KNS 3621 Lab 6 Lab Manual

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
KNS 3621
CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 6
LABORATORY MANUAL
(Edited : December 2009)
CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 6

KNS 3621
LABORATORY MANUAL
CONTRIBUTED BY :
Jethro Henry Adam
Law Puong Ling
Wan Hashim Wan Ibrahim
Zamri Bujang
Mohamad Raduan Kabit
PREPARED BY :
Jethro Henry Adam
TABLE OF CONTENT
Lab Code
Title
Page
W1
Suspended Solids
W2
pH, Acidity & Alkalinity
W3
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
11
W4
Chemical Oxygen Demand
15
W5
Coagulation & Flocculation
18
T1
Spot Speed Study
21
T2
Traffic Volume
26
Safety First
29
Guidelines for Laboratory Report
30
Floc Size Chart
32
Survey Form for Volume Study at an Intersection
33
Appendix
KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
TITLE :
W1 Suspended Solids
THEORY :
Solids refer to matter suspended or dissolved in water or wastewater. Solids content
are one of the major physical characteristics of water or wastewater. Knowing the
solids content of the water, we can determine the type, characteristics and source of
the water.
Solids may affect water or effluent quality adversely in a number of ways. Waters
with high dissolved solids generally are of inferior palatability and may induce an
unfavorable physiological reaction in transient consumer. Waters high in suspended
solids may be esthetically unsatisfactory.
Solids analyses are important in the control of biological and physical wastewater
treatment processes and for assessing compliance with regulatory wastewater effluent
limitations.
OBJECTIVE :
To determine and differentiate solids characteristics such as suspended solids, total
solids and volatile suspended solids in wastewater sample.
APPARATUS :
a) Evaporating dishes
b) Muffle furnace (for operation at 550 oC)
c) Drying oven (for operation 103 105 oC)
d) Analytical balance (to 0.1 mg)
e) Dessicator
f) Graduated cylinder
g) Beaker
h) Glass-fiber filter papers

PROCEDURE :
Preparation
1. Mark 2 CF/C (glass-fibber) filter papers as A and B.
2. Wash evaporating dish with distilled water.
3. Dry filter papers and evaporating dish in oven at 105 oC for 1 hour.
4. Remove filter papers and evaporating dish from the oven after 1 hour.
5. Store and cool filter paper marked A and evaporating dish in dessicator.
Meanwhile place filter paper marked B into muffle furnace at 550 + 5 oC for 4
minutes. Later, store it in dessicator.
6. Weigh immediately before use and record the empty filter paper (X) and empty
evaporating dish (D).
A) Suspended Solids (SS)

1. Put filter paper A on a filter cone.
2. Filters 20 ml of distilled water. Repeat the process 3 times to make sure that the
filter paper is clean.
3. Filter 100 ml of effluent water sample.
4. Take out the filter paper and place it in evaporating dish.
5. Dry at 103 105 oC until it is completely dry (until weight change is less than 4%
or 0.5 mg; normally about 1 hour in the oven).
6. Cool in dessicator and weight the filter paper and residue (Y).
7. Record the following :
Suspended Solids, SS (mg/l) =
Y X 1000
ml sample
where, X = weight of empty filter paper (mg)

Y = weight of filter paper + dried residue (mg)
8. Repeat the experiment and record the average value.
B) Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)

1. Repeat procedure 1 7 in (A) using filter paper B.
2. Ignite the filter paper in the muffle furnace at 550 + 5 oC for 4 minutes
2

3. Cool at room temperature and then in dessicator.

4. Weight the filter paper and the residue (Z).
5. Record the followings :
Volatile Suspended Solids, VSS (mg/l) =
Fixed Suspended Solids, FSS (mg/l) =
Y Z 1000
ml sample
Z X 1000
ml sample
where, X = weight of empty filter paper (mg)

Y = weight of filter paper + dried residue before ignition (mg)
Z = weight of filter paper + dried residue after ignition (mg)
C) Total Solids (TS)

1. Pour 100 ml sample into evaporating dish.
2. Evaporate to dryness on a steam bath or in a drying oven. When evaporating in a
drying oven, lower temperature to approximately 2 oC below boiling to prevent
splattering.
3. Dry evaporated sample for at least 1 hour in an oven at 103 105 oC until it is
completely dry (until weight change is less than 4% or 0.5 mg).
4. Cool the evaporating dish in dessicator and weight the dish and its residue (E).
5. Record the following :
Total Solids, TS (mg/l) =
E D 1000
ml sample
where, D = weight of empty evaporating dish (mg)

E = weight of evaporating dish + dried residue (mg)

RESULT :
A) Suspended Solids (SS)
1
Average
Sample volume (ml)
Filter paper, X (mg)
Filter paper + dried residue, Y (mg)
Suspended solids, SS (mg/l)

B) Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)
1
Average
Sample volume (ml)
Filter paper, X (mg)

Filter paper + dried residue before
ignition, Y (mg)
Filter paper + dried residue after
ignition, Y (mg)
Volatile suspended solids, VSS (mg/l)
Fixed suspended solids, FSS (mg/l)

C) Total Solids (TS)
1
Average
Sample volume (ml)
Evaporating dish, D (mg)
Evaporating dish + dried residue, E (mg)
Total solids, TS (mg/l)
DISCUSSION :
1) List down the standard values of solids content in wastewater.
2) Discuss the significant of the values in wastewater treatment.

TITLE :
W2 pH, Acidity & Alkalinity
THEORY :
Some of the major parameters of chemical characteristics of water are pH, acidity and
alkalinity. Measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used tests
in water chemistry. pH value gives indication whether the sample is acidic or alkaline.
Acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to react with a strong base to a designated
pH. Acidity is a measure of an aggregate property of water and can be interpreted in
terms of specific substances only when chemical composition of the sample is known.
Strong mineral acids, weak acids and hydrolyzing salts may contribute to the
measured acidity.
Alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity is a measure of
aggregate property of water and can be interpreted in terms of specific substances
only when the chemical composition of the sample is known.
OBJECTIVE :
To determine and compare pH, acidity and alkalinity values of water samples.
APPARATUS :
a) pH meter
h) Buffer solutions
b) Beakers
i) 0.02 N NaOH
c) Conical flasks
j) Methyl orange
d) Burette
k) Phenolphthalein
e) Graduated cylinder
f) Pipette
g) Distilled water

PROCEDURE :
A) pH
Calibration
1. Rinse the pH meter probe with distilled water and dry it.
2. Place the probe into pH 10 buffer solution and allow the pH reading to settle.
3. Adjust the pH meter until it gives pH 10 reading.
4. Take out the probe from the buffer solution. Rinse and dry the probe.
5. Place the probe into pH 4 buffer solution and allow the pH reading to settle.
6. Adjust the pH meter until it gives pH 4 reading.
7. The pH meter is now calibrated.
pH Reading
1. Turn on and calibrate your pH meter.
2. After rinsing the second calibration buffer off of the probe, submerge it in the
sample to be tested.
3. Swirl the container with sample in gently to ensure a constant supply of fresh
sample be in contact with the probe.
4. Allow enough time for the meters reading to stabilize.
5. When finished, give the probe one final rinse, and return the cap to it with fresh
storage solution.
6. Repeat the experiment with other water samples.
B) Acidity
Using result and samples from (A), determine which indicator to be used in the
titration :
pH 0 4.5 ~ methyl orange (colour change from red to yellow/orange)
pH 4.5 8.3 ~ phenolphthalein (colour change from colourless to pink)
1. Pipette 50 ml of sample into conical flask.
2. Add 0.2 ml (5 drops) of indicator into the flask.
3. Record the initial 0.02 N NaOH in the burette.
4. Titrate the sample and stop titration when the colour changes.

5. Record the final burette reading.

6. Repeat the experiment 2 times.
7. Calculate the acidity as mg/l CaCO3 :
Acidity (mg/l CaCO3) =
A N 50,000
ml sample
where, A = volume of NaOH tritrant used (ml)

N = normality of NaOH
C) Alkalinity
Using result and samples from (A), determine which titration to be used :
pH > 8.3 ~ two titration stages; first using phenolphthalein (pink to colourless)
and then methyl orange (red to yellow/orange)
pH 4.5 8.3 ~ single titration using methyl orange (red to yellow/orange)
1. Pipette 50 ml of sample into conical flask.
2. Add 0.2 ml (5 drops) of appropriate indicator into the flask.
3. If the pH of the sample is more than 8.3, follow the followings :i) Record the initial 0.02 N H2SO4 in the burette.
ii) Titrate using H2SO4 and phenolphthalein as indicator (pink to colourless).
iii) Record the final volume in the burette and repeat the experiment 2 times.
iii) Calculate the phenolphthalein alkalinity.
iv) To the same sample, add methyl orange indicator to find total alkalinity (colour
change from yellow/orange to red).
v) Record the final volume in the burette and repeat the experiment 2 times.
vi) Calculate the total alkalinity.
Phenolphthalein alkalinity, P (mg/l CaCO3) =
Total alkalinity, T (mg/l CaCO3) =
A N 50,000
ml sample
B N 50,000
ml sample
where, A = volume of H2SO4 tritrant used in the first titration (ml)

B = total volume of H2SO4 tritrant used (ml)
N = normality of H2SO4

4. If the pH of the sample is between 4.5 and 8.3, follow the followings :i) Record the initial 0.02 N H2SO4 in the burette.
ii) Titrate using H2SO4 and add methyl orange indicator to find total alkalinity
(colour change from yellow/orange to red).
iii) Record the final volume in the burette and repeat the experiment 2 times.
vi) Calculate the total alkalinity.
Total alkalinity, T (mg/l CaCO3) =
B N 50,000
ml sample
where, B = total volume of H2SO4 titrant used (ml)

N = normality of H2SO4
5. From Table W2 1 below, determine which forms of alkalinity are present.
Result of titration
Hydroxide
Alkalinity
(CaCO3)
Carbonate
Alkalinity
(CaCO3)
Bicarbonate
Concentration
(CaCO3)
P=0
P < T
P = T
P > T
P = T
0
0
0
2P T
T
0
2P
2P
2(T P)
0
T
T 2P
0
0
0
TABLE W2 1
RESULT :
A) pH
Sample
pH
A
1
2
Average

B) Acidity
Sample with pH 0 4.5
Sample
Burette
Reading
A
1
B
3
Initial
Final
Volume
Average
Sample with pH 4.5 8.3
Sample
Burette
Reading
A
1
B
3
Initial
Final
Volume
Average
C) Alkalinity
Sample with pH < 8.3
Sample
Burette
Reading
A
1
B
3
Initial
Final
Volume
Average

Sample with pH > 8.3

Sample
Burette
Reading
A
1
Initial
Final 1
Volume 1
Average 1
Final 2
Volume 2
Average 2
Calculate the acidity and alkalinity of the samples and record the results :
Sample
Parameters
A
pH
Acidity (mg/l CaCO3)
Alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3)
DISCUSSION :
1) Give comments on the results.
2) What are the significant of the parameters pH, acidity and alkalinity in water
treatment processes.
10

TITLE :
W3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
THEORY :
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a chemical procedure for determining how
fast biological organisms use up oxygen in water. It is used in water quality
assessment and could be considered as an indication of the quality of a water source.
The lower the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) value, the more polluted the water is.
The BOD testing is usually performed over a 5-day period at 20 Celsius. It measures
the molecular oxygen utilized during a specified incubation period for the
biochemical degradation of organic material (carbonaceous demand) and the oxygen
used to oxidize inorganic material (such as sulfides and ferrous iron). It also may
measure the amount of oxygen used to oxidize reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous
demand) unless their oxidation is prevented by an incubator.
The BOD concentration in most wastewaters exceeds the concentration of dissolved
oxygen (DO) available in an air-saturated sample. Therefore, it is necessary to dilute
the sample before incubation to bring the oxygen demand and supply into appropriate
balance.
OBJECTIVE :
To use the Winkler titration method to determine the BOD value of water sample.
APPARATUS :
a) Beakers
g) BOD bottles
m) Sulfuric acid
b) Conical flasks
h) Reagent bottles
n) Manganous sulphate solution
c) Burette
i) Incubator
o) Alkali-iodide-azide reagent
d) Graduated cylinder
j) Distilled water
p) Concentrated sulfuric acid
e) Pipette
k) Dilution water
q) Natrium thiosulphate titrant
f) Volumetric flasks
l)
Starch solution
11

PROCEDURE :
A) Preparation of sample
1. Prepare 3 litre of dilution water by adding 1 ml of the following prepared
solutions per litre of distilled water : phosphate buffer, magnesium sulphate
(MgSO4), calcium chloride (CaCl2), ferric chloride (FeCl3), and aliltiourea (ATU).
2. Aerated the dilution water by shaking it in a partially filled bottle.
3. Label two 1 litre of volumetric flasks with sample and blank respectively. The
flask labeled blank is use as control to make sure that the dilution water used is
not polluted.
4. Transfer 200 ml of water sample into the flask labeled sample and add dilution
water until it reach the 1 litre level (this will gives a dilution 1/5 of the sample).
Shake the flask thoroughly.
5. To the blank flask, transfer 1 litre of dilution water.
6. Label 4 clean BOD bottles as 1 4.
7. Fill bottle 1 & 2 with solution from blank flask and bottle 3 & 4 with solution
from sample flask.
8. Cover the bottles carefully.
9. Determine the initial (day zero) dissolved oxygen value for solution in bottle 1 & 3
using Winkler titration method (Section B).
10. Incubate bottle 2 & 4 for 5 days + 1 hour at temperature 20 + 1 oC.
11. Determine the dissolved oxygen values of solutions in bottle 2 & 4 after 5 days.
B) Dissolve Oxygen (DO)

1. To the sample collected in a 250 300 ml reagent bottle, add 1 ml manganous
sulfate (MnSO4) solution, followed by 1 ml alkali-iodide-azide reagent. (If
pipettes are dipped into sample, rinse them using distilled water before returning
them to reagent bottles).
2. Stopper carefully to exclude air bubbles and mix by inverting bottle few times.
Allow to settle. Shake the bottle again and allow to settle.
3. When precipitate has settled sufficiently (to approximately half the bottle volume)
add 1 ml concentrated sulfuric acid.
12

4. Restopper and mix by inverting several times until dissolution is complete.

5. Transfer 100 ml of the solution into a 250 ml conical flask.
6. Titrate with 0.0125M natrium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) solution to a pale straw
colour.
7. Add 5 drops of starch solution and continue titration to first disappearance of blue
colour.
8. Record the reading and repeat the titration process.
9. Calculation : 1 ml 0.0125M Na2S2O3 = 1 mg/l DO.
RESULT :
Sample type
: ______________________
Dilution ratio : ______________________

Day 0 Dissolved Oxygen
Sample
Burette Reading
Blank (Bottle 1)
(i)
(ii)
Sample (Bottle 3)
(i)
(ii)
Initial
Final
Volume
Average
DO (mg/l)
Day 5 Dissolved Oxygen
Sample
Burette Reading
Blank (Bottle 2)
(i)
(ii)
Sample (Bottle 4)
(i)
(ii)
Initial
Final
Volume
Average
DO (mg/l)
13

Calculate the BOD of the water sample :

BOD5 (mg/l) =
D1
D2
B1
B2 f
where, D1 = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation (mg/l)

D2 = DO of diluted sample after 5 days incubation at 20 oC (mg/l)
B1 = DO of seeded blank just before incubation (mg/l)
B2 = DO of seeded blank after incubation (mg/l)
P = decimal volumetric fraction of sample used
f = ratio of seed in diluted sample to seed in seeded blank
DISCUSSION :
1) Why does aliltiourea (ATU) solution need to be add while preparing the sample?
2) Simply discuss the factors that affect the BOD value in the experiment.
3) Comment on the BOD value obtains from the experiment.
14

TITLE :
W4 Chemical Oxygen Demand
THEORY :
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as the amount of a specified oxidant that
reacts with the sample under controlled conditions. The basis for the COD test is that
nearly all organic compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon dioxide with a strong
oxidizing agent under acidic conditions. The quantity of oxidant consumed is
expressed in terms of its oxygen equivalence.
COD test measures the oxidation of organic matters that can be degraded both
biologically and non-biologically. This is why the COD value is higher than BOD5
value.
OBJECTIVE :
To determine COD value of water sample using open reflux method.
APPARATUS :
a) Reflux apparatus
l) Ferroin indicator solution
b) Beakers
m) Concentrate sulphuric acid containing
c) Conical flasks
d) Burette
e) Graduated cylinder
f) Pipette
g) Distilled water
argentum sulphate
n) Standard potassium dichromate
solution, 0.04167 M
o) Standard ferrous ammonium sulphate
titrant, (approximately 0.25 M)
h) Analytical balance (to 0.1 mg)

i) Glass rod
j) Mercuric sulphate crystals/powder
k) Glass beads
15

PROCEDURE :
Reflux of Water Sample
1. Pour 50 ml distilled water into refluxing flask A and 50 ml water sample into
refluxing flask B.
2. Add 1 g mercuric sulphate (HgSO4), 3 4 glass beads into each flask.
3. Very slowly, add 5 ml sulphuric acid (H2SO4) reagent containing argentum
sulphate (Ag2SO4) to each flask and mix well to dissolve HgSO4.
4. Add 25 ml 0.04167 M potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution to each flask and
mix well.
5. Very slowly, add the remaining 70 ml H2SO4 and continue swirling and mixing
while adding the acid.
Caution : Mix reflux mixture thoroughly before applying heat to prevent local
heating of flask bottom and a possible blowout of flask contents.
6. Attach both flasks to condenser and reflux for 2 hours.
7. After 2 hours, off the switch and let the flasks cool down.
8. Disconnect the flasks from the condenser and let them cool down in the sink.
9. Pour the reflux into a 500 ml conical flask and add distilled water until 350 ml.
Note : Make sure all reflux is poured well by rinsing the refluxing flask with
distilled water few times. Make sure that there are no glass beads being
poured into the conical flask.
10. Titrate with ferrous ammonium sulphate (Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2) titrant using 2-3 drops
ferroin indicator (the colour changes from yellow to blue-green to reddish brown).
Caution : Very careful with the titration as the colour changes very fast. Take as
the end point of titration the first sharp colour change from blue-green
to reddish brown that persists for 1 minute or longer).
Molarity of Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2, FAS titrant

1. Pour 25 ml of 0.04167M K2Cr2O7 solution into 250 ml conical flask.
2. Add distilled water to 100 ml.
3. Add 30 ml concentrated H2SO4 and let it cool.
4. Titrate with Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 titrant (FAS) using 2-3 drops of ferroin indicator.
16

5. Calculate the molarity of FAS solution :

Molarity of FAS, M =
K 0.25
F
where, K = volume of 0.04167M K2Cr2O7 solution titrated (ml)

F = volume of FAS used in titration (ml)
RESULT :
Molarity of Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2, FAS titrant
Volume of 0.04167M K2Cr2O7 solution : ___________________ ml
FAS titrant
Burette Reading (ml)
Molarity (M)
Initial
Final
Volume
Initial
FAS titrant volume (ml)

Final
Volume
COD Calculation
Sample
Blank (Flask A)
Water sample (Flask B)
Calculate the COD value of the water sample :
COD (mg/l) =
A B M 8000
ml sample
where, A = volume of FAS used for blank (ml)

B = volume of FAS used for sample (ml)
M = molarity of FAS
DISCUSSION :
1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of COD testing compared to BOD.
2) Comment on the COD value obtains from the experiment.
3) Find the ratio of BOD5 and COD values of this experiment with W3 and give your
comments.
17

TITLE :
W5 Coagulation & Flocculation
THEORY :
Fresh water need to undergo few stages of treatment processes before being
distributed for consumption. One of the processes is sedimentation that removes
suspended solids from the water by gravity settling. During the sedimentation process
the greater portion of suspended solids settle out leaving the clear solution which
contains a relatively small quantity of fine suspended particles. Coagulation and
flocculation processes remove these finely divided particles that would otherwise
remain in the effluent. Coagulation of a colloidal suspension results in the joining of
minute particles by physical or chemical means. Flocculation results in the formation
of a larger, settleable structure by bridging. Mechanical flocculation requires gentle
circulation of the particles to provide good contact and good growth of floc. Addition
of chemical reagent (coagulant) will speed up the process and improve product quality
Coagulation and flocculation tests which also commonly called jar tests will indicate
the optimum coagulant dosages for removal of turbidity and colour, including pH
adjustment. They also yield information on the rate of agglomeration as a function of
energy input, settleability of the particular floc formed and the clarity of the
supernatant.
OBJECTIVE :
To determine the optimum dose of coagulant using jar test method.
APPARATUS :
a) Jar tester apparatus
e) Analytical balance
i) Distilled water
b) Burette
f) Magnetic stirrer
j) Alum stock solutions
c) Beakers
g) pH meter
k) Sulfuric acid
d) Pipette
h) Turbidimeter
l) Natrium hydroxide
18

Figure W5 1 Jar Tester
PROCEDURE :
1. Prepare alum stock solution by dissolving 2.5 g aluminum sulphate (Al(SO4)3 into
1000 ml of distilled water. Each 1.0 ml of this solution is equal to 5.0 ppm when
added to 500 ml of water sample.
2. Mark each of 6 one liter beakers as A to F.
3. Fill each beaker with 500 ml water sample.
4. Measure the initial pH and turbidity of the water sample.
5. Put each beaker on a magnetic stirrer and add alum solution according to the
dosage below :
Beaker
Dosage (ppm)
50
75
100
125
150
6. Fill in 2 different burettes with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and natrium hydroxide
(NaOH) respectively for pH correction purpose.
7. Check pH of each beaker and slowly titrate either H2SO4 or NaOH to each beaker
so that the pH is fixed to 6.5.
8. Place the beakers in the jar tester and start the stirrers all on a fast speed of 100
rpm for 1 minute. This is to ensure the dispersion of the coagulant throughout the
sample.
19

9. Reduce the stirrer speed to 30 rpm to allow flocculation to take place.

10. Note the size and appearance of the floc formed (refer Appendix C).
11. Stop the stirring after 20 minutes and allow the floc to settle for 30 minutes.
12. Measure the depth of the sludge in each beaker.
13. Determine pH and turbidity of the supernatant (the clear liquid above the solids)
of each beaker; taking special care to collect the sample free from floating and
settled floc.
14. Plot graph of turbidity vs. coagulant dosage.
RESULT :
Water sample pH
: __________
Water sample turbidity : __________ NTU

Parameter
Alum dosage (ppm)
Beaker
A
0
B
25
C
50
D
75
E
100
F
125
Alum volume (ml)

Initial pH
Adjusted pH
Final pH
Floc size
Depth of sludge (mm)
Turbidity (NTU)
DISCUSSION :
1) What are other chemical or material that can be used as coagulant replacing alum?
2) What is the optimum dose of alum for this experiment?
3) Comment on your results.
4) Discuss other factors that need to be considered in coagulation and flocculation
processes.
20

TITLE :
T1 Spot Speed Study
THEORY :
Speed is an important transportation consideration, because highway users relate
speed to economics, safety, time, comfort, and convenience. Spot speed studies are
designed to measure speeds at specific locations under the traffic and environmental
conditions prevailing at the time of the study.
OBJECTIVE :
a) To be able to carry out spot speed study along a stretch of road.
b) To be able to carry out spot speed data analysis.
c) To determine speed characteristics along the stretch of road.
APPARATUS :
a) Radar Gun
b) Safety Vest
c) Clipboard
d) Pen
e) Stop Watch
PROCEDURE :
The successful of spot speed study is based on the position of the radar unit which
needs to address the following considerations:
a) Capabilities of the radar unit. The unit should be set up and calibrated
according to manufacturers specifications and instructions.
21

b) Minimizing the angle of incidence. The larger the angle of incidence between
the radar beam and the direction of travel of the target vehicle, the larger the
cosine error. An angle of less than 15 degrees keeps the error under 2 mph.
c) Concealing the unit from the view of motorists will avoid motorist distraction
(a safety concern) and reaction (a potential source of bias). The crew and
equipment may be concealed b vegetation or roadside structures.
Selection of target vehicles should be selected randomly that represent the population
of vehicles under study. Sufficient number of spot speed observations should be made
to allow statistical analysis to be carried out. A minimum sample size can be
determined for a desired degree of statistical accuracy by using equation (1) to
calculate the number of speeds to be measured.
N = (SK/E)2
(1)
where, N = minimum number of measured speeds

S = estimated sample standard deviation, mph
K = constant corresponding to the desired confidence level
E = permitted error in the average speed estimate, mph
Standard deviation can be estimated using previous speed studies under similar
conditions of study or from speed monitoring data at a nearby location. In the absence
of these data, Table T1 1 can be used as a basis of estimation. For greatest accuracy,
calculate the actual standard deviation of the data, and check to see if the sample size
was adequate. If not, additional data would have to be collected under the same
conditions as the first study.
Table T1 1 Standard Deviations of Spot Speeds for Sample-Size Determination
Traffic Areas
Rural
Intermediate
Urban
Highway Type
Two-lane
Four-lane
Two-lane
Four-lane
Two-lane
Four-lane
Rounded-Values
Average Standard Deviation

Mph
Kph
5.3
8.5
4.2
6.8
5.3
8.5
5.3
8.5
4.8
7.7
4.9
7.9
5.0
8.0
Source: Box and Oppenlander, 1976, p. 80
22

The constant K, corresponds to confidence-level values as shown in Table T1 2. In

this study use a confidence-level of 95%. The permitted error, E, reflects the precision
required in estimating the mean speed. Typical permitted errors range from 1.0 to
5.0 mph. In this lab, use E = 3.0
Table T1 2 Constant Corresponding to Level of Confidence
Constant, K
Confidence Level (%)
1.00
1.50
1.64
1.96
2.00
2.50
2.58
3.00
68.3
86.6
90.0
95.0
95.5
98.8
99.0
99.7
Source: Box and Oppenlander, 1976, p. 81
RESULTS / ANALYSIS :
1) Prepare a speed data as shown in Table T1 3.
2) Prepare a frequency Distribution Table T1 4.
3) Plot a frequency distribution curve.
4) Plot a cumulative distribution curve.
5) Determine the mean speed using equation (2).
f i ui
... (2)
fi
6) Determine standard deviation using equation (3).
f i ui
s
f i ui
fi
fi 1
... (3)
7) Calculate the following :(a) 85th percentile speed, P85. Discuss the use of the 85th percentile speed in traffic
engineering.
23

(b) 50th percentile speed, P50.

(c) Time mean speed.
(d) Pace, i.e. the specified increment of spot speed, usually 10 mph, which
includes the greatest number of speed measurements.
Table T1 3 Speed Data Obtained from the Study
Car No.
Speed (kph)
Car No.
Speed (kph)
Car No.
Speed (kph)
24

Table T1 4 Frequency Distribution Table

Speed
Class
(kph)
Class
Midvalue,
ui
Class
Frequency,
fi
fiui
Percentage
Cumulative
of
percentage
Observations
of all
in Class
observations
25

TITLE :
T2 Traffic Volume
THEORY :
Engineers often use counts of the number of vehicles or pedestrians passing a point,
entering an intersection, or using a particular facility. Road and transportation
authorities use extensive amount of traffic volume in their decision making processes
in order to improve the current status of transportation facilities. Thus, in this
laboratory, the proper way of carrying out traffic volume study is being explained.
OBJECTIVE :
a) To demonstrate the procedure to carry out traffic volume study.
b) To carry out vehicle classification based on Malaysian Traffic Condition.
c) To be able to carry out traffic volume analysis.
APPARATUS :
a) Stop watches
b) Survey Form (Appendix I)
c) Pen
d) Safety Vest
e) Clipboard
26

PROCEDURE :
1. Select a group which consists of six members.
2. Select a intersection to carry out the study.
3. Check Checklist
Ensure that all stop watches are set at the same time.
Ensure that the survey forms are adequate
Ensure number of pens are adequate
Use Enough Clipboard
Bring along an authorization letter from the relevant agency (In this lab, an
authorization letter from the Dean is sufficient).
Ensure that all members of the team have the name and phone number of
supervisor at site.
4. Review the purpose and type of count to be performed.
5. Review time period and time interval required.
6. Fill in header information as detail as possible.
7. Observers location
a) Able to view traffic clearly
b) Wear proper dressing and safety vest
8. Data recording
a) Data should be kept properly and organized
b) Labeled data correctly
c) Labeled forms correctly: count location, observers name, time of study,
weather condition
d) State clearly vehicle movements, classification, time intervals
e) Use the following vehicle classifications as in Table T2 1:
Table T2 1 Vehicle Classifications
Vehicle Class
1
2
3
4
5
Vehicle Type
Passenger Cars
Motorcycles
Trailers
Lorry
Busses
27

f) Sketch The Site by providing complete information

9. Data Reduction : converting tally marks into numbers, summarizing data by
calculating subtotals and totals, arranging the data to enable analysis being
conducted efficiently.
10. Data Analysis : Carried out once data reduction is completed.
11. Count period : Should be representative of the time of the day, day of the week, or
month of the year. However, in this lab session, the count period should be three
hours. Ensure that each person in the group start counting at the same time.
12. Time Interval : Every Fifteen minutes.
13. Protect yourself from the weather.
RESULT / ANALYSIS :
1) Analyse your data using graphical forms, bar chart, graphs and summary tables.
2) Identify Peak Hour Volume in vehicle per hour.
3) Identify Peak Hour Volume in PCU (Use PCE equivalent as in Table T2 2).
4) Calculate the Peak Hour Factor (PHF).
PHF = Hourly Volume/ (4 x Peak 15-min Volume)
5) Calculate service Flow Rate for the intersection.
Service Flow rate = Hourly Volume/PHF
Table T2 2 PCE Factor (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86)
Type of Vehicle
Passenger car
Motorcycle
Light vans
Medium lorries
Heavy lorries
Rural
1.00
1.00
2.00
2.50
3.00
Urban
1.00
0.75
2.00
2.50
3.00
Traffic Signal
1.00
0.33
2.00
1.75
2.25
28

APPENDIX A
SAFETY FIRST
Follow all instructions carefully.
Appropriate clothing must be worn in the lab. No loose clothing or jewelry around
operating equipment. Do not wear open toe shoes or sandal in operating
laboratories.
Do not operate equipment or carry on experiments unless the instructor/technician
is present in the laboratory.
Assure that necessary safety equipment is readily available and in usable
condition.
Become familiar with safety precautions and emergency procedures before
undertaking any laboratory work.
All injuries, no matter how small, must be reported.
29

APPENDIX B
GUIDELINES
All laboratory works should be conducted within the period given.
The laboratory rules and regulations apply throughout the lab sessions.
Lab report should be submitted ONE (1) WEEK after every lab session.
Each lab group is to submit only ONE (1) report per lab session (GROUP
SUBMISSION).
Attendance for every lab session is COMPULSORY. No mark will be given to
any report(s) submitted without attending the lab session(s).
Reports must be written in the following format :
Formatting guidelines
Font type & size : Times new roman, 12
Spacing
: 1.5 spacing
Margin
: left (1.5), right (1.25), top (1) and

bottom (1)
Front Cover
: See below
Tape binding
Content guidelines
Cover page
Table of content
Lab code & title of experiment
Theory / Introduction
Objectives
Procedure
Your own word!

Do NOT copy/scan
from the lab manual!!!!!
Result
Discussion
Conclusion &/ recommendation
References
30

Cover page format
31

APPENDIX C
FLOC SIZE CHART
32
Sheet No. :
Weather :
VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION
...
TIME
Client :
..
..
...
And :
Date :
Day :
Project :
..
Intersection of : .
Observer :
..
..
..
..

APPENDIX D
SURVEY FORM FOR VOLUME STUDY AT AN INTERSECTION
33

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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

(Edited : December 2009)

CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 6

pH, Acidity & Alkalinity

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Coagulation & Flocculation

Spot Speed Study

Guidelines for Laboratory Report

Floc Size Chart

Survey Form for Volume Study at an Intersection

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

A) Suspended Solids (SS)

where, X = weight of empty filter paper (mg)

B) Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

3. Cool at room temperature and then in dessicator.

where, X = weight of empty filter paper (mg)

C) Total Solids (TS)

where, D = weight of empty evaporating dish (mg)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

Sample volume (ml)

Filter paper, X (mg)

Filter paper + dried residue, Y (mg)

Suspended solids, SS (mg/l)

Sample volume (ml)

Filter paper, X (mg)

Fixed suspended solids, FSS (mg/l)

Sample volume (ml)

Evaporating dish, D (mg)

Evaporating dish + dried residue, E (mg)

Total solids, TS (mg/l)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

5. Record the final burette reading.

where, A = volume of NaOH tritrant used (ml)

where, A = volume of H2SO4 tritrant used in the first titration (ml)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

where, B = total volume of H2SO4 titrant used (ml)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

Sample with pH > 8.3

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

n) Manganous sulphate solution

p) Concentrated sulfuric acid

q) Natrium thiosulphate titrant

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

B) Dissolve Oxygen (DO)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

4. Restopper and mix by inverting several times until dissolution is complete.

Dilution ratio : ______________________

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

Calculate the BOD of the water sample :

where, D1 = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation (mg/l)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

l) Ferroin indicator solution

m) Concentrate sulphuric acid containing

h) Analytical balance (to 0.1 mg)

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

Molarity of Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2, FAS titrant

KNS 3621 Civil Engineering Laboratory 6

5. Calculate the molarity of FAS solution :