rule
Example: What is

cos x + x dx ?

Use the Sum Rule:

cos x + x dx = cos x dx + x dx
Work out the integral of each (using table above):

= sin x + x2/2 + C

Difference Rule
Example: What is

ew 3 dw ?

Use the Difference Rule:

3 dw =ew dw

3 dw

Then work out the integral of each (using table above):

= ew 3w + C

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication And Power

Rules
Example: What is

8z + 4z

6z2 dz ?

Use the Sum and Difference Rule:

8z + 4z

6z2 dz =8z dz +

4z

dz

6z

dz

Constant Multiplication:

= 8z dz + 4z3 dz 6z2 dz
Power Rule:

= 8z2/2 + 4z4/4 6z3/3 + C

Simplify:

= 4z2 + z4 2z3 + C

Integration by Parts
Integration by Parts is a special method of integration that is
often useful when two functions are multiplied together, but is
also helpful in other ways.

You will see plenty of examples soon, but first let us see the rule:

u v dx = uv dx u' (v dx) dx

u is the function u(x)

v is the function v(x)

As a diagram:

And let us get straight into an example:

Example: What is

x cos(x) dx ?

First choose u and v:

u=x
v = cos(x)
Differentiate u: u' = x' = 1
Integrate v:
together:

v dx = cos(x) dx = sin(x)

Now put it

Simplify and solve:

x sin(x)

sin(x) dx

x sin(x) + cos(x) + C

So we followed these steps:

Choose u and v

Differentiate u: u'

Integrate v:

Put u, u' and

Simplify and solve

v dx
v dx here: uv dx u' (v dx) dx

In English, to help you remember, u v dx becomes:

(u integral v) minus integral of (derivative u, integral v)

Let's try some more examples:

ln(x)/x

Example: What is

dx ?

First choose u and v:

u = ln(x)
v = 1/x2
Differentiate u: ln(x)' = 1/x
Integrate v:

1/x

dx =

-2

dx = x-1 = -1/x (by

the power rule)

Now put it together:

Simplify:

ln(x)/x

1/x

dx = ln(x)/x 1/x + C

(ln(x) + 1)/x + C

Example: What is

ln(x) dx ?

But there is only one function! How do we choose u and v ?

Hey! We can just choose v as being "1":

u = ln(x)
v=1
Differentiate u: ln(x)' = 1/x
Integrate v:

1 dx = x

Now put it together:

Simplify:

x ln(x)

1 dx = x ln(x) x + C

Example: What is
Choose u and v:
u = ex
v=x

ex x dx ?

Differentiate u: (ex)' = ex

x dx = x /2
2

Integrate v:

Now put it together:

Well, that was a spectacular disaster! It just got more

complicated.
Maybe we could choose a different u and v?

Example:

ex x dx (continued)

Choose u and v differently:

u=x
v = ex
Differentiate u: (x)' = 1
Integrate v:

dx = ex

Now put it together:

Simplify:

x ex ex + C
ex(x1) + C
The moral of the story: Choose u and v carefully!
Choose a u that gets simpler when you differentiate it and
a v that doesn't get any more complicated when you integrate it.
A helpful rule of thumb is

I LATE. Choose u based on which of

these comes first:

I: Inverse trigonometric functions such as sin-1(x), cos-1(x),

tan-1(x)

L: Logarithmic functions such as ln(x), log(x)

A: Algebraic functions such as x2, x3

T: Trigonometric functions such as sin(x), cos(x), tan (x)

E: Exponential functions such as ex, 3x

And here is one last (and tricky) example:

Example:

ex sin(x) dx

Choose u and v:
u = sin(x)
v = ex
Differentiate u: sin(x)' = cos(x)
Integrate v:

dx = ex

Now put it together:

sin(x) dx = sin(x) ex -cos(x) ex dx

Looks worse, but let us persist! We can use integration by

parts again:
Choose u and v:
u = cos(x)
v = ex
Differentiate u: cos(x)' = -sin(x)
Integrate v:

dx = ex

Now put it together:

sin(x) dx = sin(x) ex - (cos(x) ex sin(x)

ex dx)
x

Simplify:

sin(x) dx = ex sin(x) - ex cos(x) ex sin(x)dx

Now we have the same integral on both sides (except one is

subtracted) ...
... so bring the right hand one over to the left and we get:

2ex sin(x) dx = ex sin(x) ex cos(x)

Simplify:

sin(x) dx = ex (sin(x) - cos(x)) / 2 + C

Where Did "Integration by Parts" Come From?

It is based on the Product Rule for Derivatives:

(uv)' = uv' + u'v

Integrate both sides and rearrange:

(uv)' dx = uv' dx + u'v dx

uv =

uv' dx + u'v dx

uv' dx = uv u'v dx

Some people prefer that last form, but I like to integrate v' so the
left side is simple:

uv dx = uv dx u'(v dx) dx
Integration by Substitution
"Integration by Substitution" (also called "u-substitution") is a
method to find an integral, but only when it can be set up in a
special way.
The first and most vital step is to be able to write our integral in
this form:

Note that we have g(x) and its derivative g'(x)

Like in this example:

Here f=cos, and we have g=x2 and its derivative of 2x

This integral is good to go!
When our integral is set up like that, we can do this
substitution:

Then we can integrate f(u), and finish by putting g(x) back as

u.
Like this:

Example:

cos(x ) 2x dx
2

We know (from above) that it is in the right form to do the

substitution:

Now integrate:

cos(u) du = sin(u) + C
And finally put u=x2 back again:

sin(x2) + C
So

cos(x ) 2x dx = sin(x ) + C worked out really nicely!

2

(Well, I knew it would.)

This method only works on some integrals of course, and it may

need rearranging:

Example:

cos(x ) 6x dx
2

Oh no! It is 6x, not 2x. Our perfect setup is gone.

Never fear! Just rearrange the integral like this:

cos(x ) 6x dx = 3cos(x ) 2x dx
2

Then go ahead as before:

3cos(u) du = 3 sin(u) + C
Now put u=x2 back again:

3 sin(x2) + C
Done!
Now we are ready for a slightly harder example:

Example:

x/(x +1) dx
2

Let me see ... the derivative of x2+1 is 2x ... so how about we

rearrange it like this:

x/(x +1) dx = 2x/(x +1) dx

2

Then we have:

Then integrate:

1/u du = ln(u) + C
Now put u=x2+1 back again:

ln(x2+1) + C

Example:

(x+1)

dx

the derivative of x+1 is ... well it is simply 1.

So we can have this:

(x+1)

(x+1)

dx =

du = (u4)/4 + C

1 dx

Then we have:

Then integrate:

Now put u=x+1 back again:

(x+1)4 /4 + C

In Summary
When we can put an integral in this form:

Then we can make u=g(x) and integrate f(u) du

And finish up by re-inserting g(x) where u is.

Area under a Curve

The area between the graph of y = f(x) and the x-axis is
given by the definite integral below. This formula gives
a positive result for a graph above the x-axis, and
a negative result for a graph below the x-axis.
Note: If the graph of y = f(x) is partly above and partly
below the x-axis, the formula given below generates the
net area. That is, the area above the axis minus the area
below the axis.

Formul
a:

Exampl Find the area between y = 7 x2 and

e 1:
the x-axis between the values x = 1
and x = 2.

Exampl Find the net area between y =

e 2:
sin x and the x-axis between the
values x = 0 and x = 2.

Area between Curves

The area between curves is given by the formulas below.

Formula 1:
for a region bounded above and below by y = f(x) and y = g(x), and
on the left and right by x = a and x = b.

Formula 2:

for a region bounded left and right by x = f(y) and x = g(y), and above and
below by y = c and y = d.

Example 1:1 Find the area between y = x and y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 1.

Example 2:1 Find the area between x = y + 3 and x = y2 from y = 1 to y = 1.

INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

Recall the definitions of the trigonometric functions.

The following indefinite integrals involve all of these well-known

trigonometric functions. Some of the following trigonometry
identities may be needed.
A.)
B.)
C.)

so that

D.)

so that

E.)
F.)

so that

G.)

so that

It is assumed that you are familiar with the following rules of

differentiation.

These lead directly to the following indefinite integrals.

o 1.)
o 2.)
o 3.)
o 4.)
o 5.)

o 6.)

The next four indefinite integrals result from trig identities and usubstitution.

o 7.)
o 8.)
o 9.)
o 10.)
We will assume knowledge of the following well-known, basic
indefinite integral formulas :

, where

is a constant

, where

is a constant

Most of the following problems are average. A few are

challenging. Many use the method of u-substitution. Make careful
and precise use of the differential notation
and
and be
careful when arithmetically and algebraically simplifying
expressions.

SOLUTION 1 : Integrate

. Use u-substitution. Let

so that
,
or
.
Substitute into the original problem, replacing all forms of ,
getting

(Use antiderivative rule 2 from the beginning of this section.)

Exact Integrals as Limits of Sums

Using the definition of an integral, we can evaluate the limit as

goes to infinity. This technique requires a fairly high degree of
familiarity with summation identities. This technique is often
referred to as evaluation "by definition," and can be used to find
definite integrals, as long as the integrands are fairly simple. We
start with definition of the integral:
Then picking
be
get,

to
we

In some simple cases, this expression can be reduced to a

real number, which can be interpreted as the area under the
curve if f(x) is positive on [a,b].

Example 1
Find
sums.

by writing the integral as a limit of Riemann

In other cases, it is even possible to evaluate indefinite

integrals using the formal definition. We can define the
indefinite integral as follows:

Example 2
Suppose
, then we can evaluate the indefinite
integral as follows.

Volumes of Revolution
Rotation About the x-axis
Integration can be used to find the area of a region bounded by a
curve whose equation you know. If we want to find the area under
the curve y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 5, for example, we simply
integrate x2 with limits 0 and 5.
Now imagine that a curve, for example y = x2, is rotated around
the x-axis so that a solid is formed. The volume of the shape that

is formed can be found using the formula

Rotation about the y-axis

If the body is rotated about the y-axis rather than the x-axis, then
we use the formula:

Application of Integration in Real Life

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2.

Centroid of an Area by Integration

Typical (straight sided) Problem

In tilt-slab construction, we have a concrete wall (with doors and windows cut
out) which we need to raise into position. We don't want the wall to crack as we
raise it, so we need to know the centre of mass of the wall. How do we find the
centre of mass for such an uneven shape?

Tilt-slab construction, also known as tilt-wall or tilt-up

Basically the integration concept is used to find the centroid of an area with
straight sides, then we'll extend the concept to areas with curved sides. Besides,
the concept of moment also involved where the definition of moment of a mass
is a measure of its tendency to rotate about a point. Clearly, the greater the
mass (and the greater the distance from the point), the greater will be the
tendency to rotate.
The moment is defined as:

Moment = mass distance from a point

Example 1

In this case, there will be a total moment about O of:

(Clockwise is regarded as positive in this work.)

M = 2 1 10 3 = 28 kgm
(A)

Centre of Mass

We now aim to find the centre of mass of the system and this will lead to a
more general result.
Example 2

We have 3 masses of 10 kg, 5 kg and 7 kg at 2 m, 2 m and 1 m distance from O

as shown.

We wish to replace these masses with one single mass to give an equivalent
moment. Where should we place this single mass?
Answer 2
Total moment = 10 2 + 5 4 + 7 5
=75 kg.m
If we put the masses together, we have: 10 + 5 + 7 = 22 kg
For an equivalent moment, we need:
22 d = 75
where d is the distance from the centre of mass to the point of rotation.
i.e. d=22753.4 m
So our equivalent system (with one mass of 22 kg) would have:

(B) Centre of Mass (Centroid) for a Thin Plate

1) Rectangle:

The centroid is (obviously) going to be exactly in the centre of the plate, at (2, 1).
2) More Complex Shapes:

We divide the complex shape into rectangles and find x (the x-coordinate of the
centroid) and y (the y-coordinate of the centroid) by taking moments about
the y- and x-coordinates respectively.
Because they are thin plates with a uniform density, we can just calculate
moments using the area.
Example 3
Find the centroid of the shape:

We divide the area into 2 rectangles and assume the mass of each rectangle is
concentrated at the centre.

Left rectangle: Area = 3 2

= 6 sq unit.
1
Center ( 2 ,1)
Right rectangle: Area = 2 4

= 8 sq unit.
Center (2,2)
Taking moments with respect to the y-axis, we have:

6( 2 ) + 8(2) = (6+8)x

3+16 = 14x
13

x = 14

Now, w.r.t the x-axis:

6(1)+8(2)=(6+8) y
6+16=14 y

y =

22
14

4
7

So the centroid is at:

13
14

4
7

We would use this process to solve the tilt slab construction problem
mentioned at the beginning of this section.

In general, we can say:

X=

total momentsxdirection
total area

Y=

total moments ydirection

total area

This idea is used more extensively in the next section.

(C)

Centroid for Curved Areas

Taking the simple case first, we aim to find the centroid for the area defined by a
function f(x), and the vertical lines
figure.

x=ax=b

as indicated in the following

To find the centroid, we use the same basic idea that we were using for the
straight-sided case above. The "typical" rectangle indicated is x units from the yaxis, and it has width x (which becomes dx when we integrate) and
height y = f(x).
Generalizing from the above rectangular areas case, we multiply these 3 values
(x, f(x) and x, which will give us the area of each thin rectangle times its
distance from the x-axis), then add them. If we do this for infinitesimally small
strips, we get the x-coordinates of the centroid using the total moments in the xdirection, given by:

x=

total moments
total area

1
a

x f (x ) dx
a

And, considering the moments in the y-direction about the x-axis and reexpressing the function in terms of y , we have:

Y=

total moments
total area

1
a

y f ( y) dy
c

Notice this time the integration is with respect to y, and the distance of the
"typical" rectangle from the x-axis is y units. Also note the lower and upper limits
of the integral are c and d, which are on the y-axis.
Of course, there may be rectangular portions we need to consider separately.
(I've used a different curve for the y case for simplification.)
Alternate method: Depending on the function, it may be easier to use the
following alternative formula for the y-coordinate, which is derived from
considering moments in the x-direction (Note the "dx" in the integral, and the
upper and lower limits are along the x-axis for this alternate method).

Y=

total moments
total area

=
=

1
a
1
a

f (x)
x f ( x ) dx
2
2

[f ( x ) ]
2 dx
a

This is true since for our thin strip (width dx), the centroid will be half the
distance from the top to the bottom of the strip.
Another advantage of this second formula is there is no need to re-express the
function in terms of y.

(D)

Centroids for Areas Bounded by 2 Curves

We extend the simple case given above. The "typical" rectangle indicated has
width x and heighty2 y1, so the total moments in the x-direction over the total
area is given by:
b

totalmoments 1
x =
= x ( y 2 y 1 ) dx
total area
Aa
For the y coordinate, we have 2 different ways we can go about it.
Method 1: We take moments about the y-axis and so we'll need to re-express
the expressions x2 and x1as functions of y.
d

total moments 1
y=
= x ( x 2 x 1 ) dy
total area
A c

Method 2: We can also keep everything in terms of x by extending the

"Alternate Method" given above:
b

2
2
total moments 1 [ y 2] [ y 1]
y =
=
dx
total area
A a
2

Example 4

Find the centroid of the area bounded by y = x3, x = 2 and the x-axis.
Answer
Here is the area under consideration:

In this case,

y=f (x)=x , a=0, b=2.

We find the shaded area first:

2

4 2

[ ]

x
16
A= x dx=
=
4 0 4
0
3

=4

Next, using the formula for the x-coordinate of the centroid we have:
b

X=

1
x f ( x ) dx
A a
2

1
x (x 3 )dx
4 0
2

1
( x 4 ) dx
4 0
5 2

[ ]

1 x

4 5

32
20

1.6

Now, for the y coordinate, we need to find:

this is
x 2 =2( this problem)
1
3

x 1 = y ( this is variable this problem )

c=0, d=8.
d

1
y = y ( x 2 x 1 ) dy
A c
8

1
y (2 y 1/ 3)dy
4 0

1
(2 y y 4 /3 )dy
4 0

1 2 3y
y
4
7

7 8
3

1
3 128
64
4
7

2.29
So the centroid for the shaded area is at (1.6, 2.29).

3. Moments of Inertia by Integration

The moment of inertia is measure of the resistance of a rotating body to a
change in motion. The moment of inertia of a particle of mass m rotating about a
particular point is given by:

Moment of inertia = md2

Where d is the radius of rotation.

Inertia for a Collection of Particles

If a group of particles with masses m1, m2, m3, ... , mn is rotating around a point
with distances d1, d2, d3, ...dn, (respectively) from the point, then the moment of
inertia I is given by:

I = m1d12 + m2d22 + m3d32 +... + mndn2

If we wish to place all the masses at the one point (R units from the point of
rotation) then

d1 = d2 = d3 = ... = dn = R and we can write:

I = (m1 + m2 + m3 ... + mn)R2
R is called the radius of gyration.
Example 1
Find the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration w.r.t. the origin (0,0) of a
system which has masses at the points given:
Mass

Point

(3,0)

(2,0)

(1,0)

(8,0)

Answer 1
The moment of inertia is:
I

= 6(-3)2 + 5(-2)2 + 9(1)2 + 2(8)2

= 54 + 20 + 9 + 128
= 211

To find R, we use:
I

= (m1 + m2 + m3 ... + mn) R2

211

= (6 + 5 + 9 + 2) R2

So R3.097 This means a mass of 22 units placed at (3.1, 0) would have the
same rotational inertia about O as the 4 objects.

Moment of Inertia for Area

We want to find the moment of inertia , I y

of the given area, which is rotating

around the y-axis.

Each "typical" rectangle indicated has width dx and height
is

y 2 y 1 , so its area

( y 2 y 1) dx .

If k is the mass per unit area, then each typical rectangle has
mass

k ( y 2 y 1) dx .

The moment of inertia for each typical rectangle is

[k ( y 2 y 1) dx ] x 2 , since

each rectangle is x units from the y-axis.

We can add the moments of inertia for all the typical rectangles making up the
area using integration:
b

I y =k x2 ( y 2 y 1 ) dx
a

Using a similar process that we used for the collection of particles above, the
radius of gyration Ry is given by:

R y =
where m is the mass of the area.
Example 2

I y
m

For the first quadrant area bounded by the curve

y=1x 2 ,
find:
a) The moment of inertia w.r.t the y axis. (Iy)
b) The mass of the area
c) Hence, find the radius of gyration
Answer 2
As usual, first we sketch the part of the curve in the first quadrant. It's a
parabola, passing through (1, 1) and (0, 1). A "typical" rectangle is shown.

In this example,

y 2 =1x 2 , y 1 =0, a=0b=1.

a) Finding Iy:
b

I y =k x2 [ y 2 y 1]dx
a

k x 2 [(1x 2)(0)] dx
0
1

k [ x 2x 4 ]dx
0

5 1

x x
k

3 5

1 1
k( )
3 5

2k
15

b) The mass of the area, m.

Now m = kA, where A is the area.
1

A= (1x 2 )dx
0

3 1

[ ]

x
x
3
1

1
3

2
3

So m=kA=

2k
3

c) The radius of gyration:

R y =

I y
m

2 k /15
2 k /3

1
5

0.447
This means that if a mass of

2k
3

was placed 0.447 units from the y-axis,

this would have the same moment of inertia as the original shape.

Rotation about the x-axis

For rotation about the x-axis, the moment of inertia formulae become:
d

I x = k y 2 ( x 2 x 1 ) dy
c

And

R x =

I x
m

4. Work by a Variable Force using Integration

The work (W) done by a constant force (F) acting on a body by moving it through
a distance (d) is given by:

W=Fd
Example of work done by a constant force

An apple weighs about

1 N . If you lift the apple 1 m above a table, you have

done approximately 1 Newton meter (Nm) of work.

Work done by a Variable Force

If the force varies (e.g. compressing a spring) we need to use calculus to find the
work done.
If the force is given by F(x) (a function of x) then the work done by the force
along the x-axis from a to b is:
b

W = F ( x )dx
a

Hooke's Law for springs

The force (F) that it takes to stretch (or compress) a spring x units from its
normal length is proportional x .

F=kx
We can find the spring constant k from observing what force gives what stretch
for each spring. This spring constant is also called the stiffness of the spring.

Interactive Appplet
Example 1
(a) Find the work done on a spring when you compress it from its natural length
of 1 m to a length of0.75 m if the spring constant is k = 16 N/m.

F=16 x
We start compressing the spring at its natural length (0 m) and finish at 0.25
m from the natural length, so the lower limit of the integral is 0 and the upper
limit is 0.25. So:
0.25

Work= 16 x dx
0

8 x 2 0.25
0

 0.5 N . m
(b) What is the work done in compressing the spring a further 30cm?
This time, we start pushing the spring at 0.25 m from the natural length and
finish at 0.55 m from the natural length, so the lower limit of the integral
is 0.25 and the upper limit is 0.55.
0.55

Work= 16 x dx
0.25

8 x 2 0.55
0.25

1.92 N . m
Note: For a spring,
b

F ( x) dx
a

Requires that

ab

are the distance from the natural position of the spring.

5. Electric Charges by Integration

The force between charges is proportional to the product of their charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
So we can write:

f ( x)=

k q 1 q 2
2
x

Where q1 and q2 are in coulombs (C), x is in metres, the force is in newtons

k =9 109 .

and k is a constant,

It follows that the work done when electric charges move toward each other (or
when they are separated) is given by:
b

Work=
a

k q 1 q 2
dx
x2

Example
An electron has a

1.6 1019 C

negative charge. How much work is done in

separating two electrons from 1.0 pm to 4.0 pm?

Answer
Recall: "pm" means picometre, or 10 12 meters.
In this example,

a=1 1012 m
b=4 1012 m
k =9 109
q 1 =q 2 =1.6 1019 C

So we have
b

Work=
a

k q 1 q 2
dx
x2
12

4 10

1 10

12

(9 109 )(1.6 1019 )2

dx
x2

( 2.304 10

28

[ ]

) 1
x

12

4 10

1 10

12

1.728 1016 J

6. Average Value of a Function by Integration

The average value of the function y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is given by:

y ave =
a

f ( x )dx
ba

Why? When you see a formula like this for the first time, think about where it
comes from and why it should work.
Hint: How do we find the average of a set of numbers? What are we really doing
each time we find an integral? What does the integral symbol stand for?
Example
The temperature T (in C) recorded during a day followed the curve

T =0.001 t 40.280 t 2+25

Where t is the number of hours from noon

(12 t 12)

What was the average temperature during the day?

Answer
First, we consider the graph of the situation and estimate that the average
should be around 14 to 16 degrees.

y ave =
a

f ( x )dx
ba
12

( 0.001t 4 0.28 t2 +25)dt

12

12(12)

1 0.001 t 0.28 t

+25 t
24
5
3

12

12

2 0.001 t 5 0.28 t 3

+25 t
24
5
3

12

1
[ 49.7664161.28+300]
12

15.7 C

7. Force Due to Liquid Pressure by Integration

The force F on an area A at a depth y in a liquid of density w is given by

F=wyA
The force will increase if the density increases, or if the depth increases or if the
area increases.
So if we have an unevenly shaped plate submerged vertically in a liquid, the
force on it will increase with depth. Also, if the shape of the plate changes as we
go deeper, we have to allow for this.
So we have:

Now, the total force on the plate is given by

b

F=w xy dy
a

Where

x is thelength( m)of theelement of area(expressed terms of y)

y is the depth ( m) of theelement of area

w is the density of the liquid ( N m3)

(for water , this is w=9800 N m3)

a is the depth at the topof the areaquestion( m)

b is thedepth at the bot tom of the areaquestion ( m)

8. Head Injury Criterion (HIC) part 1: Severity Index

In this section we'll see an example of the average value of a function. Our
aim is to find the Head Injury Criterion, a measure of damage to the head.
In the 1950s, cars were efficient killing machines. There were no such things as
airbags, safety belts, anti-lock braking, crumple zones or plastic knobs. Ralph
Nader pressured car manufacturers in the 1960s and 1970s to produce safer cars
- and it worked.
Normal Braking
Normal braking in a street car: 10 ms-2 (or about 1 g).
Normal braking in a racing car: 50 ms-2 (or about 5 g). This is due to
aerodynamic styling and large tyres with special rubber.
When we stop in a car, the deceleration can be either abrupt (as in a crash), as
follows:

or more gentle, as in normal braking:

Either way, the area under the curve is the same, since the velocity we must
lose is the same.
Crash Tests
Imagine a car travelling at 48.3 km/h (30 mph). Under normal braking, it will take
1.5 to 2 seconds for the car to come to rest. But in a crash, the car stops in about
150 ms and the life threatening deceleration peak lasts about 10 ms. Crash test
experiments include the use of dummies, dead bodies, animals and boxers!
Mercedes Benz Crash Test Data - Deceleration of the Head

The Mercedes Benz Company has been a world leader in car safety, and has
conducted many crash tests involving dummies, with the aim of reducing injuries
for humans. Our head is like a pendulum and so it's the most vulnerable part of
our body in a crash. In cars without an airbag, the deceleration is quite violent
and lasts a very short time. The Head Injury Criterion (HIC) is very high in such
cases, indicating that the occupants' heads will be injured.
The A-3 ms Value
The A-3 ms value in the following graphs refers to the maximum deceleration
that lasts for 3 ms. (Any shorter duration has little effect on the brain.)

If an airbag is present, it will expand and reduce the deceleration forces. Notice
that the peak forces (in g) are much lower for the airbag case.

The blue rectangles in these deceleration graphs indicate the most critical part of
the deceleration, when the maximum force is exerted for a long duration. With
an airbag, you are far more likely to survive the crash. The airbag deploys in 25
ms.

Car design and crash outcomes

This photo was taken just after the car crash in 1997 that killed all occupants,
including Princess Diana. Notice how the front crumple zone of the Mercedes did
its job while the cabin retained its shape. Unfortunately, it was not enough to
save her.

Crumple zones absorb impact forces, so that deceleration is reduced, an in turn,

injury is reduced.
A model to describe head injuries
We aim to describe the risk of head injury in a crash by a number.
The two main approaches are the Severity Index and the Head Injury Criterion.
The Severity Index
The first model developed historically was the Severity Index (SI).
It was calculated using the formula:
T

SI = {a ( t ) }2.5 dt
0

Where
T is the duration of the deceleration during the crash; and
a(t) is the deceleration at time t.
The index 2.5 was chosen for the head and other indices were used for other
parts of the body (usually based on possibly gruesome experiments on human or
animal bodies).
The Severity Index was found to be inadequate, so researchers developed
the Head Injury Criterion.

9. Head Injury Criterion (HIC) pt 2: HIC Index, example

Experiments showed researchers that the Severity Index did not accurately
describe the likelihood of certain injuries in a crash. They subsequently
developed the Head Injury Criterion (HIC), which is based on the average
value of the acceleration over the most critical part of the deceleration (shown
in the blue rectangles in the Mercedes data before)
We met average value of a function earlier in this chapter.
The average value `bar(a)` of the acceleration a(t) over the time
interval t1 to t2 is given by
t2

1
=
a(t) d t
t 2t 1 t 1
For the HIC, this was modified (based on experimental data) as follows:

a ( t ) dt
t2
1
2.5
t 2t 1
t1
HIC= MAX (t 1t 2) {(t 2 t 1)

The formula means:

The HIC is the maximum value over the critical time period t1 to t2 for the
expression in braces, { }. The index 2.5 is chosen for the head, based on
experiments.

10. Arc Length of a Curve using Integration

Example 1 - Corrugated iron sheeting

Corrugated iron roof.

Corrugated iron is used extensively throughout the world as a versatile building
material. Bending the material into a regular wave pattern gives it greater
strength than if a flat sheet is used.
Another example of a light, thin and weak sheet that is made much stronger by
having regular folds is corrugated cardboard, used for protecting goods in transit.

The flat sheet is rolled into corrugations, and will be narrower.

To make corrugated iron, you need to bend a wide flat sheet into waves. The
resulting corrugated sheet is then narrower, of course. The corrugations are
commonly in the form of a sine curve.
We take a real example of a 4.2" Corrugated Metal Panel, which is a "high profile,
wavy style corrugated panel that can be used in almost any roofing, siding, or
decorative application." [Source]

Corrugated metal, in the shape of a sine wave

This panel has a finished width of 106.7 cm, a period of 10.67 cm (distance from
the top of each wave to the top of the next), and has amplitude 1.35 cm (height
from the mid-point of the wave to the top of a crest).
How wide should the flat sheet be to give us a corrugated sheet of width 106.7
cm?
Example 1 Solution
We model the corrugations using the curve

y=1.35 sin 0.589 x

This has the required amplitude 1.35 and period 10.67.
(Within the sine expression, we use 2/10.67 = 0.589 for the coefficient of x. For
background on this, see Period of a sine curve.)

We'll find the width needed for one wave, then multiply by the number of waves.

Approximate answer: Next, let's approximate the length of the curve so we've
got a rough idea what our exact length should be. (It's always good practice to
estimate your answer first, and in this topic, it helps us understand the concept
better).
We plot the points O (0, 0), A (2.65, 1.35), B (5.33, 0), C (7.99,
-1.35) and D (10.65, 0), which are key points on the curve (at the mid-points,
maximum and minimum values), and join the line segments.

We then use Pythagoras' Theorem to find the length OA:

OA= 2.65 2 + 1.35 2 =2.97

The distances AB, BC, CD are all equal, so we can say:

OA + AB+ BC +CD =4 2.97=11.88

So we expect the curved distance OD to be around 12 cm.
Exact value
We'll use calculus to find the 'exact' value. But first, some background.
We zoom in near the centre of the segment OA and we see the curve is almost
straight.
For this portion, the curve EF is getting quite close to the straight line
segment EF.

For this zoomed-in section, we have:

b

Curved length

EF=r 12+ 0.572 0.57=1.15

a

Of course, the real curved length is slightly more than 1.15.

Let's generalise this.
General Form of the Length of a Curve
If the horizontal distance is "dx" (or "a small change in x") and the vertical height
of the triangle is "dy" (or "a small change in y") then the length of the curved arc
"dr" is approximated as:

dr dx 2 + dy 2

Now, if we move point E very close to point F, we will have a very good
approximation for the length of the curve in that local region.
We need to add all those infinitesimally small lengths. We use integration, as it
represents the sum of such infinitely small distances. We have for the distance
between where x=a to x=b:

length=r = a b ( dx ) 2 + (dy ) 2
By performing simple surd manipulation, we can express this in more familiar
form as follows.
The arc length of the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is given by:

length=r = a b 1+( dx dy ) 2 dx
Of course, we are assuming the function y=f(x) is continuous in the
region x=a to x=b (otherwise, the formula won't work).
Example 3 - Golden Gate Bridge cables
The central span of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, USA,
is 1280 m long.

Central span of the Golden Gate Bridge.

The height of the tower is 152 m from the roadway. What is the length of the
main suspension cable between the 2 towers?
Answer
We first need to model the curve (find an equation that represents the curve
accurately).
A freely hanging cable takes the form of a catenary. The general form for a
catenary is the sum of 2 exponential functions:

ax

y=

a( e +e
2

ax

The Golden Gate Bridge cable is almost a catenary and almost a parabola, but
not quite either (because of the weight of the cables, the suspender ropes and
the roadway). For the sake of this discussion, we'll assume it is a catenary.
For convenience, we'll place the origin at the lowest point of the cable.
The required curve (after some guess and check) passing through (-640,152),
(0,0) and (640,152) is given by:

y=1280(

x
1326

+e
2

x
1326

1)

Here is the graph of the above equation. We can see it pases through the
required points.

The derivative of our function is

dy 640 e x /1326 + ex/1326

=
(
)
dx 663
2
Using the length of a curve formula, with start point x = -640 and end point x =
640, we have:
640

640

1+(

640 e x /1326 + e x /1326 2

) dx=1326.956
663
2

So the length of the central span of the main cable is 1327.0 m.

Of course, the cable continues on both sides of the towers. The total length of
each cable is 2,332 m.