Heat Transfer

Revision Examples

Heat transfer: energy transport because of a temperature

difference.
Thermal energy is transferred from one region to another.
Heat transport is the same phenomena like mass transfer,
momentum transfer and electrical conduction. Similar rate
equations, where flux is proportional to a potential
difference.

Potential difference temperature difference

Three modes of heat transfer:
- Thermal Conduction
- Thermal Convection
- Thermal Radiation

Thermal conduction
The mechanism: energy is transported between parts of
continuum by the transfer of kinetic energy between
particles or groups of particles at the atomic level.

Purely thermal conduction: in solid opaque bodies

(opaque: not permeable for radiation) the thermal
conduction is the significant heat transfer mechanism
because the material doesnt flow and there is no radiation.
In flowing fluids, thermal conduction dominates in the
region very close to the boundary layer, where
the flow is laminar
the flow parallel to the surface
there is no eddy motion

Steady-state conduction
Steady-state conditions:

t = F(t) = constant

For steady-state heat conduction, in one dimension, the Fourier-law is

q (kA)
q
k
A
dt/dx

dt
dx

heat flow rate, W

thermal conductivity or heat conduction coefficient, W/mK
cross sectional area normal to flow, m2
temperature gradient, K/m

The equation states that the heat flow rate (q) in the x direction is directly
proportional to the temperature gradient dt/dx and the cross sectional area A
normal to the heat flow.
The proportionality factor is the thermal conductivity k.
The minus sign indicates that the heat flow is positive in the direction of
decreasing temperature.

If A and k are constant (e.g. at a wall) the equation

(t1 t 2 )
qkA
L
L
t1
t2
A
k

wall thickness
temperature at x = 0
temperature at x = L
surface of the wall
thermal conductivity

One-layer flat wall

t2 t1
t1 t2
Q k A
kA
, W
x2 x1
x2 x1
t1 t 2 t1 t2 t1 t2 t
L
QkA

, W where R
L
L
R
R
kA
kA
R thermal resistance, K/W
Or

L m2 K
R ,
k
W

qA

t
, W
R

Example 1
Given is a solid brick wall, with the following data:
Material:
brick, fired clay, density: 1760 kg/m3,
conductivity (k): 0.8 W/m K
Surface (A):

5 m x 3 m = 15 m2

Interior surface temperature (t1):

20 C

Exterior surface temperature (t2):

0 C

Thickness of the wall (L):

25 cm = 0.25 m

Calculate
a) the heat flow through the wall
b) the thermal resistance

Multi-layer flat wall

t1 t2 t2 t3 t3 t4
q

, W
R1
R2
R3
If the number of layers is n:

t1 t n 1
n

Ri

i 1

Example 2
Given is an insulated concrete wall, which data are:
Layers:
1 sand and gravel concrete,
2400 kg/m3, k1 = 1.5 W/m K, L1 = 16 cm
2 expanded polystyrene,
20 kg/m3, k2 = 0.036 W/m K, L2 = 6 cm
3 sand and gravel concrete,
2400 kg/m3, k3 = 1.5 W/m K, L3 = 8 cm
Surface (A):
5 m x 3 m = 15 m2
Interior surface temperature (t1): 20 C
Exterior surface temperature (t4): 0 C
a) Calculate the heat flow through the wall and the
temperature on the surface of the layers
b) Illustrate the temperature in the wall

Thermal conduction at a one-layer pipe

The Fourier-equation in cylinder coordinates:

dt
Q 2r L k , W
dr
q
r
L
k
dt/dr

the heat flow rate

radius
length of the pipe
thermal conductivity
temperature gradient

The solution of the equation:

t1 t 2
Q 2 L k
, W
r
ln 2
r1
At the same way, with the thermal conduction resistance:

t
Q , W
R
The thermal conduction resistance:

r2
d2 m K
1
1
R
ln or R
ln ,
2 L k r1
2 L k d1
W

Thermal convection
Energy transfer is involved by fluid movement and molecular
conduction.

Heat transfer means energy transfer

from liquids and gases to the surface of a body or a wall, or
from the surface of a body to the liquid.

If in the flow the Reynolds number is large enough, three different

flow regions exist:
At the wall:
laminar sublayer (boundary layer) thermal conduction
Outside the laminar layer:
buffer layer eddy mixing and conduction
Beyond the buffer layer:
turbulent region eddy mixing

Convection is divided into two categories:

Free convection, natural convection:
the flow is generated by nonhomogeneous densities caused
temperature difference.
Forced convection:
the flow is produced by external sources (pump, fan).

The heat flow rate is described by the Newtons formula:

q hc A (t s t f ) hc A t
Where
q heat flow rate, W
hc convectional heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2K
A surface of the wall, m2
ts temperature of the surface, K or C
tf temperature of the fluid, K or C

The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated with dimensionless

numbers, from similarity theory.
Generally

Nu = F (Pr; Gr; Re)

It means, Nusselt number is a function of the product of

Prandtl number,
Grashof number and
Reynolds number.
Dimensionless Numbers
Nu

hc L
k

hc heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K

L

characteristic dimension, m

thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/mK

Dimensionless Numbers
In the equation of Nusselt number

Pr

cp

absolute viscosity, kg/ms or Ns/m2

cp specific heat, J/kgK

thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/mK

L3 2 g t L characteristic dimension, m
Gr

density, kg/m3
coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/K
g

Re

vL

gravitational acceleration, m/s2

t temperature difference, K or C
absolute viscosity, kg/ms or Ns/m2
v

velocity, m/s

characteristic dimension, m D, diameter

kinematic viscosity = /, m2/s

Practical cases of convection

Natural or free convection: effect of temperature difference.
General relationship:
Nu

hc L
C (Gr Pr) n
k
n

k L g t
hc C

L
2
f
3

c p

Open spaces:

hc = F(t; direction of heat flow)

Direction of heat flow:

Ceiling down
Wall

horizontal

Floor

up

t = ts tair > 0
hc up >hc hor > hc down

Some values for hc heat transfer coefficient

Air, gas
4 10 W/m2 K
Water, liquid
100 500 W/m2 K

Forced convection: fluid stream derived from outer force

Nu = F(Pr, Re) = F(v)

Some values for hc heat transfer coefficient

Air, gas

Water, liquid

10

50 W/m2 K

500 5000 W/m2 K

Example 3
Given are a room and a radiator.
Surface temperature:
ts = 85 C

Parameters of ambient air:

tair = 30 C, 1 bar, dry air

Natural convection, length in direction of flow: 0,5 m

Solution:
h L
Nu c
C (Gr Pr) n
k

k L3 2 g t
hc C

L
av2
f

cp

Properties of dry air at tair = 30 C

30 = 1,1270 kg/m3

density,

coefficient of thermal expansion, 30 = 3,25510-3 1/K

= 9,806 m/s2

gravitational acceleration,

absolute viscosity,

30 = 1,8682 10-5 Ns/m2

specific heat,

cp30 = 1013 kJ/kgK

thermal conductivity of the fluid, k30 = 0.0258 W/mK

t = 85 30 = 55 C

Temperature difference
Average temperature

tav = (85 + 30)/2 = 115/2 ~ 60 C

absolute viscosity at 60 C

60 = 1,9907 10-5 Ns/m2

ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005, Chapter 3, Page 3.17 Table 10

A special problem of convection:

Convection in closed spaces: hollows, air layer between surfaces
e.g. window construction
t1 > t2
A1 = A2

Complex process of heat transfer:

conduction
convection
radiation
Equivalent heat conduction coefficient: ke
Equivalent conduction resistance of air
layer:

Requi

L
kequi

From table, e.g. ASHRAE Fundamentals 2001,

Chapter 25, Table 3
Thermal Resistances of Plane Air spaces, m2 K/W

Thermal radiation

The radiation energy transfer is through energy-carrying

electromagnetic waves that are emitted by atoms and
molecules due to change in their energy content.
It means: does not depend on an intermediate material.
The rate of thermal energy emitted by a surface depends on
its quantity and its absolute temperature.
A black surface absorbs all incident radiation.

The total energy emitted per unit time and unit area is given
by the Stefan-Boltzman law:

Eblack T 4
where

Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.67010-8 W/m2 K4

For nonblack surfaces

E Eblack T 4
where
hemispherical emittance or emissivity.
is a function of the material, condition of its surface.

Lamberts cosine law:

Lambert's cosine law is the statement that the total power
observed from a "Lambertian" surface is directly proportional to
the cosine of the angle made by the observer's line of sight
and the line normal to the surface.

E En cos
Utilising the Lamberts law the total energy
radiated to the hemisphere is:

ETotal En

The heat flow rate between the surfaces

Given are two surfaces:

First lets examine two general plane elements!

The energy flux which leaves dA1 element and which is absorbed by
dA2 element is quadraticly small:
d2E1 = E1n cos 1 dA1 dW1
From this, the radiation absorbed by dA2 is:
d2E1-2 = 2 d2E1
The heat exchange through radiation between the two plane elements is:
d2q1-2 = d2E1-2 d2E2-1

Angle Factor
The fraction of all radiant energy leaving a surface i
that is directly incident on surface k is the angle
factor Fik (also known as view factor, shape
factor, and configuration factor).

Overall Heat Transfer

Given is a multilayer wall. The number of layers is 3.
From inside air to outside air there is a complex process:

Inside

convection

In the wall construction

conduction

Outside

also convection

The heat flow rate with overall heat transfer coefficient:

q U A (t i t o )

Example 4

Given is a multilayer wall, where the wall construction data are the following:
Material
1 Brick, fired clay

Density

Condutivity

, kg/m3

k, W/m,K

1760

Thickness
L, m

0.8

0.25

2 Mineral fibreboard

260

0.049

0.06

3 Wood wallboard, pine

660

0.16

0.02

Heat transfer coeff./surface resistance on the laminar air layer

ASHRAE F.25.2

EN 12831

Still air (inside)

Horizontal surface (upward)

9.26/0.11*

10.0/0.1

Horizontal surface (downward)

6.13/0.16*

5.9/0.17

Vertical surface

8.29/0.12*

7.7/0.13

* non reflective surfaces

Moving air (outside)
Any position

34/0.03*

25/0.04

* wind velocity 6,7 m/s (24 km/h)

Calculations
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient:

With overall thermal resistances:

1
1 n Li 1

hi j 1 ki ho

1
n

Ris R j Ros
j 1

2. The heat flow, if

Inside temperature: 20 C
Outside temperature: 4 C
Area of the surface: 15 m2

q U A (ti to )

3. The temperatures of the layers

1 1
tis ti q
A hi

1 L1
t1 tis q
A k1

1 1
tos q to
A ho
4. How to illustrate the temperature in and around the wall?