Beyond Expectations in Music Performance Modules in Higher Education: Rethinking

Instrumental and Vocal Music Pedagogy for the 21 st Century.

In Press: Journal Music Education Research.

Lilian Lima Simones,

Queens University, Belfast

Author note:
Lilian Lima Simones, Sonic Arts Research Centre, Queens University Belfast, Northern
Ireland, United Kingdom.
This work was supported by a grant from the Higher Education Academy (HEA), Northern
Ireland Enhancement Fund (DCE 605).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lilian Simones, Sonic Arts
Research Centre, Cloreen Park, Belfast BT9 5HN. Email: Lsimones01@qub.ac.uk

Beyond Expectations in Music Performance Modules in Higher Education: Rethinking

Instrumental and Vocal Music Pedagogy for the 21st Century.

Abstract
Music performance in the higher educational context is shaped by a reciprocal chain of interactions between
students, part-time tutors and full-time teaching staff, each with specific expectations about the teaching and
learning process. Such expectations can provide valuable insights not only for designing and implementing
meaningful educational strategies but also in defining HE institutions specific mission, inside and outside
departmental boundaries. Drawing on an empirical investigation about the dynamics of the expectations of the
above stakeholders regarding the integration of instrumental/vocal tuition into the HE learning environment, this
article discusses the need for developing teaching excellence in instrumental and vocal tuition across the UK,
arguing that HE environments have a crucial role to play in such process.

Keywords
Instrumental music teaching, vocal teaching, expectations, music higher education, instrumental and vocal
teacher professional accreditation

Introduction
Universities play multiple roles in society. They not only help preserve traditional cultural
values and legitimise existing society structures (see Bourdieu 1984), but also contribute to
continuous transformation by introducing or extending modern ideas, encouraging and
promoting new cultural values, training skilled professionals for existing and emerging roles,
while testing and building knowledge (see Brennan et al. 2004). In order for adequate and
meaningful transformation to take place, a continuous understanding of all the social agents
that give life to the university as a community of practice and their dynamic interactions is
essential. Although at the micro level (specific departments or schools within a university),
individuals (administration, full/part-time teaching staff, students) work together towards a
shared goal (Wenger 1998), the lessons learnt result not only from formal curriculum delivery

but also from the attitudes/expectations communicated in the day-to-day interaction (formal
and/or informal).
The meaningfulness of the educational process is surrounded by controversy in terms
of definition, identification and provision of such experiences. In recent debates it has been
argued that for students, cooperative learning in authentic tasks, that are similar to situations
in which knowledge will actually be used, have an important positive impact on learning
(McCune 2009). However, the multiplicity of roles performed by music students and music
professionals in the current technologically driven world (Bennett 2009; Daniel and Daniel
2013) and the uncertainty about obtaining preferred job destinations contribute to difficulty in
defining and providing meaningful and authentic learning experiences. Such definition and
provision become more complex when adding a difficult balance between education and
budget, directly reflected in the type of provision offered at the universities (i.e. reduction of
one-to-one sessions in music performance versus increase of group lessons, reduction of the
amount of session). Obviously students, increasingly perceiving themselves as customers
of the educational system (since the introduction of tuition fees in 1998), legitimately aspire
to an education that fully ensures their preparation for the practical world. However, a shift
may be needed between previous learning methods and the ones presented at the university
when considering a wider range of possible professional destinations in a highly competitive
work market. Appropriately supporting this shift requires at the very least the following from
lectures and part-time teaching staff (tutors): awareness about the fact that teaching staff
implicitly serve as role models for students by the ways they carry out their teaching and how
they enact their rights and responsibilities (Johansen 2010), including in how they structure
the modules curriculum (Venn 2010); an evaluation of the level of synchrony between what
teaching staff and students consider appropriate in terms of teaching/learning agenda in
relation to the current professional demands; and inclusion of such aspects within the wider

university agenda, in order to obtain the essential and necessary budget for the foreseen
appropriate provision. How to address the fact that despite all teaching staff implicitly serving
as role models for students (as above described), the role of part-time tutoring, although
constituting an essential part of curriculum delivery, remains confined to administrative
contrasting views (context dependent) about whether there should or not be more engagement
of these individuals in the HE structure? In addition, in music, it is not unusual for music
students at an undergraduate level to be involved in teaching and/or aspire to teach; What are
the explicit and implicit delineations, for students and teachers alike, of the fact that
instrumental/vocal music teachers do not seem to enjoy a similar status as teachers of other
subjects regarding educational provision at university level and standards required for
developing their teaching profession?
Teaching in other subject areas has developed considerably during the 20 th century
due to the contribution of empirical research and university based education, targeted at the
specificities of knowledge areas (example: mathematics, English) and to insights into
teaching and learning processes provided from cognitive and educational psychology (e.g.
Piaget 1936; Vygostsky 1986). Given the pedagogical development in other subject areas,
why instrumental and vocal pedagogy remain still largely tied to 18 th and 19th century
teaching principles that mostly rely on subjective and vague perceptions of what works in the
personal experience of certain teachers and pedagogues, instead of an understanding of
principles that can contribute to optimised teaching and learning? Moreover, while the
embodiment paradigm provided a solid platform for helping to understand musical
performance processes (e.g. Le Guin 2006; Leman 2010), why the role of teachers in the
development of this embodied skill remains only scarcely acknowledged by research?
Several interrelated factors contribute to the present state of affairs. In fact, over the
last twenty years or so, there has been an increasing interest of the research community in the

instrumental and vocal studio and such research has mostly focused on the following areas:
teachers conceptualisations of teaching (e.g. Dunkin 1990; for a review see Hallam 2006);
how individual differences influence teaching practices (Madsen 2004; Jorgensen 2002;
Kostka 2002); the role of context in shaping methods and curriculum practices (Gaunt 2008;
Burwell 2006; Lamont 2002); corrective feedback (Parkes 2011; Bergee 2003); dual roles of
teachers as teachers and performers (Parncutt 2007; Jorgensen 2000; Parkes 2009); and
teaching effectiveness, without considering direct learning outcomes (Hallam 2006), (for
reviews see Kennell 2002 and Parkes 2009). However, how much of the findings of the
above research has effectively reached instrumental/vocal teachers and if so, how much of
this can be effectively put into practice without carefully planned and developed
teaching/learning support?
Instrumental/vocal teachers have an important role in educating society and in
promoting individuals long-life engagement with music and long-life engagement with music
has been shown to contribute to mental health and wellbeing (see MacDonald et al. 2012) and
they certainly should be well equipped for doing so. Therefore, instrumental and vocal
pedagogy needs to be reconsidered and a transformation agenda needs to be devised and
implemented in a long term plan, which should include a vision for instrumental/vocal
teachers considering:, what they are, do in society and how they can achieve their mission?
What do they require to be well equipped for teaching in the 21 st century, obtain professional
enjoyment and recognition (a vital psychological need)? How do they see themselves
evolving as individuals and in relation to continuous professional development? Also, how do
others see them, what needs to be done and by whom in order to put forward a much needed
change? The answers to these questions require discussion among professionals, much more
research over time, and cannot be provided solely by this article. However, with the above in
mind, this article will consider the polyphony of discourses of students, full and part-time

teaching staff as a basis for rethinking instrumental/vocal music education. Throughout this
work, I will seek to

answer the following questions: what experiences and constructs

influence students, part-time and full time teaching staff present views about instrumental and
vocal tuition and music performance in the HE arena; and, what can the role of HE contexts
be in promoting educational experiences that address stakeholders best interests while
promoting positive changes in the surrounding society and in synchrony with cutting-edge
academic research? The answers to these questions are drawn on evidence of a recent Higher
Education Academy (HEA) funded case study (for a full report, see Simones, 2011).

Method
The project, led by staff in the Music department of the University of Ulster and supported by
colleagues at Queens University Belfast, addressed the integration of specialist practical
instrumental/vocal tuition into the modular structure of Music degree courses and the HE
learning environment. The study population consisted of music undergraduate students taking
performance modules, their instrumental/vocal tutors and departmental full-time lecturers
involved in the design, delivery, management and administration of performance modules.
The inquiry instruments were purpose-built for the study and consisted of questionnaires,
focusgroup interviews and semi-structured interviews. The study was based on a total of 91
responses (in one or other of the forms detailed above), that were analysed using a constant
comparative/descriptive methodology, with repeated readings and triangulation across data
sources.

Students: Past experiences informing present expectations

From the results of the case study in which this article is drawn from, it was clear that
students attitudes/expectations towards HE appeared to be strongly influenced by past

experiences of learning: of student respondents, 67% had experience only of one-to-one

weekly instrumental/vocal sessions prior to university. These students emphasised their
continuous need of this type of tuition on a weekly basis. In fact, they showed satisfaction
with HE only when provided with the same type and amount of tuition, a satisfaction in turn
that was reflected in positive attitudes towards learning in HE in general (higher levels of
motivation for learning, self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-conception of talent). When the
type and frequency of tuition differed from what they were used to, students expressed
concern about their development. Students who had been exposed to both individual and
group tuition prior to university enrolment (17%) also showed a marked preference for oneto-one sessions, but there was recognition of the benefit of group lessons:

Individual [tuition focuses] on my own faults, however group [tuition] allows you to learn from
others (Student 19).

Students who had prior experience only of group tuition (13%) and those who were
self-taught (4%) showed higher levels of flexibility in relation to the type of tuition offered at
their universities. This group had varied performance interests: classical, traditional/folk, jazz
and pop/rock. All participants in the focus groups, whichever type of tuition they were used
to and whichever musical genres they practiced, especially prized the development of
instrumental/vocal technical skill, similarly to findings reported by Ritterman 2000 and
Bennett, 2009. In addition, students were alienated by course requirements that emphasise
critical thought, there was little sense of the interconnectedness of instrumental music/vocal
with other areas of the curriculum, or of the value of these other areas in contributing to
higher levels of musicianship or better-prepared performances:

8
I assumed there would be a lot more tuition and a lot more opportunities to perform, instead of
so many know-it-all [...] lecturer sessions (Student 5).

A lot of unnecessary assignments and I am left with not enough time to play my violin (Student
34).

Overall these findings suggest that students prior teaching and learning experiences
did not contribute to strengthening self-motivation and active learning demands required for
accomplishing the university experience (in accordance to Venn 2010). Instead, such type of
educational experience promoted an outcome of the learning experience simply reflected by
the ability to demonstrate technical skill with the instrument in an exam situation.
In terms of professional aspirations, student respondents unanimously stated that they
sought from the university knowledge and professional recognition. Just over half (51%) saw
themselves working in future as both music teacher and performer, 29% only as teachers and
20% only as performers. Almost a third (31%) were already engaged in teaching, mostly
private instrumental tuition. Despite the teaching aspirations of the majority, the importance
of learning and acquiring relevant teaching skills remained mostly not acknowledged both, by
students and universities: only few students expressed concerns about developing relevant
teaching skills and universities main mission, of preparing students for professional life,
appeared to include little reference to it.

Instrumental/vocal teachers: history repeating itself

In the study which this article is based on, almost half the tutors (43%) were not graduates
and only 29% had a practical teaching qualification. The majority of tutors in study (86%)
agreed that teaching university students requires different skills from teaching school
children, but only 21% agreed that teaching university students is more rewarding than

teaching school children; 57% neither agreed nor disagreed. This last figure seems to suggest
a certain lack of reflection about what constitutes personal/professional satisfaction, or
unwillingness to engage with the wider aspects of their role in what the HE environment
might imply. In either case, this finding generates in itself some questions: are students
unconsciously mimicking their tutors attitudes towards reflective practice or engagement
with the HE environments? Is history repeating itself? One needs to be aware that prior to the
university, students spend in general at least eight years being taught by tutors. A logical
assumption is that tutors have a considerable role for students musical development and
simultaneously in inculcating beliefs, attitudes and expectations towards personal
development that are reflected in what students seek and in how they engage with the HE
context, in line with the principles proposed by the social learning theory (See Bandura
1977). How can tutors promote critical thinking in their students as prescribed by the HE
whenever there isnt a requirement of professional accreditation for tutoring privately or in
primary and secondary state schools implying that tutors dont need to necessarily engage in
formal pedagogical education or the HE for tutoring?
Most tutor participants in this study (93%) teach in a variety of contexts: private
lessons, state and private secondary schools, local music schools and FE colleges as well as
HE. They teach a wide range of ages, from 6 upwards. The focus-group interviews revealed
that these settings are in most cases similar to their own experience as students. But learning
to teach simply by imitating the example of ones own teacher may not adequately equip
individuals with the necessary communication and diagnostic skills required for teaching. In
addition, such an imitative approach limits individuals in relation to new knowledge, possibly
harnessing their critical thinking about teaching and learning processes. Especially as most
HE institutions now insist on specific HE teacher training for all new lecturers, it seems that
greater emphasis needs to be placed on tutors specific pedagogic educational background.

10

Tutors answers were divided about whether demands from other university subjects leave
the students with little time to practice, 23% agreeing and 23% disagreeing; 54% neither
agreed nor disagreed. This last figure may suggest that the majority of tutors have only
limited interest in the rest of the curriculum; certainly, 54% claimed to have little contact with
lecturers and 62% thought it is important that there be greater involvement from instrumental
teachers in curriculum development and assessment processes.
When asked about what they considered was the importance of instrumental/vocal
tuition, here is a resume of the most representative views:

Students seem to be inspired by inspiring musicians, people who are successful and
knowledgeable in their own musical areas and I certainly try my best to inspire my students
(Tutor 3).

I feel instrumental tuition is important in creating higher level of musician and should be
recognised more (Tutor 10).

I have a feeling of being invisible and its not rewarding to feel invisible (Tutor 9).

The idea of the higher level of musician would seem to imply a wider role for
instrumental tuition than is generally recognised by students. The sense of invisibility, on the
other hand, clearly shows the impact of not engaging tutors in the wider enterprise of the HE
Music department. Although some consider their role in terms of creating a higher level of
musician, more than half of the tutors did not manifest a personal opinion about issues such
as is it personally more rewarding to teach school children or university students? and do
other university subjects leave students with little time to practice their instrument? It would
seem apparent that the intention of creating a higher level of musician would imply at the
very least a personal opinion about what influence external elements such as other university

11

subjects can have for achieving such ends and in which contexts do they see themselves more
proficient in terms of developing such higher level of musician.
What then is the role of the tutor in HE? Should tutors in HE contexts challenge the
deeply engrained conception of focus on technical skill development?. If so, how can this
be achieved when these same tutors are frequently engaged in teaching in other educational
contexts and judging by students results, they were so far mostly unable to develop a more
holistic approach to learning in their students?

Full-time teaching staff: Dilemmas of planning and delivering performance modules

Beyond the published learning outcomes, one lecturer had this to say about the aims of
performance modules:

To develop musicianship and performance skills at an individual level, according to the year of
studies; to familiarise students with the ins and outs of making music, ensemble or solo; to
develop time management and organisational skills, ambition [and] self-confidence; to manage
their own expectations and organise their work within their [own] context (Lecturer 1).

Naturally,

the individual-student-centered nature of these aims

considerable financial implications:

Finance is the key of most concerns that I have (Lecturer 4).

We manage to give students a lot from very little (Lecturer 2).

Weve seen our budgets cut progressively over the years (Lecturer 3).

has

12
In the current financial climate we are being squeezed more and more [...] I think [the students]
expect more and more and we are able to provide less and less (Lecturer 2).

At the same time, students paying several thousand pounds a year in tuition fees have
increasingly firm ideas about what they have the right to expect:

We bought a degree here (Student 9).

The way that this degree was sold to me was [] with a lot of workshops (Student 2).

But, as suggested above, these ideas may not necessarily be consonant with the aims
of the degree courses that students are purchasing at such large expense. Their demands, in
the case of Music both disproportionately focused on performance and disproportionately
informed by previous learning experiences, mean that it is becoming even more difficult than
before to strike a balance in the design and delivery of performance modules. A further
challenging aspect is the relatively recent inclusion of a wider variety of music (traditional,
pop/rock, etc.) in an environment traditionally dominated by Western Art Music. Catering for
different styles may also imply catering for different models of pedagogy or even engaging
with areas of musical knowledge in which it is normal for practitioners to be to some extent
self-taught (i.e. traditional music or rock). In addition, qualities such as technical ability,
interpretation and re-interpretation and the importance of supporting technology may be
valued quite differently and imply different teaching and assessment priorities, not to mention
tuition administration. For the present purposes, perhaps the most important differences may
be that to do with ones identity as a musician. At this level, some tutors pointed out specific
concerns:

13
There is not yet a specific curriculum for Irish Traditional Music Performance (Tutor 5). For
less typical genres, the guidelines are less clear in an effort to lump together all the nonclassical stuff (Tutor 7).

And to the extent that different musics imply different skills and knowledge and
therefore arguably different assessment criteria, students too have queries:

The different musical styles [...] on offer imply that there [are different] standards [...] required
from different students (Student 12).

But while this democratisation may be seen as a challenge in HE, it also has the
potential for acting as a seed-bed for the mutual development of varied skills from a point of
view of reflective and interactive learning.

Discussion
The findings are suggestive of the importance that past and current learning experiences
assume in shaping expectations and attitudes towards higher education for the different
stakeholders: students expectations appeared to be deeply aligned with those of instrumental
and vocal tutors; whereas full-time teaching staff engaged in the administration and delivery
of course modules appeared to be in a somewhat inner struggle between their own
conceptions of need to broadening students horizons (shaped by their exposure to HE
environment) versus an a priori perception of music performance students resistance to
change alongside a difficult budget to manage.
The level of alignment between students and tutors expectations for higher education,
was particularly evident in: the emphasis placed on instrumental/vocal skill development;
alienation in relation to course requirements that emphasise critical thought; not realising the

14

interconnectedness of instrumental/vocal development with other areas of the curriculum in

promoting higher levels of musicianship; not realising the importance of learning to teach,
just as the tutors whose majority did not seek a practical teaching qualification. As for tutors,
they are also the result of a cycle of dynamic expectations between themselves, their tutors
and their experience in dealing with the HE environment. This continuous cycle of dynamic
expectations, in which history appears to keep repeating itself, will continue its spiraling
movement, until other conceptions of self-identity start to be instilled and inculcated in tutors
and students as to include a broader conception of musician, performer and
instrumental/vocal teacher.
The significant amount of time that students typically spend with their instrumental/
vocal tutors prior to university enrolment at a time in which their whole person is being
defined could potentially bring the much desired openness of mind required for engaging in
the HE learning environment, potentially smoothing the usually difficult transitions of
becoming a university musician (for more on the challenges of becoming a university
musician see Burland and Pitts 2007; Pitts 2013). The relationship between students and
tutors has been demonstrated elsewhere as having a heavy weight for the acquisition and
development of skill and attitudes towards learning in general (Howe and Sloboda 1991;
Simones 2014, 2015). In fact, its impact goes much beyond pure skill development and is
directly reflected in individual self-concept, sense of self-competency, beliefs, attitudes and
expectations (McPherson and Davidson 2006). These resulting beliefs and expectations play
a pivotal role in the acquisition and interpretation of knowledge and subsequent learning
behavior (Chong et al. 2005) . As such the power that instrumental/vocal teachers have or can
have, should not be underestimated:

They provide access to culture in general and music for individuals of all ages and higher
music education institutions should have a keen interest in providing education for

15
instrumental/vocal teachers at the highest level, as it will be these teachers that will prepare
future students in higher music education (Polifonia Working Group 2010: 7).

Without doubt, teaching is something that most instrumental/vocal music students do,
or will do, at some point in their lives and in doing so they have the power to change
behaviour, attitudes and beliefs. This process can be one of positive change, or one that can
result in hindering students potential, creating misconceptions about musical personal and
professional identity and even developing resistance towards learning. As seen in this study,
the present state of affairs is one in which resistance to change seems to come from all fronts:
despite aspiring to teach, the majority of students in this study do not consider the importance
of learning to teach (contrary to Mills 2006); less than a third of tutors in this study sought a
practical teaching qualification; and the majority of universities in the UK keep distancing
themselves from the teaching element implied in music performance degrees and from
integrating instrumental and vocal tutors as members of faculty (contrary to other realities
such as the United States and European countries such as Finland and Germany).
The perception that PGCE (for school teaching) along with various diplomas and
licenciate

courses

of

conservatoires

and

examination

boards

(specifically

for

instrumental/vocal teaching) are the proper sources to gain those skills and knowledge,
perpetuates a contradiction in which excellence in tuition is and is not associated with HE,
both by students and tutors. But this is not the only result: 1) students and tutors not
acknowledging the importance of learning to teach (as seen in this study) might not engage in
these various courses and diplomas and an opportunity for education is lost if not presented at
the various music performance degrees currently on offer at HE; 2) Instrumental and vocal
tutors are left without a protected space, to reflect and re-assessan environment set apart
from the interests, orthodoxies and pressures (Brennan et al. 2004: 18) of institutions with
particular interests.

16

In 2005, 74% of instrumental music teachers in England working full-time for 149
local music services focused essentially on instrumental music teaching, had a qualified
teacher status (QTS) (Hallam et al. 2005). QTS is compulsory teaching preparation for
teachers of all subjects working in maintained schools in England. However, the focus of this
course on broader teaching and learning issues, from a generalist stance, leaves little scope
for attending to instrumental music teaching and learning specificities.

The process of

teaching and learning to play a musical instrument is such that it entails simultaneously the
learning of abstract conceptual musical elements and the required motoric activity needed for
the embodiment of such abstract concepts at different levels: physically, mentally and
emotionally, through cognitive and perceptual-motor processes. For teaching such specialised
subject, quite different in nature from learning mathematics, English or geography,
specialised teaching preparation appears to be crucial. In fact, the vast number of students
giving up instrumental music lessons each year (Mills 2007) reveals a need for a teaching that
promotes long term connections with music while effectively supporting students in their
learning process and indicates that the present educational situation requires close attention.
So, what can the role of HE contexts be in promoting educational experiences that
address stakeholders best interests while promoting positive changes in the surrounding
society and culture and in synchrony with cutting-edge academic research? HE contexts,
across the UK, in particular (from where this report in which this article is based) have an
important role in breaking the cycle of history repeating itself here discussed. The present
status given to instrumental/vocal teacher education in the UK HE context in general, is not
compatible with the importance that instrumental/vocal education assume for society or the
rapid change in the instrumental/vocal teacher profession across Europe and the
professionalisation of teaching in general. In addition to lack of vital teaching preparation, the
perpetuation of such situation leaves students enrolled in music performance degrees in the

17

UK with less chances of mobility when competing with qualification requirements for
instrumental/vocal teaching across Europe (see Polifonia Working Group 2010). With this in
mind, ,consideration should be given to including an element of pedagogical/educational
studies within the curriculum for musicians. Clearly, this provision should be one that
includes an informed critical and practical examination of pedagogical issues. Teaching
should therefore be a vital component for all professional musicians as part of their portfolio
career, one in which they combine various professional tasks (Polifonia Working Group,
2010), even if their main interest is in musical performance. This way perhaps the historical
repeating cycle could step by step start to be broken and a new generation of teachers be born
catering for:

developing creative approaches, () [developing] learners autonomy and in which learning is considered as
developing ways of musical thinking, rather than merely the acquisition of specific skills, () shifting from a
teacher-directed pedagogy, to student-centred approach, and which the teacher is considered as facilitator rather
than as instructor (Polifonia Working Group 2010: 37).Without doubt , universities have a vital role to

play in contributing to teaching practice that is informed by cutting-edge academic research

and with that role, comes a possibility (indeed, a responsibility) to shape tomorrows teachers
in ways that esteem the pursuit of knowledge and academic excellence. The democratisation
of musical styles in HE environments brings with it a pedagogical opportunity for application
of essential and basic pedagogical principals to diverse contexts and to use peer learning as a
relevant learning strategy. Combining different musical genres and musicians with different
goals and experiences in the same HE contextual experience, though challenging, has the
potential to develop awareness, empathy and from a broader perspective, elements of
citizenship all essential elements for acquiring the necessary teacher profile.

Conclusion

18

In this article, students, part-time and full-time teaching staffs expectations regarding the
integration of instrumental/vocal tuition into the HE learning environment, provided general
insights for rethinking instrumental/vocal pedagogy in the UK. In a time in which students
seek knowledge and professional recognition from universities, the importance of providing
meaningful educational experiences, aligned with students best interests and their intended
impact on society, should not be undermined. If contexts affect both, what is taught and how
it is taught, shape explicit and implicit messages and values, then certainly the HE cannot
dismiss its responsibility in arming tomorrows instrumental/vocal music teachers with the
skills to enhance and inform their teaching practices. Moreover, such endeavour should be
considered a higher-educational and ethical imperative.
It is through an educational system that grants professional accreditation at a Higher
education level that the community of Instrumental/vocal teacher can realise and further
develop their potential, establish future agendas for continuous development and integration
in society. It is time for embracing and developing an eclectic instrumental and vocal
pedagogy caring for a variety of learning contexts, artistic genres, musical goals and
pedagogical approaches. The HE certainly has a role to play in terms of the effectiveness of
such approaches and in helping to develop a personally rewarding profession that is visible,
acknowledged and respected equally as other forms of teaching.

Acknowledgements
This research was funded by a grant from the Higher Education (HEA) [Northern Ireland
Enhancement Fund DCE 605] administered by the University of Ulster. I am grateful to the
students, members of staff and tutors that took part in this study. Special thanks go to Dr
Cormac Newark who has supervised this work providing many invaluable insights and James
Hunter who very kindly proofread the latest version of this article.

19

References
Bandura, Albert. 1977. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Bennett, Dawn. 2007. "Utopia for music performance graduates. Is it achievable, and how should it be defined?"
British Journal of Music Education 24 (2):179-189.

Bennett, Dawn. 2009. "Academia and the real world: developing realistic notions of career in the performing
arts", Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 8: 309-327.

Bergee, M. J. 2003. "Faculty interjudge reliability of music performance evaluation". Journal of Research in
Music Education 51(2): 137-150.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1988. Homo Academicus. Oxford: Polity Press.

Brennan, J., R. King, and Y. Lebeau. 2004. "The role of universities in the transformation of societies. An
international

research

project".

Synthesis

report.

London:

The

Open

University.

http://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/transf-final-report.pdf (accessed September 1, 2013).

Burland, Karen, and Stephanie Pitts, 2007. "Becoming a musician: a longitudinal study investigating the career
transitions of undergraduate music students". Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 6 (3): 289-324.

Burwell, K. 2006. "On musicians and singers. An investigation of different approaches taken by vocal and
instrumental teachers in higher education". Music Education Research 8(3): 331-347.

Chong, Sylvia, Isabella Wong, and Quek Choon Lang. 2005. "Pre-service teachers' beliefs, attitudes and
expectations:

review

of

the

literature".

Educational

Management

38

(6):

650-653.

Daniel, Ryan, and Leah Daniel. 2013. "Enhancing the transition from study to work: reflections on the value and
impact of internships in the creative and performing arts". Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 12 (2-3):
138-153.

Dunkin, M. 1990. "The induction of academic staff to a university: processes and products". Higher Education,
20: 47-66.
Gaunt, H. 2008. One-to-one tuition in a conservatoire: the perceptions of instrumental and vocal teachers,
Psychology of Music 36 (2): 215-245.

Hallam, Susan. 2006. Music Psychology in Education. London: Institute of Education.

20

Hallam, Susan, Lynne Rodgers, and Andrea Creech. 2005. Survey of Local Authority Music Services 2005:
DFES research report RR700. London: Department for Education and Skills. http://oro.open.ac.uk/4579/1/
(accessed May 25, 2013)
Howe, M, and John Sloboda.1991.Young musicians accounts of significant influences in their early lifes.
British Journal of Music Education 8 (1): 53-63.
Johansen, G. 2010. Music education from the perspective of system theory. In Sociology and Music
Education, edited by Ruth Wright, 51-62.Aldershot: Ashgate.
Jorgensen, H. 2000. Student learning in higher instrumental education: Who is responsible? British Journal of
Music Education 17(1): 67-77.
Jorgensen, H. 2002. Instrumental performance expertise and amount of practice among instrumental students in
a conservatoire. Music Education Research 4: 105-119.
Kennell, R. 2002. Systematic research in studio instruction in music. In The new handbook of research on
music teaching and learning, edited by R. Colwell and C. Richardson, 243-256. New York: Oxford.

Kostka, M. 2002. Practice expectations and attitudes: a survey of college-level music teachers and students.
Journal of Research in Music Education 50(4): 145-154.
Lamont, A. 2002. Musical identities and the school environment. In Musical Identities, edited by R.
McDonald, D. Hargreaves, and D. Miell, 41-59. Oxford: University Press.
Le Guin, E. 2006. Boccherinis Body: An Essay in Carnal Musicology. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Leman, M. 2010. Music, Gesture and the Formation of Embodied Meaning. In Musical Gestures, Sound,
Movement and Meaning, edited by R. Godoy and M. Leman, 126-153.New York: Routledge.
Lennon, M., and R. Geoffrey.2012. Instrumental and vocal teacher education: competences, roles and
curricula. Music Education Research 14 (3): 285-308.
Madsen, C. 2004. A 30-year follow-up study of actual applied music versus estimated practice. Journal of
Research in Music Education 52: 77-88.
McCune, V. 2009. Final year biosciences students willingness to engage: Teaching-learning environments,
authentic learning experiences and identities. Studies in Higher Education 34 (3): 347-361.

21
McDonald, R., G, Kreutz, and L. Mitchell. 2012. What is Music, Health and Wellbeing and why is it
important? In Music, Health and Wellbeing, edited by R. MacDonald, G. Kreutz, and L. Mitchell, 3-11.Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
McPherson, G., and J. Davidson. 2006. Playing an instrument. In The child as Musician: A handbook of
musical development, edited by Gary McPherson, 331-351. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mills, J. 2006. Performing and teaching: The beliefs and experience of music students as instrumental
teachers. Psychology of Music 54/3: 372-390.

Mills, J. 2007. Instrumental teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Parkes, K. A. 2009. Recent research in applied studio instruction: Characteristics of the applied setting.
Journal of Research in Music Performance, 1(1). http://ejournals.lib.vt.edu/JRMP/article/view/5 (accessed May
5, 2012).
Parkes, K. A. 2011. Recent research in applied studio instruction III assessment and evaluation. Journal of
Research in Music Performance, 1(3). http://ejournals.lib.vt.edu/JRMP/article/view/3 (accessed June 12, 2012).
Parncutt, R. 2007. Can researchers help artists? Music performance research for music students. Music
Performance Research 1(1): 1-25.

Piaget, J. 1936. Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Pitts, S. 2013. Would you credit it? Navigating the transitions between curricular and extra-curricular learning
in university music departments. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 12 (2-3): 194-203.

Polifonia Working Group for Instrumental and Vocal Music Teacher Training. 2010. Instrumental and Vocal
Teacher Education: European Perspectives. Lifelong Learning Programme: AEC Publications. http://www.aecmusic.eu/userfiles/File/en3b-aec-handbook-instrumental-vocal-teacher-education-european-perspectives.pdf
(accessed May 27, 2013).
Ritterman, J. 2000. Learning what is to perform: A key to peer learning for musicians. In Peer learning in
music, edited by D. Hunter, and M. Russ, 28-38.Belfast: University of Ulster.
Simones, L. 2011. The dynamics of expectations in music performance modules in Higher Education:
Changing attitudes among students, part-time tutors and fulltime staff. In Enhancing learning and teaching in
Higher Education in Northern Ireland, edited by D. Kelsey, 24-32. Northern Ireland: The Higher Education
Academy.http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/nations/northernireland/Enhancing_learning_and_teac
hing_in_higher_education_in_Northern_Ireland.pdf (accessed March 03, 2015).

22

Simones, L., M. Rodger and F. Schroeder. 2014. Communicating musical knowledge through gesture: piano
teachers gestural behaviours across different levels of student proficiency. Psychology of Music. Epub ahead
of print. DOI: 10.1177/0305735614535830
Simones, L., F. Schroeder and M. Rodger. 2015. Categorisations of physical gesture in piano teaching: a
preliminary enquiry. Psychology of Music, 43 (1): 103-121. DOI: 10.1177/0305735613498918
Venn, E. 2010. Music performance tuition in Higher Education: Student expectations. Report for PALATINE
Development Award Report, Available at: www.palatine.ac.uk/publications/development-award-report/
(accessed March 10, 2010).

Vygotsky, L. 1986. Thought and Language. Translated and edited by Alex Kozulin. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.