The Muscular System

Basis of Identifying Muscles:

Muscles are classified according to:

color [ red and white muscles].

location:
o
o

2. Smooth muscle tissue

Smooth: walls of hollow organs

somatic muscles
visceral muscles, control
the activities of organs

Voluntary muscles

Involuntary muscles

embryonic origin
general microscopic
appearance

Types of Muscles
Anatomy of the Skeletal Muscle:

Lack striations

Contractions are involuntary

3. Cardiac muscle tissue

Cardiac: only in the wall of the heart

by the way in which they are

controlled by the nervous
system
o

Cells are striated

Contractions are involuntary

Intercalated Discs

specialized contact points between

cardiocytes

Join cell membranes of adjacent

cardiocytes (gap junctions,
desmosomes)

Functions of Intercalated Discs

Maintain structure

Each muscle cell is composed of

myofibril.

Enhance molecular and electrical

connections

Each myofibril is composed of a chain

of sarcomeres.

Conduct action potentials

Each sarcomere is composed of

myofilaments[ myosin filament and
actin filament].

Types of Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal muscle tissue

Attach to and move skeleton

40% of body weight

Fibers = multinucleate cells

(embryonic cells fuse)

Cells with obvious striations

Contractions are voluntary

Muscle Anatomy

Similarities of Muscle Tissue

Myofibril

Cells of muscles
o are known as muscle fibers
Muscle contraction
o depends on two types of
myofilaments (contractile
proteins)
one type contains actin
another type contains
myosin
These two proteins
generate
contractile force.

Sarcomere and Myofibrils

Basis of Muscle Contraction

Mechanisms:
Resting and Active States

Actin (Thin) Filament

1) Resting State
o muscles are relaxed
o no nervous stimulation
o fasciae surrounding the muscles
maintain the shape
o soft
o no force is generated
2) Active State
o

muscles are contracted brought

about by nerve stimulation

tensile force is generated

When tensile force is applied then

the muscles become stretched

Resistance to the applied tensile

force arises from the collagenous
fibers.

Load

external resistance when a

bone to which the muscle is
attached and the mass must be
moved

Sliding Filament Theory

Myosin heads attach to actin in

the thin filaments
Then pivot to pull the thin
filaments inward toward the
center of the sarcomere

o
o
o

less vascularized
low in myoglobin but contract rapidly
Game birds, such as turkeys, fly in
quick, rapid bursts.

only travel short distances

with white muscles

leg muscles that are used to scamper

along the ground, are red muscles

Migratory Birds

pectoralis muscles are dark

capable of supporting sustained flight

In fishes such as pike and perch,

which make quick darts to catch prey,
the lateral body muscles
characteristically are white.

Tonic fibers

relatively slow in contracting

produce low force, but they can

sustain contraction for prolonged
periods of time

involved in postural support

they compose much of the axial and

appendicular musculature
relatively slow in contracting

Properties of Muscle Fibers

Color
Red Muscles
o

highly vascularized

rich in myoglobin

dark molecule that stores O

resistant to fatigue

fish, turkey

White Muscles

produce low force, but they can

sustain contraction for prolonged
periods of time
involved in postural support

they compose much of the axial and

appendicular musculature
common in amphibians and reptiles
less in fishes and bird

rare in mammals
present in the extrinsic eye and
middle ear muscles

Twitch (phasic) fibers

differentiate into the smooth

muscle layers of the alimentary
tract and its derivatives

found in somatic muscles of all

classes of vertebrates

generally produce fast

contraction

muscles used for rapid

movements

relative term (species

specific)
o
o

rats 13ms - 38ms

cat
40ms
90ms depending
on the muscle

fast and slow twitch fibers differ

in their resistance to fatigue
during sustained exercise

paraxial mesoderm

slow twitch and fast twitch

fibers

Cells of the hypomere form the

cardiac muscle.

from which most skeletal

muscles develop (figure 10.21)

During or shortly after neurulation,

forms next to the neural tube along
the axis of the embryonic body (figure
10.22a).

In the trunk, it becomes segmentally

arranged into anatomically separate
somites.
Head Region

Slow twitch fibers (s) tend to

be resistant to fatigue.

the paraxial mesoderm forms

the somitomeres
somites form in a series

Axial Musculature
Embryonic Origin of Muscles

arises from myotomes that

differentiate from somites

myotomes grow and expand along the

sides of the body,

forms the musculature associated

with the vertebral column (or
notochord), ribs, and lateral body wall

In gnathostomes

to establish muscle homologies

similar embryonic development is

suggestive of similar phylogenetic
ancestry

Difficulty:

vertebrae of primitive fishes and

tetrapods arise by a different
sequence of embryonic events,
perichordal tube or arcualia

three embryonic sources:

mesenchyme

Smooth muscles within the

walls of blood vessels and some
viscera

hypomere

medial walls (splanchnic)

embrace the gut and

a longitudinal sheet of
continuous connective tissue
divides the myotomes into
dorsal and ventral regions, each
destined to become, the epaxial
and hypaxial musculature
respectively

Postcranial Musculature
Appendicular Musculature

In many fishes,

ventral side of the

branchial arches
o

In amniotes,
o

limb muscles are derived from

mesenchyme cells that shed
from the ventral tips of adjacent
somites (myotomes)

mesenchyme cells migrate into

the limb bud to differentiate
subsequently into appendicular
musculature

analogous to the amniotes

fin musculature arises from

mesenchyme cells

migrate out of the adjacent

somites and into the fin>fin
musculature
chondrichthyans and perhaps
other fishes direct myotomal
contributions

At the genetic level

o

expression of the embryonic

patterns is based on similar Hox
genes
different genetic cues direct
the formation of fin muscles in
chondrichthyans

Cranial Musculature

myotomes are
accompanied by nerves
emanating from the
cervical region of the
spinal column adjacent to
the original trunk somite

Branchiomeric musculature
o

derived from somitomeres in

the head and supplied by
cranial nerves

gill arches and their branchial

muscles are located within the
wall of the pharynx

b. Extrinsic Eye Muscles

arises from myotomes of

trunk somites

ventral tips grow

downward and forward
into the throat along the

tiny muscles

move or shape the lens to

focus light on the retina

Extrinsic eye musculature of a shark :

The extrinsic eye muscles are derived
from somitomeres and rotate the
eyeball within the orbit in order to
direct the gaze. The roof of the
chondrocranium over the eyeball has
been removed to expose several
extrinsic muscles (left). The superior
oblique and superior rectus muscles
have been cut to expose the deeper
extrinsic muscles (right).

hypobranchial musculature

intrinsic muscles

Functions:

two distinct embryonic sources of jaw

musculature :
o

extrinsic muscles on the outside of the

eyeball rotate the eye within the
ocular orbit to direct the eyes gaze at
objects of interest

a. Jaw and Pharyngeal Musculature

each with a different nerve

supply

hypobranchial musculature

in Teleosts

the ventral tips of adjacent

myotomes grow downward into
the emerging fin bud and
differentiate directly into the fin
musculature

Origin & Insertion of the six extrinsic

muscles:

origin - walls of the orbit

insertion - on the outer surface of the

eyeball

attachments allow rotation of the eye

to desired positions

arise from three (or perhaps four)

different somitomeres

most anterior somitomere

gives rise to the superior,
inferior, and medial rectus and
to the inferior oblique muscles
all supplied by the third (III)
cranial nerve
2

nd

supplied by the fourth (IV)

cranial nerve

supplied by the sixth (VI) cranial

nerve

Comparative Anatomy

Generally, cranial and postcranial

somatic musculatures arise from
paraxial mesoderm.

supplies the major propulsive forces

for locomotion

constitutes the bulk of the bodys

musculature

Axial Musculature in Fishes

arises directly from the

embryonic and segmental
myotomes
blocks of axial musculature
retain their segmentation
known as myomeres in the
adult
myosepta (myocommata)

lateral view

myomeres are folded into

zigzag blocks that appear as Vor W-shaped

Muscle fibers that compose the

myomeres are short(folded shape).

extends over several axial segments,

giving it and its short fibers control
over an extended length of the body

contraction spreading alternates from

side to side, developing characteristic
waves of lateral undulation

produces powerful bends

responsible for developing the bodys

lateral thrusts against the water and
driving the fish forward

propulsive force of lateral undulation is

perpendicular to the surface of the
section of fish generating the force

Posteriorly, the axial musculature

continues from the trunk into the tail.

Anteriorly, the axial musculature is

attached to the skull and pectoral
girdle.

Fishes
Postcranial Musculature

joins with the axial skeleton

joins with successive myomeres MUSCLES

third somitomere
gives rise to the lateral rectus

Myosepta moves and extends inward

somitomere
gives rise to the superior
oblique,

Connective tissue sheath

that separates the
successive myomeres

Uses of the attachments:

to lift the neurocranium

during feeding

stabilize the pectoral

girdle from which jaw

opening muscles
originate

axial column figures significantly in

lateral undulation

Reptiles

Tetrapods

horizontal septum is lost or indistinct

supply by the dorsal and ventral rami

of the spinal nerve still betrays which
muscles are of epaxial and hypaxial
origin (figure 10.26c)

appendicular muscles generally take

on more responsibility for locomotion

limbs become much more important in

producing the propulsive forces
central to locomotion

lateral undulations of the vertebral

column contribute to locomotion

hypaxial musculature forms most of

the body wall

3 General Divisions of the Epaxial

Muscles:

Teleost fishes

Salamanders

have regions of relatively

undifferentiated epaxial and hypaxial
muscle masses.

epaxial musculature is a relatively an

undifferentiated muscle mass, the
dorsalis trunci

both epaxial and hypaxial muscle

masses differentiated into

several specialized groups of muscles

Functions:

controls breathing

rib cage is rigid

hypaxial muscles are reduced or lost

dorsomedial musculature

beneath the vertebral

column as the
subvertebralis

and extends anteriorly

as the longus collis that
aids in moving the neck

medial musculature

Snakes

aids in moving the trunk

Embryonic Precursors of Hypaxial

Muscles:

distribution of the spinal nerves

permits identification of the
epaxial and hypaxial
musculatures

attached to the rib cage

no distinct horizontal septum

Turtles

iliocostalis

Hypaxial Muscles

Lizards

longissimus

all attached to the vertebrae

Hypaxial muscles differentiate

into several discrete muscles.

transversospinalis

distributed along the

inside of the rib cage,

axial musculature is prominently

developed

transversus
abdominis
internal obliques

lateral musculature

spanning the outside of

the rib cage
includes the external
obliques and external
intercostals

derivatives of medial and

lateral musculature

along the belly, which

includes the rectus
abdominis

axial muscles tend to split into

several layers
forms many differentiated muscles
that span several segments

two opposing muscle masses extend

over the dorsal and ventral surfaces of
the fins from girdle to pterygiophores

arise from the myotomes

dorsal muscles
o

ventral muscles
o

elevate the fins

depress or adduct the fins

Occasionally, these muscles

produce distinct muscle slips that aid in fin

rotation.
Tetrapods

Tetrapods

Fishes:

ventral musculature

*Sphenodon.

Appendicular Musculature

Frogs
o

appendicular musculature of
the hindlimbs is large

hindlegs serve the specialized

saltatorial function

axial musculature is reduced in

prominence

dorsal and ventral appendicular

muscles tend to be more prominent

limbs assume more of the task of

producing locomotor forces muscular
sling

a set of muscles that run from thorax

to shoulder to suspend the anterior
part of the body through muscular ties
from the blades of the pectoral girdles

Mammals,
o

three reptilian divisions of the

epaxial

and four divisions of the

hypaxial musculature are
present

tend to form numerous splits

that yield

additional muscles

absence of ribs in the

abdominal region

segmental intercostals
muscles are changed into a
continuous sheet

of oblique muscles

Pectoral Girdle and Forelimb

Branchiomeric muscles

contribute to the trapezius and

mastoid groups derived from the
cucullaris of primitive fishes such as
chondrichthyans

In mammals

trapezius group includes the

clavotrapezius,
acromiotrapezius, and
spinotrapezius;

mastoid group includes the

cleidomastoid and
sternomastoid muscles

Axial musculature

Contributes the levator scapulae,

rhomboideus complex, and serratus
muscles

These three derivatives, together with

the trapezius established in early
tetrapods during the transition to land
and in part seems related to increased
cranial mobility.

musculature, but it acts to

extend the forearm.
Dorsal muscles of the forearm form
most of the extensor musculature,
which extends or straightens the
digits via tendons

contributes to the levator scapulae,

rhomboideus complex, and serratus
muscles

branchiomeric and axial muscles were

pressed to serve as part of the
muscular sling through which the
forelimbs are attached to the body

Most of the remaining pectoral and

forelimb muscles of tetrapods arise from
the dorsal and ventral muscle masses

dorsal muscles of the shoulder are

inserted on the humerus

Function:

teres minor,

subscapularis,

and deltoideus, which may

form two distinct muscles

pectoralis is a very prominent ventral

muscle of the chest

From a long origin along the sternum,

its fibers converge on the humerus

tends to split into four more or less

distinct derivatives in mammals:
o

pectoantebrachialis

to oscillate it during movement

or fix it in position while an
animal stands

pectoralis major

pectoralis minor

Of these muscles, only the latissimus

dorsi originates outside the limb, from
the body wall.

xiphihumeralis

Ventral muscles

Dorsal muscles

The other dorsal muscles that act on

the humerus are:

ventrally positioned
supracoracoideus of reptiles extends
from its coracoid(origin) laterally to
the humerus(insertion).

In mammals,

a tiny slip of the latissimus

within the scapula separates as
the teres major.

a tiny slip of the latissimus

within the scapula separates as
the teres major

In therian mammals, the

supracoracoideus originates dorsally
on the lateral face of the scapula

bony scapular spine divides this

muscle into:

The other dorsal muscles that

act on the humerus are the
teres minor, subscapularis,
and deltoideus, which may
form two distinct muscles.

The prominent triceps, often

showing several heads, is also a
derivative of the dorsal

supraspinatus and

infraspinatus which are

inserted in the humerus

The coracobrachialis from the

coracoid runs along the underside of
the humerus.

In mammals, the biceps brachii has

two heads, representing the apparent
fusion of two muscles that have their
insertions on the forearm and flex it in
lower vertebrates.

Forearm flexors from ventral muscles act

through tendons on the digits