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TRIBOLOGY SERIES, 2
IMPACT WEAR
MATERIALS
PETER A. ENGEL
IBM System Products Division, Endicott, N. Y., U.S.A.
OXFORD
NEW YORK
1978
230 figures
Engel, Peter A
Impact wear of materials.
Includes biblioaraphical
references and indexes.
1, blaterials--3ynanic testing. 2" Iqact.
I. Title,
~~418.34.
~5
621.8'9
76-44871
ISBN 0-444-41533-5
ISBN: 0-444-41533-5
(Vol. 2)
ISBN: 0-444-41677-3
(Series)
PREFACE
The inspiration t o write this book essentially grew out of the author's experience
with engineering problems pertaining to impacting machine components.
i.e. the wear resulting from repetitive impact cycles i n machinery,
lmpact wear,
i s often a limiting
istic of the process of contacting, and thus traditional wear tests would not suffice t o
evaluate competing designs.
Because impact wear has become a significant factor and prior textbooks hod
traditionally treated sliding and, to an extent,
Following the conception o f this book, the author has continued and widened
his research activities, and diligently studied the literature of tribology; the latter
indicates rapid progress i n a f i e l d where important discoveries are becoming more
frequent.
I n writing this text, the author was concerned t o highlight a hitherto neglected
area o f wear, and also to give expression to a compact philosophy that considers wear
as a geometric phenomenon dependent an the contact stresses and wear mechanisms.
Wear phenomena due to erosion and percussion are considered under the unified
t i t l e o f lmpact Wear.
'
particles or liquids, and percussion refers t o the impacts of solid bodies of more substantial size,
common features o f impact stress analysis are i n abundance despite the fact that wear
mechanisms tend t o be distinct and characteristic of a particular impact wear process.
The studies, beginning i n the 1 9 5 0 ' ~o~f materials eroded by solid particles and
liquids have followed distinct patterns i n their development.
i n this text t o reconstruct a sense of this historic development within those studies.
lmpact wear caused by percussion i s a newer topic and this i s the area of the
author's principal research contributions.
quantifying the wear rates that are dependent on a few principal parameters.
For per-
cussive impact wear, a generalized engineering theory emerged from the author's
research, and i t centers around the master-curve shifting procedure detailed i n this
text,
the work,
(1) Impact analysis, (2) Identification o f material behavior and wear mechanisms,
(3) Considerations o f the wear geometry, (4) The aspect of surface properties and
behavior.
The emphasis of this book is on conceptual models and a rational treatment,
stead of sophisticated mathematical or physico-chemical presentation.
in-
I t i s hoped that
in general, contact) theory; modern computational techniques such as the finite element
method are shown.
An introduction t o osperity-
models focuses on the "microscopic" elements of contact, the synthesis of which being
the "macroscopic" (apparent, Hertzian) contact.
etc.
t o contacts loaded .into the plastic range, after reviewing numerous experimental results.
Percussive wear of metal vs, nonmetal configurations i s treated i n Chapter 10; the wear
of print-devices and metal vs. polymer pairs i s discussed.
The erosion of liquid jets i s treated i n Chapter 11; impact stress analysis and
damage due t o single impacts is followed by fatigue considerations for multiple hits.
The author has been, for many years, principal investigator o f impact wear work
i n the Materials and EngFneering Analyses Section at the IBM Laboratory i n Endicott,
N. Y.
He thanks his management for encouraging the research project and the publica-
The interest and helpful attitude of many colleagues at IBM and of the
tion i s due to the researchers of Cambridge University who pioneered i n the study of
erosion.
The author also wishes to thank a l l workers i n the field and their publishers,
Every student i s
grateful appreciation to Josie Scanlon for producing an excellent manuscript i n the form
o f camera-ready copy.
Finally, the author's wife deserves high praise for her patience and cheerful
support during the years of work.
Binghamton,
July, 1976
N.Y.
BORROWED ILLUSTRATIONS
The author i s grateful for the permission granted by publishers of several books and
journals t o reproduce material i n this text.
the following:
Technical books published by Edward Arnold, London; Pergamon Press Ltd.,
Oxford University Press, Oxford; W i l e y and Sons, N e w York.
Oxford;
Journal articles:
ASLE Transactions
ASME Transactions
Journal o f Applied Mechanics
Journal o f Basic Engineering
Journal of Engineering for Industry
Journal o f Lubrication Technology
Experimental Mechanics
Oxford
Oxford
Journal of Materials
U. S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C.
Wear
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols which are only used locally are not listed here.
A
Area
A,
Bulkmodulus
Specific heat
Phase velocity
Modulus of elasticity
E,
E*
Coefficient of restitution
Friction force
Shear modulus
Depth of wear
Impulse
[ ((1
- v l2 )/"El)
+ ((1 - v 22 )/rE
Spring constant
Span length
Mass
2)1
-1
SI i p
Sliding distance
In subscript, denotes yield
Contact approach; pressure-viscosity constant; angle o f attack
Combined curvature; surface damage contribution factor; rake angle
Wear factor
Logarithmic decrement
P e a k - t ~ - ~ e osurface
k
finish
P/F;
CHAPTER 1
1.
INTRODUCTION
The interdisciplinary science dealing w i t h the mechanical changes taking place
Its popular,
The word
English language
inclusive; a leading journal i n the field categorizes its subjects of interest i n the following technical areas: concentrated contacts; bearing materials; traction; friction and
wear; fluid film bearings; lubricants; wear control; seals.
Percussion, and impact i n general, also has its place i n Tribology.
In fact,
its
effects on solid surfaces are i n many respects related to those caused by sliding interactions, w i t h which friction and wear phenomena have been more t i a d i t i o n a l l y
associated.
I t was f e l t necessary t o give a concise summary o f the main topics o f friction and
wear theory i n the first chapter of this book.
w i l l thus be better viewed by the reader; various associations w i l l also be facilitated an important point o f view since our subject grew mostly out of new research.
The early history o f human knowledge i n friction and wear i s a fascinating subject
El1
connected with the making of potter's wheels, door hinges, and later wheeled carriages.
The transportation o f large stone building blocks and monuments required the know-how
o f frictional devices such as water lubricated sleds.
Leonardo do V i n c i (1452-1519),
i n military construction as w e l l as for his painting and sculpture, who discovered that
the tangential force o f friction between moving solid bodies i s proportional to the normal force.
F = pP
is called Amontons's law or Coulomb's law.
(1
Amontons,
experiment,
in
instead of
by
[21
on
r o l e o f the real area o f contact - often a smal l q u a n t i t y compared t o the 'gross area"
that can be obtained
or b y observa-
topography
were necessary.
N e i t h e r was a l l
Static
removed or
ner, by adhesion.
l a r g e l y empirical basis.
A thermal wear mechanism for polymers and the new delamination theory of
unclean
O n a metol surface,
a thin,
work-hardened layer is generally found on the substrate; this would be covered i n succession b y an o x i d e layer, a n adsorbed gas layer,
Thus the metol is,
i n generall
The
Wear
may also be greatly reduced b y the proper lubrication, especially when a f u l l hydrodynamic o i l f i l m i s achieved i n the gap between the surfaces.
Sliding friction i s conducive to high local surface temperatures called "flash
temperature",
especially important i n polymers which are r e l a t i v e l y poor heat conductors; i t i s justified t o account for thermal effects as an independent wear mechanism i n these materials.
I n this book considerable emphasis i s ptaced upon the unity o f surface loading
phenomena (sliding,
phenomenon.
2.
This does not mean that the two effects are pro-
o f the materials; identical materials w i t h matching lattice structure can readily weld
together i f no contamination exists on the interface.
surfaces the larger the adhesion between the surfaces w i l l be; thus an adhesive friction
mechanism works contrary t o the erroneous classical idea equating smoothness with the
absence o f friction.
When two surfaces slide on one another, their topographic features allow only
the contact of asperity peaks.
contact A , which,
The total
Hard
Soft
Surface
Fig. 1. The real contact area (junctures) and apparent (gross) contact area of two
surfaces.
normal force of contact i s then P = A,
hesion of a l l the junctures,
F=A
'
p.
~ / m ~like
, p).
Accordingly,
from (1) i s
S/P
(2)
The crystal structure of certain metals offers ready explanation for their friction
and wear behavior.
The hexagonal crystal system offers numerous easy slip planes, and
these crystals are able to recrystallize following shear deformation parallel to the hexagons; thus a small p results.
hardening, and thus the shearing of polycrystalline cubic junctures i s harder, tending t o
increase p over that of hexagonal systems.
[TI
i n the
indeed an increase o f p follows the temperature rise nearing 400C (Fig. 2).
J Complete Welding
--f
f . c . c . on
f . c . c . Structure
,,- Slider,
100
200
300
400
Temperature,
500
C
600
When adhesive wear forms, atoms (or clusters o f them) are removed from the
junctures, by virtue o f their adhesive junction strength becoming larger than the cohesive strength of the material.
w = - Z Px
P
where Z i s the number o f atomic layers removed, and x the sliding distance.
consideration was the basis o f Archard's adhesive wear law
[81
The above
Considering plastic
P
F
N o t e that
[51
.
i t has never been found greater
[91
Adhesive wear constants have been found to depend on the pressures applied.
Figure
stress.
shows the typical abrupt change i n K occurring at pressures near the yield
For large pressures, "severe wear" takes place w i t h high wear rates, clean
[I01
Table
[81
lo3 K
Zinc pair
M i l d steel pair
Platinum pair
Copper pair
Stainless steel pair
Silver pair
Copper on mild steel
Platinum on mild steel
Platinum on silver
Fig. 4. Variation o f wear coefficient K vs. the average pressure, for steel SAE 1095
; speed: 20 cm/s. From
slider (120" cone) on the same material, p 43,000 kgf/cm
Burwell [41
3.
- - tan
'abr
where
TI
. cot 0:
p = P/TI r 2
Abrasive Cone 7
Fig. 5.
The volume W o f the softer material removed during a horizontal sweep x of the
cone is a prism of base area r z and height x.
W
rzx = r 2 x
-:
Thus
8 may be selected
, a statistical
The quanti-
Eq. 4.
Table 2.
Table 2
Some abrasive wear constants
Abrasive material
Type
lo3 K
Steel
2-body
80
Brass
2-body
16
150 p )
3-body
80 p )
3-body
4.5
hardness of the abraded material becomes as large as the hardness of the abrasive
121
[ l 1,
p (abraded material)
p (abrasive material)
Fig.
4.
by Tallian [
131
spoiling-type f a i l -
Palmgren
.N
-=
(8
constant
where N denotes the number o f cycles to failure at load P and constant geometry.
Bayer and Schumacher
[I51
the y i e l d value rY
The great
amount o f plastic deformation stipulated b y both the adhesive and the abrasive theories
was seen only at large values o f the maximum shear stress.
Fig. 7. Surface fatigue wear i n copper single crystal due t o spherical steel sliders at
moderate stress. From Bayer and Schumacher [ 151
(a) Scanning electron micrograph
showing subsurface damage, (b) Experimental and analytical values o f the zero wear
l i m i t i n copper.
Rozeanu
[I61 gives a thermodynamic argument for the pure fatigue wear of mild-
ly loaded contacts at moderate temperatures. The fatigue process entails energy storage
without visible changes and, subsequently, fracture without apparent cause.
During
the first stage, the b r i t t l e state i s reached, which from the point of view of solid state
physics may be visualized as the formation o f favorably oriented holes by the coalescence of vacancies,
An intensive research program on sliding wear was conducted at the IBM Endicott
Laboratory between 1957 and 1964.
plastics) were tested i n the Bowden-Leben apparatus under various speeds, loads and
geometries
1181
[I71 .
The experience
to as the Bayer-Ku theoiy; i t describes two stages i n the wear l i f e of a sliding contact,
namely the "zero wear stage" and the "measurable wear stage".
During the zero wear stage the surface i s not altered t o an extent comparable
with h a l f of the original finish, 6 (peak-to-valley).
of wear, the part would be indistinguishable from its original condition, from an engineering point of view.
ing wear scar which i s deeper than half the original roughness.
The theory concerns two materials, one o f which i s harder than the other; T~ i s
the measure of hardness, The softer of the two materials i s expected to start wearing i n
a "one-body wear mode".
,
dependence, the maximum shear stress T
v,
No is
,,:T
For load-
= y
v '
(Fig. 7b):
Eq. (8).
T~~~
i s proportional t o
or 0.54,
tion,
i.e. transfer.
0.2,
but
o n the first few passes micro-transfer can take place i n adhesive systems, increasing the
stress concentrations between touching asperities and thus reducing y
t o 0.2.
(This
type o f adhesion must be restricted, however, t o the first few passes, or else severe adhesive wear would characterize the system instead o f fatigue.)
found yr values other than 0.2 and 0.54,
I n the measurable wear region, the cross-sectional area Q of the wear scar can
be written as a function o f the wear energy U per u n i t scrubbing area, and the number
of cycles
N [201
dQ
U = const
r\: cans:
The wear energy may be written as a product depending on the contact stress i n
the worn geometry,
U = C
where
T~~~
(11)
dQ = C 1 (T,,
5)
dN
9Q d ( ~ m a xS)
+ 2
max
It i s further assumed that the sliding wear process produces a wear scar i n the
softer body, instantly conforming t o the curvature of the harder body, past the zero
wear limit.
Now Eq. (13) may be solved, subject t o the i n i t i a l conditions o f the wear
--
6/2
(14)
a Q/a U = 0,
and then
Such a system yields more wear than the corresponding "variable energy system", for
which aQ/a
uf
0.
Solutions for various geometries o f slider and substrate were given i n the handbook
[I81
5.
CORROSIVE WEAR
Rubbing surfaces may wear b y chemically reacting w i t h either the environment or
10 6 c m thick. Such a f i l m
may f u l f i l l a protective role i f its thickness does not grow during the sliding process.
Excessive covering-film thicknesses are prone t o b r i t t l e fracture, and thus a wear process would arise.
, who
a correlation between the temperatures of oxidation indicated b y the presence of certain oxides i n the wear debris, and the temperatures expected to occur at the contacting asperities.
He derived the wear constant K for use i n a wear equation o f the form
Using the
1/K asperity encounters are necessary at a given asperity contact for a c r i t i c a l oxide
film thickness h to build up.
cle.
I f t ' i s the duration of a single wearing contact, then the total time t to produce
(1 5)
t = tl/K
Introducing S as the pass length along which a wearing contact i s made ai. sliding
speed v, we can write t ' = S/v,
and hence
(1 6)
t = S/VK
Considering a parabolic relation between the time t of oxidation and the mass Am
per unit area of oxide growth:
2
Am = k p Vt
where k
(1 7)
Equating Am
h p where p i s the
(20)
where A
i s the Arrhenius constant, U the activation energy, and R the universal gas
constant.
where T,
K =
A,),
Tc
v h2p2
6.
FRETTING WEAR
The small-amplitude tangential oscillation o f contacting surfaces i s referred t o as
fretting.
Fretting wear
may arise, however, without oxidation, i n spite o f lubrication, and on diverse materials such as glass, wood,
i s prevented.
Ohmae and Tsukizoe [221 investigated the effect of the slip amplitude X upon
the fretting of mild steel flats, a t mild pressure (q = 1.9 kgf/mm2
). They found
changes of wear mechanism and o f the wear rate - W/x computed by Eq.
take place w i t h the variation o f X.
served below X
70 y m.
Between X
(4) -
to
mechanism.
Above
Black material was removed from the real area o f contact; i t moved
radially outward from the contact area, gradually changing color as i t d i d so.
This
3 04 + 0 2 - - F e 2 0
(22
(a) removal of
metal from the surfaces by mechanical grinding action or by formation of welds followed
by tearing
(b) metal
particles are removed and oxidized into an abrasive powder which continues the action,
possibly at ever steeper rates;
Halliday and
Hirst [251 found the adhesive wear model applicable, w i t h linear dependence on the
load and the total sliding distance; they attributed t o the debris the function o f "rollers"
between the loaded surfaces.
chemical action (oxidation) secondary, Feng and Uhlig C271 gave a theory o f the opposite order of events: they proposed an equation superposing the chemical and mechanical events.
A review o f the mechanisms o f fretting and its literature, as o f 1970, was given
by Hurricks C281 , who described the fretting wear process i n the following three steps:
(1) i n i t i a l adhesion and metal transfer; (2) the production o f debris i n a normally oxidized state; and (3) the steady-state wear condition.
contact through destruction of the original surface structure was regarded as an induction process.
The prevention o f fretting damage hinges on preventing the slip between the adjacent surfaces.
not
this can be done b y interposing a soft material ready t o absorb tangential displacements,
thus promoting adherence and eliminating slip (e.g. rubber gaskets may be utilized).
I n general,
7.
Solid-lubricant films l i k e
(a) The traction a t the sliding contact deforms the subsurface layer, generating
dislocations and vacancies.
voids i n the subsurface layer.
either
by growth
or
by
This e v e n t u a l l y gen-
y i e l d i n g a sheet-like wear
particle.
A d e r i v a t i o n o f the wear equation i s based on the removal o f a number o f layers
from the wear track h a v i n g an area A
by h
and
h 2,
respectively.
AT2
The thickness
is constant;
,
SI ider,
Real
contact Area A ,
\-2k
o f Slider
Fig. 8. The circular wear track made by a revolving p i n on a disk surface, as in the
pin-and-disk machine.
i t i s completely independent of the load P, and i s determined by the structure and mechanical properties o f the material.
each point o f the wear track i s i n contact w i t h the mating surface a fraction of the total
time equal t o A, /AT.
P'
at any point o f the surface, i s proportional to the total distance x covered by the slider,
and also, to the fraction of time for any contact point spent under actuol contact, we
write
~,=BxA,/A,
(23)
In general, N = x/x
(the critical
written:
w - N , h1ATl+ N 2 h 2 A T 2 = +
hlATl
C1
x
y
h2AT2
(24)
C2
C P/P
(25)
The
(7).
and i t drastically
decreases with the number of impurities; i t i s expected to rise when incompatible sliding
partners are used, and under lubricated conditions.
The delamination theory states the existence of a non-work-hardening,
highly
By plating 1018 steel with a very thin, 0.1 p m soft layer of cadmium, the
8.
their structure.
of 2.6 x 10 3 c m 1321
and a length
as
shown i n Fig. 9.
Fig. 9.
linked.
Three basic types of polymer structure: (a) linear, (b) branched, (c) cross-
ting".
fibrous
which
Table 3
Engineering properties of some plastics and metals [321
-
Matt ~ o l
>?
5
Y e e l SAE
1027
Stoinlerr Steel
'ype 3 . 6
A l u m i r v r Alloy
meciric
Gyvi.y,
len.ile
,trergLh,
p .c
kg
-7.85
7.93
brr
39-46
3-63
Yo~og'r
Modulus
kgf,'rr7
20,0C3
20.005
Roc~well
-inear Coefr
3f txoan,ior
'cm/r~)/'C
V~rdnerr
-.
8 78
8 75-90
10.'
- 2.3
- ' mc
C
;t'vi'v,
Wa't tr ' C
x
10'
M a x & ~ ~ -
All=wcde
Service
Temp, C
1.6
2.77
2024
<<
1 cm/s),
o f course,
heat i s negligible. A demonstration of the applicability of the viscoelastic "shiftproperty" was given by Ludema and Tabor [361 ; p vs. the sliding speed v was experimentally obtained at six ambient temperatures T.
t 50'
C i s often used);
Legend:
Temp.
('C)
a,
Fig. 10. Friction o f a glass hemisphere sliding over a clean surface o f acrylonitrile
butadiene rubber (load 509). From Ludema and Tabor [36].
The friction coefficient reaches a maximum near the T
and 11.
plained b y the fact that for most polymers a modified version of Amonton's law i s valid:
(28)
F = ~ P '
where n
creases.
<
Values of n between 0.66 and 0.96 hove been recorded for various polymers.
The wear mechanisms for polymers include those previous1y enumerated (adhesion,
abrasion, surface fatigue, corrosion).
= 4 kgf
- 3 kgf
= 1 kgf
80
120
Temperature,
Fig. 11. Frictional force F o f steel slider on plexiglas (Tg = 105') as function o f
temperature (OC). Sliding rate: 0.0017 cm/s. From Bartenev and Elkin [37] and
Bi kerman [34]
should therefore include not only mechanical, but also thermal analysis.
The pairing of identical polymers against one another as mating machine components i s not usually recommended because the great surface energy of the mutual contact surfaces would promote adhesive wear.
polymer vs. metal gear-and-pinion combinations have been successfully used i n indusThe state o f scientific knowledge o f the tribology of polymers was well reflected
try.
The available wear design procedures include Lewis' "pv method" [391
basis i s the linear wear law W
K'Pvt.
Its
obtained,
h = K'pvt
(29)
steel sliding against various polymers (delrin, teflon, polyurethane, nylon) involved a
y,
The sliding wear of rubber must be treated differently from the previous methods.
Here, adhesive wear may be eliminated, and the wear mechanism depends on the sharpness of the track.
Schallamach [41, 421 showed wear resistance t o depend on the tear strength of rubber;
he also found wear t o vary linearly w i t h the load.
role, we note their a b i l i t y t o reduce the shear tractions and the flash temperature on
the protected solids; both friction and wear are lowered b y effective lubrication.
The layer
) and
teflon ( a l l of these w i t h binder) are the most popular solid lubricants for sliding components.
Their impact-wear resistance has not been proven as tendencies t o crack prevail.
The outstanding property u t i l i z e d i n liquid lubricants i s their viscosity.
cosity q ( N s m - 2
The vis-
T t o a change of
law i s valid:
I n boundary
.=
0.6.
from typi-
We shall
b r i e f l y discuss the variables that influence the thickness H o f the film i n the steady
state, between sliding and rolling elements.
By virtue of its viscosity, a f u l l liquid f i l m can develop pressure between two
originally non-parallel surfaces which have local tangential speeds u
and u 2
The
Reynolds equation for the simplest case of one-dimensional flow i n the x-direction,
constant viscosity,
is
1451 :
at
+ u 2'
= 0,
sures are relatively smal I, the solid bearing surfaces may be considered rigid, and the
solution o f Eq. (31) may proceed w i t h certain plausible assumptions for the shape of
p (x); this i s necessary t o obtain the unknown constant
Ti.
by a linear force P' per u n i t width) yields an estimate at the narrowest point o f the
gap:
H,
= 2.45 q uR/P1
(32)
Such an analysis has been shown to be inaccurate for highly loaded gears where
f u l l films were observed, i n spite o f the predictions of the hydrodynamic theory.
correction was required,
The elastohydrodynamic
lubrication (EHL) theory i n fact couples the Reynolds equation w i t h the equation of
elastic deformation to y i e l d the solution.
::
q effP
(33)
Russian scientists Ertel and Grubin, who assumed the gap t o be parallel and obtained
the result
tions i n the contact, a circumstance that separates sliding applications from rollingelement analysis.
Inlet
Outlet
Fig. 12. The EHL o i l f i l m between a plane and a rotating cylinder: (a) the lubricated
contact gap, (b) pressure distribution, (c) f i l m thickness.
The Grubin formula points out the basic relationship between the o i l - f i l m thickness, tangential speed, viscosity parameters, elastic properties,
Similarly, EHL analyses have led to predictions of frictional resistance (shear traction)
i n lubficated contacts
[451
Full EHL films eliminate adhesive and some abrasive forms o f wear and are therefore desirable t o achieve.
10.
, where the
normal contact
force component P transmits the load but a relative tangential motion, and thus a shear
stress
T,
also arise due t o geometry (Fig. 13). This i s because the contacting gear
teeth are necessarily spaced apart b y a small distance called the backlash.
This causes
differential sliding motion during contact, and also slight impact at each engagement.
Another frequent form o f gear failure i s pitting, the formation o f craters due t o surface
fatigue.
a,
$9
2 .%
Fig. 13.
The fatigue f a i l -
An engineering model
for spalling fatigue failure has been formulated b y Chiu, Tallian, and McCool at
SKF Industries, based on the crack propagation concept 1491
origin of failure as (a) subsurface defects, fb) surface defects, and (c) asperity interactions.
In each case, i t was assumed that the formation o f a spall terminates the useful
l i f e of a rolling contact.
Phase 2 extends t o the point o f spall initiation, and during phase 3 the first
spall forms.
The subsurface-failure model involves a calculation o f the stress concentration a t
an inclusion, due t o the macroscopic Hertzian stress field.
i s derived which includes the effect of the resulting plastic microstrain e p and the
matrix ductility, D.
The crack-propagation-rate
N1
cycles:
where C and
The surface defects are a t t r i b l ~ t e dt o furrows and pits imparted to the surface i n
manufacture, or b y debris denting occurring during early bearing l i f e .
The maximum
shear stress under a furrow can be calculated; i t was found t o increase, the narrower
the furrow and the greater the furrow shoulder radius (Fig. 140).
Subsequently, the
The contact
density and size distribution o f micropits are computed by the model, as a function of
the lubrication condition.
The popular testing machines used for the study o f rolling contacts include the
four- and five-ball tester.
on four lower test balls that are free t o rotate i n an angular contact raceway
[501
Tallian, Brody, McCool and Sibley 151 I studied the wear of Four-ball tester elements
i n the partial EHL range; they investigated the dependence on the r o l l i n g speed and on
the lubricant.
The spin/roll ratio was found to influence the wear, which obeyed
1~-
Furrow Width
1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 ::Stressat
2.0
ness)
Mid-
Infinity
;:tjk,
Mid-line 2
Shoulder
Undeformed
Mating
Surface
,
--
Mid-
Curved Tip
1 .o
0
(Deformed
Mating Surface
x/b
Fig. 14. Microscopic elements of contact geometry, for two-dimensional spalling fa(a) Profile o f surface
tigue failure analysis. From Chiu, Tallian and McCool [491
furrow and contact pressure around a furrow; (b) contact geometry o f idealized asperities.
A fundamental study o f contact failure under oscillatory normal load was made by
Tyler, Burton and Ku 1521
26 kHz was superimposed. The applied contact stress was beyond the elastic range i n
their experiments.
corresponding t o minimum load (and thus minimum contact area), and the outer one,
for the maximum value o f the load (Fig. 15).
Three types o f damage were noted i n the contact: fretting, spalling and plastic
deformation.
increased when the two partner materials had widely different moduli o f elasticity,
"A
Static
koad
I
I
I
Time
I
I
From Tyler,
Burton
which (as discussed later i n Chapter 3) means larger shear tractions induced during the
loading and unloading o f the contact area.
Spal ling was generated i n the same annular area, by crack formation, crack
growth and interweaving, and f i n a l l y flaking out o f the crack surrounded areas.
The
52100-steel f l a t specimen, tested dry against a ball of the same material at a maximum
calculated Hertz pressure of approximately 500,000 N/cm a
, displayed
an accumulated
load cycles.
The
application o f lubricant generally aggravated the damage rather than alleviated it.
The temperature of the f l a t specimens was observed throughout the tests b y inserting a 0.25mm stainless-steel bayonet thermocouple under the contact area.
The tem-
perature would level off during the first phase of the test, but started rising linearly i n
time when fatigue cracks had appeared.
1 0 0 C ) were not high enough, however, t o bring about changed material properties or
annealing o f the metals.
REFERENCES
J. F. Archard, J. Appl
. Phys.,
Philadelphia, 1959.
R. G. Bayer and R. A . Schumacher, Wear, 12 (1968) 173-183.
R. G. Bayer and T. C
. Ku,
1964.
A.W. J. deGee and G . H. G. Vaessen, Wear, 18 (1 971) 494-496.
R. G . Bayer, W. C. Clinton, and J. L. Sirico, Wear, 7 (1964) 282-289.
R. B. Waterhouse, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., London, 169 (1955) 1157-: 164.
J. S. Hall iday and W. Hirst, Proc. R. Soc ., London, 236A (1 956) 41 1-425.
A. R. Wayson, Wear, 7 (1964) 435-450.
1-44.
K . A . Grosch, Proc. R. Soc.,
8 (1965) 303-319.
1972.
RECOMMENDED READING
1.
INTRODUCTION
There are certain approximations commonly made when impact response quantities
(force, displacement,
particle velocity,
acter, and thus facilitate problem description i n terms of idealized models of material
behavior.
For metals, usual characterization i s time-independent; some types of stressstrain behavior often assumed are the following(Fig. 1): (a) perfect rigidity; (b) linear
elasticity; (c) perfect plasticity; (d) elasto-plasticity,
etc.
Time-dependent,
visco-
so) O ? r f p ~ t
rigidity
Fig. 1.
tb) L i n ~ a r
1as:icity
(cl P r rcect
~lasti:it~
id) 'lastoplasticity
In this chapter, rigid body (stereomechanical) impact theory and elastic impact
theory w i l l be discussed.
Fig. 2.
The displacement of the center (C. G . ) o f the hammer head from the time of the
start of impact:
n
i 1
where the sum indicates vibration on n modes: X I (x) are nondimensional mode-shapes
(e.g. X l (x)
sin nx/L,
X 7 (x)
sin 2nx/L,
g (t)
phase difference.
The displacement wC of the contact point C on the hammer also includes a contact deformation a ,
Wc
=wl - a
(2)
where LY i s elastically dependent on the contact force P, the materials and local
geometries.
The stereomechanical impact theory considers neither wl nor a explicitly; i t
cannot predict forces or impact times, merely impulses
(.f
The elastic theories are of two kinds: (1) Saint-Venant's (vibrational) theory, and
(2) Hertz's (quasi-static) theory.
p~\*mv"
)(I
approximation for spherical or stocky bodies where the contact duration, t*,
i s far from
the natural periods o f vibration o f the system, thus avoiding amplification (Fig. 3).
',
.- 1
V)
/!\?,;
I l/t2
e
+
l/t*
Fig. 3.
lit,
Frequency
(Hz)
l i t ,,
system.
For slender bodies, both vibrational and contact deformational effects should
generally be included i n the impact analysis.
2.
b y the action o f
tum m 2 V 7 . The impulse and momentum law i s written for either body, i n vector
notation
mV
t*
where
+{I
t*
(t) dt
mV'
(3
we speak o f eccentric impact; otherwise, the impact i s centric. The criterion o f cent r i c impact i s that the translational approach speed vector drawn from the centroid musf
normally intersect the contact surface.
mass moment o f inertia I ,
of the body:
t*
1 , 8 + / r ( t-) x ~ (-t )
(4)
dt - I,?I
Continuing the treatment i n one dimension, we may dispense w i t h vector notat i o n without loss o f generality.
, Eq.
(3)
I f V, and V2 are known and VI1 and VI2 are sought, an additional equation i s
needed.
- V',
- v2
The quantity e i s usually associated w i t h the direction normal to the contact surfaces,
and i s taken equal t o u n i t y i n the tangential direction, for glancing impacts.
An example w i l l now be given for a two-dimensional case, which i s also concerned w i t h the role o f friction and energy dissipation during glancing impacts.
tennis ball m approaches the court surface, without spin, at an angle of incidence
Qi
t o the plane, and the coefficient of friction p between the two materials, calculate
the emerging speed V ' and the angle 0
o f rebound.
f v1
N
-r
t*
1-P
it) dt
0
its components w i l l be N,,
(9)
-m V sin Qi
m Vcos Qi
+ N,
-- mV' sin 0,
Nx = mV' cos 0,
V sin 0
I t i s assumed now that for any horizontal advance to take place, slipping must
occur.
and P,
, which
r
or
Or,
= cot
-'
(13)
11,
-p
(1
+ e)
-Nx/N,
p,/p,
N x and N
, as expected.
O r vs. O i
O),
30
60
9,, (deg)
90
30
60
90
9,,
Fig. 5.
(deg)
can become negative, resulting i n the spurious prediction o f rebound i n the -x direction.
This i s a fault cf the theory behind Eq. (13), and i n r e a l i t y the condition o f slipping
throughout impact does not need t o hold.
I f the impact i s perfectly inelastic (e = O),
0,
sidered.
-,
taking place i n two parts: (a) the period of deformation - from the beginning o f contact
- --
V1
t o maximum approach,
- - --
We write,
m V
--
m V =
1
1'
Pdt
- Nd
V2
V:
- --$
and
m V',
- m1 V
--
t*
Pdt -
- N,
m2V'2
m2V2 =
m2V =
NCj
Nr
Eliminating V from the above system o f equations, and comparing the result for Nr /No
w i t h Eq. (8), the interesting result i s :
N, /N,
(15)
A consequence of Eq. j 1 5 ) i s that the more inelastic the impact, the smaller the
-/P
dt w i t h respect to Nd =
Elastic Impact
Fig, 6.
Eccentric Impact
The general motion o f a body can be described by the translation o f its center of
mass and its rotation.
both the linear and the angular impulse and momentum relations w i l l be useful.
The
supplementary energy conservation equation must also include both linear and rotational
terms o f the kinetic energy.
I t is expedient t o study the solution procedure for eccentric impact, through the
example of a symmetrical projectile h i t t i n g a hinged rod at speed V (Fig. 7).
The mo-
tion takes place i n the plane; impact i s centric for the projectile, and eccentric for
the rod.
In
C.M.
(b)
. . . projectile
u' - 0 - L l ~ d t . . . rod
mV'
1,
- mV7
-JP
dt
(4):
(16)
(17)
for w':
I , wl/Lm
V' - V -
(20)
and
N - I, wl/L
(21)
i.e.,
-;3~
(22)
Center o f Percussion
For the rigid hinged beclm of Fig. 7b, there is a point x
o f load application,
from which zero support reaction force R would result; such a point is called the
"center o f percussion",
a p i n support.
..
P,
by 0 = 2 L,/,,
and lo 0 = x P;now
P
there results
x p :21,/LM
(23)
tions during impact cause reactions at the hinge even i f the rod i s struck at x = x
I)'
Since stereomechanical analysis does not yield the impact force intensities, i t
w i l l not suffice for impact wear studies.
3.
[I 1 .
+ BY?
Cxy,
Hertz found the stress system satisfying (a) the compatibility of displacements for
mutually contacting points enclosed w i t h i n the contact region S,
= 0 outside S;
Normal tractions:
Shear tractions:
Fig. 8.
(24)
Elastic contact of two bodies: (a) two bodies i n contact, over region S;
0, dS = P.
SJ-
The above i s called a "mixed boundary value problem" i n the theory o f elasticity,
since i n some region o f the boundary, the displacements
tions
- are specified.
- and over
established the state o f stress throughout the material, due to the Hertz pressure applied
over the contact region.
Mises-Hencky,
Contact o f Spheres
The analysis considers two points M and N from the two contacting spherical surfaces 1 and 2 (Fig. 9),
respectively,
+ z 2 ) of
i s constant for pairs of points lying i n the interior of the bodies, since most of the
I-'
Contact Radius
Pressure Distribution
Original Configuration
Fig. 9.
Approach
Contact Deformation
Contact of spheres.
We have, by geometry
1
+ w 2 = a -(zl
+ Z 2 )
The l i n k between pressures q (r) and deformations w (r) i s the influence function (Boussinesq solution) between a normal point force
1-v2
nE
31
Then the displacement at 0, caused by the elemental force of pressure qdS applied at
distance r (Fig. 10):
1 - v2
w (0) - nE
q (r) dS (r)
r
,-
Fig. 10.
V )
By Eqs. (25) and (27), from the contact of two elastic bodies, an integral equation results i n q (r):
approximated by a
The integral equation (28) has a material constant (the parenthesis on the left-hand
o f the reduced modulus,
El),
[21
symmetry,
. They
and the
by the formu-
Table 1
Spherical contact formulae,
Contact quantities:
P,
R1, R
Geometric constants:
Material constants:
u , a,
by Hertz theory
qmax
;
pi
,v ,E
?,
, combined
1 -v2
1 -v;
Exponent Table:
Relations
P - P
r4
a'--
80 E:
(33)
iJ
-'
-+ 2)
, reduced
RE,
cr = 2 P a
curvature
'mar:
2
max
r2
-
4P E
x,,,
max
modulus
, Rq2
from the second body) and the angle 9 between the planes defined either
by the primed or the unprimed radii, uniquely determine the ratio a/b o f the major and
minor axes ( x and y) for the contact ellipse.
I t can be shown
+ z 2 =Ax2
+By2
RI1 ; R2,
R'
; 9 ; and thus
B - A
-
COs-l
B+A
we obtain C5,61 :
The constants c a
, c , c,
,,= P/nab).
The
being
Table 2
Numerical parameters for e l l i p t i c a l contacts.
Cylindrical Contact,&g
-
From Goldsmith
[51
Parallel Axes
When the quadratic surfaces are parallel cylinders pressed together (Fig. 1 I ) ,
several simplifications occur for the stress formulae.
loading, where P' i s the force per width of contact:
with
Pressure Diagram
plained by the fact that the truly two-dimensional loading of a half-space i s impossible
i n reality.
Thus, for the contact of a cylinder w i t h a plane, the solution by this ap-
proach i s indeterminate.
experimentally.
The elastic approach for two parallel cylinders made of the same material i s given
i n Roark [81 :
Numerical analysis of
tice,
ends.
I n prac-
a l l cylinders are of finite width and thus stress concentrations may arise at their
Stress concentration factors for the end effects have been discussed by Moyer and
Neifert [ 1 1 I
Flat, A ~ i s ~ m m e t r i c a lRigid
,
Indenter on Elastic Half-Space
This is called the Boussinesq problem [ 2 1
Stress
Fig.
4.
12.
The ex-
>
0) o f the contact.
klevertheless,
many of the c r i t i c a l stresses occur on the z-axis and w i t h i n a region less than the contact length or radius away from the surface.
See Appendix
for details.
Spherical Contacts
At the apex (r
a , = -
qmax
0, z
O),
- a ~
"r
- -1 + 2 v
2
q a,x
(50)
Since these are almost equal i n magnitude and compressive, a state o f nearly hydrostatic pressure governs.
pressures, and thus contacts should not usually be designed for qlnax
, but
rather for
0, r
--
a).
Here,
1 - 2~1
- - O o
- T
3
qmax
-
(51
governs.
The radial stress o r (z
changes sign; thereafter,
The maximum shear, most l i k e l y to govern the design o f ductile contacts, i s generated i n the depth, at z = 0.47 a, on the z-axis.
Its value is ( a z
- a,
)/2.
A map
54
max
, 0,
Analytical expressions for the stress components everywhere i n the contact region were
given by Hamilton and Goodman El21 , who treated frictional surface tractions as well
The stress distribution i s given i n Appendix 2-1.
,a>
and
T mdx : ( a 7
- or
The general state o f contact stress may be obtained from rather complicated formulae El31
The
=-
0,
2v q nlax
-2vqmax -(1-2v)qlnax
-
b
a
(52)
ab:
(53)
I",,
(54)
- o V , o7
= 0.
Its magnitude
where
<
- (1
- 2 v ) q m a X!dl(1--b/a
5
t
yrTq7
arctanh
(57)
- uZ
)/2,
Cylindrical Contacts
Figure 15 shows the stress distribution at the z-axis.
i s 0.31 qmax
[41
b on the z-axis.
A general set o f
Fig. 15.
Flat Contacts
A description o f the stress distribution i s found, for example, i n Ref. 14.
5.
QUASI-STATIC
Hertz d i d not stop at the static solution for the contact compliance, but carried
on t o solve the dynamic contact problem of colliding spheres.
tions o f the spheres and related the dynamic forces arising during impact t o the static
displacements these forces would have caused when gradually and not impulsively applied; hence, Hertz's impact analysis i s a quasi-static one which works well for compact bodies, especially spheres where vibration periods are short compared w i t h the
contact time.
Consider the central impact o f two masses, the contacting surfaces being spherical;
their speeds are Vl
V;,
) i n i t i a l l y (Fig. 16).
Q ( t ) --xl(t)-xq(t),
(x1>x2)
(58)
Fig. 16. Hertz impact. (a) Position o f impacting masses at the beginning o f impact
(t - 0); (b) Free bodies during impact.
by Eq. (32):
3i2
(60)
E ,/3n.
2
'
r0,
Z=V1 -V2
(63)
The exact solutions for the peak approach and contact duration are, respectively [21
[ 1.25 ( V , - V , ) 2 / n n 1 ~ 2 1 5
L"
t*
- 2.943, o / ( V l
(64)
- V, )
(6 5)
I t i s a bell-shaped cuive,
(Inr.;?
(66)
), and t * are available from Eqs. (64) and (65). Another useful
approximation [ 5 1 i s
P(t)
( 1 . 1 4 ( V 1 - ~ ) ) ~ / ni ,f o ) .s i n ( 1 . 0 6 8 ( V 1 - V 2 ) t / u o
(67)
which compensates for the more slender Hertz curve by an 8.8% reduction i n height.
The variation o f the contact quantities (PI r u , a, qmax ) during a Hertzian impact
i s depicted i n the typical graphs of Fig. 17. A solution of impacting circular cylinders
Contact Force
Conto:t Radwr
Elortlc Approach
Moxt-nm Prelrvrr
Fig. 17. Time variation of contact quantities during Hertzian impact of spheres.
6.
NON-HERTZIAN PROBLEMS
i s often advantageous to proceed numerically. The reasons for this may be numerous,
especially i n cases of non-Hertzian impact (Fig. 18):
1.
3.3),
i n the plastic range while the rest i s elastic, or i n case of viscoelastic, elastoplastic or work-hardening action,
2.
etc.
The body contour changes as contact penetration becomes more extensive; the
Rockwell C hardness tester (Appendix 3) i s such.
3.
For more complex impacting bodies, motion occurs over several degrees of
freedom (see Section 2.8).
The Runge-Kutta method i s eminently suitable for impact calculations as the
author has found i n numerous applications involving a l l three cases i n Fig. 18.
Ordinarily, variable coefficient,
the number of i n i t i a l conditions must be equal to the sum of the orders on each (dcpendent) variable.
Fig. 18.
(c)
'
Changes
Several Degrees of
(elastic) Freedom of
Motion.
1.
2.
3.
4.
i s shown i n Table
3.
Table 3
Solution o f ordinary (simultaneous), first-order differential equations by fourth-order
Runge-Kutta scheme.
Differential equations:
dy
dt
= f (t, y);
t:
independent variable
-Yn
1
6
A - k
1
3
+-(k,+k
) + - k
6 4
where
k,-At-f(t,,yn);
k2-At'f
At
In Appendix
Runge-Kutta procedure.
7.
a2 w/a
t 2 = c2
0
a7
C171
w/ax7
reflected from free ends w i t h opposite sign (compression waves return as a tension wave);
from the fixed ends the reflection o f stress occurs w i t h the same sign.
two different materials,
At junctions of
The stress-wave
theory o f impacting rods considers the contact surfaces perfectly plane, without relative
approach.
treated
C51
Similarly, torsional and flexural beam and plate problems have been
For the development o f impact wear analysis, the local deformations o f the contact area must be known; thus we need solutions that combine stress waves w i t h elastic
approach.
C181 ; his solution was experimentally verified w i t h ease, while difficulties always
arise when experiments are attempted on plane impacting surfaces, neglecting local
deformations.
by Timoshenko
[I91
, are
and dashpots, while the spherical contacting surfaces have definite local elastic
properties, allowing computation of contact deformations.
the support elements, when, at time t
We assume no prestress i n
Note:
kl (0)
> 4(0)
Fig. 19. Elastic two-body system including springs and dashpots, characterized for
impact analysis.
The resulting equations for the motion o f the two bodies must be solved for the
displacement history o f the two centers of mass, x l and x 7
!,
ml
-. - k l x l
m,x2
xl -f(xl
- x2
ncu 3i7
t
can be used.
0:
- x 7 )
(68)
- k 2 x 2 - C ~ ; ~ + ~ - x( *X) ~
-cl
, respectively.
(6 9)
-x
xl
XI
=of
X7
= 0,
k7
= V
(70)
v 2
(V,,
(71
V7)
Runge-Kutta method.
damping force P
c 03'?
N'
I f rods are t o
be simulated, several masses can be connected i n series b y springs and dashpots on both
The programming work i s o f the same order o f d i f f i c u l t y .
sides.
This ex-
ample involves friction between the colliding surfaces, a typical consideration for the
impact wear of machine components.
law: F
p P.
The bob has three degrees of freedom (x, y, 9) and the hammer likewise.
The
cantilever of the bob and the pivoted handle of the hammer may be replaced by equivalent springs i n those degrees o f freedom
The
b)
d)
Fig. 20.
z)
geometry of approach i n the x, y plane determines the contact force; dynamic equilibrium equations are then written i n the three degrees of freedom, and these are subsequently solved by the Runge-Kutta technique.
8.
chopped into small geometric blocks, and the elastic interaction of these described by
a matrix.
R impinges at a speed V.
m2,
The total mass of the beam i s lumped into three masses (ml
1
m
JP (impact
force)
0
TR
Fig. 21. Lumped mass representation o f simple beam impacted b y an elastic sphere.
(a) Arrangement of lumped masses; (b) Free body diagram of m
The equation o f motion for each lumped mass w i l l be written after the elastic
spring-restraint force on each mass m . has been expressed i n terms o f the displacements
w
L-
1 at point
i, while at a l l other joints ( i f j ) the displacement i s zero (Fig. 22). Thus the holding
, where
delta.
11
6 ..
II
i s the Kronecker
" 1
Fig. 22.
- 6(:
" 2
- 512
"13
m2;;/7
- k 2 ?w
m3'3-
k l lw l+ k 1 2 W 2 + k 1 3 w 3
+ k 2 2 w2 + k 2 3 ~ +
3
k 3 1 w 1 + k 3 2 w 7 +k33w3
- 'i?
-P
M,w
(74)
-w
P :- n (w
expression:
t--0,
W,
w
The holding forces
W1
- w2
, Eq.
-w2
(60).
--W2 . = w 3 =W3 - w
=O;
(75)
-v
k
ii
Hardy Cross's moment distribution and Clapeyron's "Three Moment Equations" are
equally w e l l adaptable [231
the answer i n more easily programmable, straightforward fashion, as a result of simultaneous equation solution.
The best criterion for lumping the beam masses i s not certain at the outset o f the
calculation,
result
[I91
start:
wi
p 5 -
W 1
P2'W2
p 6=
P3'W3
p 7 = w 3
p 4'
PI
w1
8'W
4.
tact force i s noted between the numerical results o f three lumped masses and Timoshenko's solution.
Table 4
Equations o f motion i n Qunge-Kutta f o ~ m
I.C.
Dlt,:
an:
Fig. 23.
,I
ct
cm rqdu
'5.5..
-C
3%. SP
.,
I ~ U UH
1 -n Ral'u
'c.,
on,
? ~ , .F.-.+,I
i,
V,O~
~'"i.,~t
J~
- - - + - & .
4"a
k*
J.w
- -*
--
A
"-L~np
7
I=
U.-r
*
matrix method.
w i l l be illustrated below.
For beams the i ' t h element has the following force-displacement relation:
where S is the shear force, M the bending moment, y the displacement and 9 the rotat i o n o f a joint,
(1)
0
N o d a l Points
Fig. 24.
J'
Element N o .
1 2
)Oi
1
si
I
Mi
\ I l l
i-1
(N)
(2)
Mi- 1
si-l
The total stiffness matrix K for the beam may b e constructed by putting the element
stiffness matrices together.
Eq.
For example,
(77).
E ,I
.):
[ - l 2 ~,I
- 1 8 -
' ,, ,
L"'
-6.
L .
The element mass matrix [ m l i s ordinarily a diagonal matrix; however, i t may be optimized for simulation o f inertia forces i n dynamic (vibratory) motion [241
This form
,8
elements, by requiring the moment at the nodal points i-1 and i t o be zero.
of the
That is,
we w r i t e
{M
b y putting
= 0, we express
-. -[K,,I-~
(8)
(Yt
[ K ~ ~ I
and obtain
is1
where [ K
{ Y l
[K,]
R1
[K,1
CKl1I
- [Kl,l
[K,,].'
CK2,
(82)
[ml
where
i n g mass, M,
and only one member o f i t i s non-zero for a single contact; the element standing for the
beam displacement y r , i n the direction x of the approach of the contacting mass.
Therefore, writing the,equilibrium equation for the impacting mass,
M,
= - P ( y c r x),
X)
(84)
n (X - Y , ) ~ ' ~,
y,
X,
and
i.
The finite element solution was applied by Wang [251 and Lee [26] to several
impact problems, including, as a test case, the ball impacting on a beam, treated
earlier (Fig. 23).
A.E.H.
18 (1951) 251-252.
New York, 1943.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
1974.
23
24
J. S. Archer,
25
26
C . H. Lee,
1962.
RECOMMENDED READING
Phys. Rev.,
15 (1 920) 277.
59 (1941) 669.
16 (1976) 81.
N e w York,
CHAPTER
1.
INTRODUCTION
I n t h e previous section,
considering
i n gen-
Except for
some o f its temperature effects, we shall not d w e l l on repetitive loading, as yet; that
aspect is l e f t t o the f o l l o w i n g chapters.
shown i n the
diagram below:
/
IMPACT WEAR
C H A N G E O F THE SURFACE
Permanent deformation, p l a s t i c i t y .
STATE OF STRESS
Layered material, anisotropy,
Viscoelasticity
Friction
inhomogeneity
MECHANISM
Thermal
Chemical
Environmental
Effects
I t is clear from the diagram that some o f the factors influencing impact wear c a n
b e i n more than iust one category; e.g.
chemical role.
l u b r i c a t i o n has a stress-modifying as w e l l as a
since
impact wear may react upon each o f the main categories i n turn.
2.
PLASTIC D E F O R M A T I O N
IN IMPACT
ested i n t h e macroscopic manifestations o f plasticity: the average pressure and the size
o f indentation.
Dislocations, how-
This characterization, o f course, does not suffice for the complex triaxial
t o relate plastic contact compliance for diverse geometrical shapes t o the simple longitudinal bar tests.
governs the microscopic asperity contact w h i l e the elastic Hertz theory describes the
gross, macroscopic contact; the converse situation i s also possible.
The plastic " y i e l d " of a contact can be estimated
by
the theories o f y i e l d [ 2 1 :
(a) The maximum stress theory: A t the apex of a spherical contact, the principal
stresses are so close (Eq. 2.50) that a nearly hydrostatic state of stress governs; this is
unlikely to cause failure.
tact (Eq. 2.51),
(b)
gitudinal tensile test t o any specific stress state, this requires the condition:
causing y i e l d i s
q m a x= ~ ~ / 0 . 3 =
1 1.6 oV
(2
; first yield i s i n
the substrate.
(c) The Huber-Mises-Hencky distortional energy criterion: The second invariant
of the stress deviator tensor J 2 i s equated w i t h
uniaxial stress case.
0;/3,
lane strain
and putting, , ,T
v --0.5770~
2/3,
which gives o l = o
i n the
'J
= T~
(o, =
- o3
, we get
,,,
; 'J
(4)
u Z , u 2 = u3 -
1
z
0.470, Eq. (3) yields - [ 2 (2-r m a x j2 I = u3/3.
6
again q max = 1.6 u
i s obtained as i n Eq. (2).
0,
=u
-
ug
Inserting
/2.
In the spherical
on the z-axis.
T,,,~~
= 0.31
At
max,
Elasto-~lasticContact Stress
As the load i n a spherical indentation test (i.e. Brinell or Meyer hardness test) i s
increased gradually,
This process i s
(in the absence o f a strain hardening phenomenon), the "flow pressure" p, of uniform
intensity,
reached (see Fig. 5, later) i s a convenient idealization because of the simplicity of the
pressure distribution.
The class-
problem, two kinematically admissible orthogonal slip-line systems may form, along
which material flows towards the surface, on the sides of the punch (Fig. 2).
two solutions are due to Prandtl and Hill, respectively.
(b)
H i l l ' s Solution
Those
Both the Prandtl and H i l l solutions arrive a t a common result, relating the flow pressure
to the uniaxial yield stress, oy :
Even when the pressure distribution i s not constant, p w i l l be referred t o as the average
pressure. The p,/cr,
Table 1.
Table 1
A x i a l l y symmetrical solutions o f plasticity theory.
c-
Punch P r A l e m
Aulbr
Hencky, 1923
Spherical punch
h u e r e punch
8 Drucker,
1953
Uniformly l w d e d circulor
smooth punch
Cones (52.5' C 8' C
Con-
(30"
8)
PO" )
Levin
Lnckett, 1963
Huddon 8 Donyluk,
1964
under a hard sphere indenter; i t was restricted t o the inside of a boundary c i r c l e extending down from the edge of the contact area (Fig. 3).
The elastic-plastic boundary-circle resembled the shape of a Hertzian constant
shear contour line (Fig. 2.13);
These consider-
ations led to a constraint factor near 3, i.e. much closer t o experimental results than
the findings of the classical plasticity theory.
In the transition region following the maximum elastic load limit, stress analysis
by classical continuum-mechanical means becomes intractable.
analyses depended on certain simplifying assumptions, the finite element method can
yield numerical results with great accuracy, without heavily relying on assumptions.
Such a study on elastic, perfectly plastic materials was made by Hardy, Baronet and
Tordion
C61
= 2.76 T~
, by Eq.
(4).
Figure 4 shows the progressive yielding of the indented elastic material; note that
an elastjc zone remains at the apex region of the surface.
Elastic Zone
;
.
ratio.
The above discussion on the state of stress i s valid for most metals, but does not
hold for glasses,
(E/a
< 133),
-
polymers and,
C81
i n general,
For such materials, Marsh C91 has found the constraint factor
3:
C
p/ay
(6)
The reason for this i s the readiness of the material t o undergo great densification,
unlike the compact crystal structure of metals.
ness test, glasses and polymers display a great amount o f radial flow.
the behavior of a solid subjected t o internal pressure from a spherical cavity, rather
than the flow pattern of metal i n a hardness test.
leads back to the pre-plastic,
according t o them, should produce constant and not Hertz-like pressure distribution i n
materials characterized by E/uy ( 133.
The plastic indentation of metals was studied by Tabor
mic conditions.
[lo1
The strain
If e o i s known,
can be obtained from the uniaxial stress-strain curve, and finally the average pressure
is again determined by p
3 a,
(k and n) have been suggested, and thus the equation o f motion during
--mi:
(7)
its relation to the force i s p -. p/sa2.
simple analysis for two similar spheres m of radius R i n centric collision (Fig. 6) can be
made by assuming the approach to equal the flattening of each cap by the amount
2
a /2R.
a 7 / 2 ~of the
21rpRx
0.
Fig. 6.
0).
+ r p Rx,
and t *
This resulted i n
( m / ~ ~ R ) l "/2.
;~
tradictions, Tabor [ I 0 1 suggested taking the average value o f t * since the real situat i o n should l i e between those extremes:
t* -
1.3 (m/rpR)'
(81
the impact speed does not enter i n this "quasi-static range" of the impact phenomenon,
where Eq
. (7) is valid.
ness concept.
3.
The flow pressure may also be found i n a dynamic mode; the drop test (sclero-
U = mgL
, T yZ
v2
C-r
A hard b a l l (R,,
Y1
denoted by R
El,
)fromaheightL,;
(L2
m,
vl
,T~~
itrebounds
/Ip
d S - d i , wherez
r S
The integral is p times
(considered positive):
U,
U,
- U,
=mgL
110)
work o f the b a l l m, required i n establishing f u l l contact over the already existing indentation o f diameter 2a,
over the approach a
U,
=SP( u ) do.
(12)
and
R2
0 and
a,
The dynamic
where W,
ture
R, , i.e,
that of the b a l l m.
By the above principle, the hardness of a plane specimen con be measured for a
given boll, by measuring the rebound height.
The first one i s the rise of the y i e l d point, which i s especially dramatic
i s not far from unity, the ratio becomes substantially larger for soft metals
3.
, mainly for
[lo].
and soft-on-hard layered composites also correspond t o vastly different contact stress
states when subjected t o local indentation.
lent t o stiffness ( E l the modulus o f elasticity being its measure) and softness t o
flexibility.
When a stiff layer i s supported on a flexible one, the state o f stress resembles
flexure i n an elastically supported plate; layer analysis i s required here.
When the
layer t o be supported i s flexible compared t o the substrate, the relative size o f the
contact area dimension "a" w i t h respect t o the indented layer thickness H i s on important indication o f the analytical methods required.
a/H
-<
1/2
thus
the pressure distribution take place, however, and layer analysis i s again necessary.
O n elastic contact stress solutions i n layers, Chen and Engel [ I 2 1 gave a list of
the relevant literature up t o 1972.
The a x i a l l y symmetric analysis o f Ref. 12 combined the homogeneous half-spoce
indentation pressure q (r) and a truncated series of base pressures qi (r) =Ai (1
- r2/a2)i.'!2
(where A . are undetermined coefficients, a is the contact radius) t o obtain the solut i o n i n two- or three layered media.
0,
1, 2,
2, 3,
combinations.
Gupta, Walowit and Finkin [ 131 have
Figure 10 depicts the interfacial shear i n the bond for a single layer
H bonded to a half-space, i n terms of the ratios GI / G 2 and H/a ( G denotes the shear
modulus).
10
1
7
. '
3 \
2.5
-L i m i t
-2-0
\I
of the indenting
1).
P
Hl
,
I
El,
=/.
Limit
Fig. 8,
"1
~ i m i -t '--a
-1--0
v2 -
Fig. 9. Normalized surface pressure distribution q(r)/q(O) for one or two layers bonded
t o a half-space [ 121
Two-dimensional contact
(plane strain)
5Two-dimensional
4-
- 3-
+-
2-
1-
Fig. 1 1 . Maximum flexural tensile stress i n the layer lotted as a function o f G1/G,
and H/a for a relatively stiff layer (G1/G2> 1); e l l i p t i c a l normal stress i s assumed on
the layer surface. From Gupta, Walowit and Finkin C 131
w
where
E,
H:
H;f1
(17)
(a/H1)
(18)
f2(a/Hl
i s the combined curvature parameter, and El the reduced modulus for the con-
) and f
(a/H
(a/H1
+P
0,
dV
= -E,
dt
H:
fl(a/Hl)/m
(21)
0: a/H
= 0, w
0,
V =
1/2SC
4.
VISCOELASTIC IMPACT
Many polymers, especially elastomers, display viscoelastic behavior when sub-
sponse, since i t may significantly alfer the contact time, cause heat build-up under
repeated loading,
instead of two
A n expeditious choice
o f characterizing functions i s the shear relaxation function G ( t ) and the bulk relaxation
function B(t).
74
stress q u a n t i t y due t o a corresponding,
(Fig. 12).
Stress,
Stroin,
Moxwell Fluid:
Kelvin Solid:
3-Parameter Solid:
1'
(q,
qu '
- p,q,)
'
( b ) Compliance Functions
Fig. 12. Simple functional models for viscoelastic materials; d i l a t a t i o n a l and distort i o n a l behavior may be specified b y distinct models. p i and q i are constants,
O r d i n o r y stress analysis problems can usually be solved b y a Laplace transformat i o n o f the time-dependent d e f l e c t i o n equation obtained from known loads (applied a t
a specified point o f the surface) and material parameters.
continuum,
however,
and this
[I51
who assumed (a) that the difference i n the contoct area between t h e elastic
solution and the viscoelastic solution was negligible, and (b) that the bulk-modulus was
linearly elastic instead of being time-dependent.
Lee and Radok [ I 6 1 developed a solution showing the v a l i d i t y of the Laplace
transform technique to the Hertz solution for non-decreasing penetration.
Later
Ting [ I 8 1 solved the problem for any number of maxima of the penetra-
C 191
C a l v i t de-
In problems of stress analysis, one would wish to have the relaxation or compliance
functions available for the material.
tion,
and Kaya [221 establishes the relaxation function b y considering the attenuation o f
stress waves along rods made o f the investigated material.
w i t h six polymers fashioned into Hopkinson bars [231
functions are often represented by idealized two-,
three-,
foui- or higher-parameter
[I41
of a
The interchange-
varied over a wide temperature range, and the responses at a fixed frequency are used
t o establish the complex modulus, E*,
E*(f)
defined as follows:
E ' ( f ) s i EM (f)
(23)
where E' is called the storage modulus and E" i s the loss modulus. The ratio of E t t and
E"/E1
(24)
which i s the tangent of the angle by which stress response u lags behind the input
strain e i n the harmonic vibration test.
a ' = E ' e and
- E"E
C141 is
==Eue?
(25)
I t is noted that an i'ntimate relationship exists between the frequency- and temperaturedependence of E* for polymers; the WLF equation (Eq. 1.27) describes a transformation
b y which E* (f,,
f aT and To
:
:
The
, to another
tan S (f;T)
= tan 6 (f
' a I ; To
(27)
Thus from a set of Rheovibron test results, a complete temperature- and frequencydependent representation E * (f, T) can be constructed C251
Noting the dependence of both the elastic modulus E' and loss modulus E" on the
frequency,
T i l lett [261 was among the first t o determine these moduli from impact ex-
periments.
F = 1/2
t*.
Measuring the impact time t* and the coefficient of restitution e for a steel ball (m, R)
bounced on a ~ o l y m e r late, both E' and tan 6 can be approximately determined as
follows.
The Hertz theory gives for the contact time
- vlF
cc
E' is ob-
The dissipation factor is obtained from the energy loss of the rebound.
By mea-
, the ratio o f
A,
while i n
forced sinusoidal vibration the phase angle 6, characterizes the loss properties o f a
material.
A=vtanS
(29)
- e2
and i t can be shown E271 that for the half c y c l e (of "free vibration"):
1 - e 2 =,tan6
(30)
the storage modulus E' was done by measuring the contact time i n the same ball pendulum test (Fig. 14).
40
Fig. 13.
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
2OO0C
Rebound height versus temperature for Plexiglas, for various ball sizes.
From C a l v i t t211
X 0.47 cm.
A 1.12 cm.
0 1.75 cm.
0 2.54 cm.
40
60
dia.
dia.
dia.
dia.
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
100
80
Temperature,
Sphere
Sphere
Sphere
Sphere
120
140
160
180
200C
Fig. 14. Time of contact versus temperature for ~lexiglas, measured for various b a l l
sizes.
From C o l v i t [211
5.
(a) shear tractions due to a tendency for differential expansion of the two surfaces; and
(b) sliding or slipping due t o applied shear force.
pressure approximates a "half-spaceu (the ratio a/H of the contact dimension t o its
< 0.5)) then LJ i s inward oriented (negative); i f the a/H ratio becomes appreciable, a/H > 2 and the sublayer under the indented body i s quasi-rigid,
the Poisson's ratio effect w i l l dominate, and a tendency for outward displacements
~esults[291
rates unless both their elastic properties (E, v ) and their a/H ratios are identical.
Since there i s always some adhering capacity between two real surfaces, their differential expansion w i l l be at least partially prevented by shear tractions arising i n the
contact.
E2
, vl:
(Polymer)
Area
Fig. 15. Differential tangential displacements tend to arise between steel and the more
flexible polymer, upon being pressed together.
Assuming that the adhering capacity between two round surfaces i s potentially
infinite, Goodman [301 solved for the contact shear tractions arising i n spherical contacts (Fig. 160).
His solution,
functions o f elasticity theory, neglected the effect of the "secondary" shear stresses
upon the original Hertzian pressure distribution.
shear-stre~s/~ressureratio at the edge o f contact.
Fig. 16. Contact solutions for adherence resulting i n self-equilibrating shear tractions.
(a) Adhering contact (from Goodman r301). (b) Traction distributions for partial slip
model of a r i g i d sphere pressed into an elastic half-space; a' i s the adherence length
v = 0.3.
and a0/a uniquely defines p
From Engel and Conway C341.
The adhering contact between a f l a t indenter and slabs was analyzed by Conway,
Vogel, Farnham and So [311
The
< r<
a) i s able t o slip,
r (a'
<
-po
numerical solutions for both f l a t indenters 1331 and round ones 1341
dissipation can also be estimated.
This allowed
The energy
w i t h ~ a r t i a slipping;
l
each solution corresponds
It
i s obvious that i n order t o avoid rotation o f the slider, either (a) the resultant of the
contact pressures must a c t forward o f the normal to the contact, or
moment must be applied t o the slider.
symmetrical,
otherwise i t is not.
(b) a
restraining
tant role when the slider moves on a viscoelastic material; i t can be shown 1351 that
the viscoelastic delay effect i s sufficient t o create a lopsided geometry so that a roller
would encounter a net resisting force.
( c ) Viscoelastic M a t e r i o l
Fig.
accord-
ing t o whether the force F i s sufficient t o bring about continuous rigid-body sliding
motion or not.
When F
f r i c t i o n law.
<
t o prevent slip everywhere, the tangential displacement for a circular contact surface
of radius a is
slip
Hertz value),
a (1
- 1_)1'31
uP
r(
K. L. Johnson [381
An important case of net shear force i s the limiting shear accompanying sliding:
p P.
Since the total shear force i s proportional t o the total normal force,
i t may be
assumed for the stress analysis that the shear traction everywhere i s also proportional t o
the pressure and, o f course, opposing the direction of relative motion.
The Hertz
envelope of principal stresses for the space underlying a two-dimensional contact: the
parameters p and
1,
were fixed.
tions (Fig. 19) for the variation of the maximum compressive and surface shear stress,
and also for the location of the point of the maximum shear - a l l i n terms of the
friction coefficient p
0.1
03
.
1.0
0.6
e
b"
" "
0.1
0.3
0.5
'
"
"
~:LLL
0.2
0.1
U.3
0.5
tJ
0.3.
(yZ=1.1
q) o f shear tractions.
Con-
cise formulae for the state of stress for each effect separately were given by Hamilton
and Goodman
J :I2
[411 (Appendix 2). Contour maps of the critical yield stress parameter
'
, / , T -,:..J - pz
U
f'
,
,<
- -
o'.
Icl.l'\J.L*
",
(b)
0.25
/-;--
From
6.
ASPERITY CONTACT
Actual contact surfaces are far from being ideally smooth as assumed by the Hertz
theory.
microscopic "asperity level" i s crucial t o explaining the various contact phenomena from sliding friction to rolling and impact
by macro-
a hard cylinder was pressed against a work-hardened copper surface provided w i t h fine
grooves parallel to one another and the axis of the cylinder.
the tips of the asperities deformed plastically.
plastic deformation of the underlying bulk material, without eliminating the grooves.
Coupled with plastic deformations, elasticity i n the contact was sufficient t o maintain
the grooves i n a reduced form (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21. Profilometer records o f a grooved surface deformed by a hard cylinder placed
with its axis parallel t o the grooves: (a) light load, ( b j heavier load, (c) very heavy
load. For light loads the plastic deformation i s restricted t o the tips o f the asperities.
O n l y at heavier loads i s the underlying metal deformed plastically, but even here the
irregularities retain their identity. From Moore C421
Greenwood [431
, among others,
pointed out
during a running-
While i t i s somewhat
harder t o explain the proportionality between load and the real contact area for elastic
or plastic strain-hardening materials,
the contact between a rough (asperity covered) surface and a hard, smooth one
(Fig. 22), both nominally flat; the i n i t i a l restriction o f flatness (later.removed [451 )
avoids the influence of one loaded asperity upon another.
/--
'
Reference Plane i n
Rough Surface
Fig. 22.
distribution; the probability of an asperity having a peak reaching a distance above the
reference plane i s
I f the
dwill
make contact.
The individual asperity i, developing contact force Pi over a contact area Ai
w i l l be depressed by an amount w i . In general we may write, for the compliance relationships o f elastic or non-elastic materials,
Pi - f (w) ;
A,
g (w)
(34)
p ,,312
(35)
(36)
and sum the force and area o f the n individual load-bearing asperities using the proba b i l i t y function cp (2):
Also
n
- I"
(Z
N o (z) dz
00
A =fg
d
(Z
- d) N $ (2) dz
(37)
(38)
;exp
(-z/o )
(39)
p
A
Ne -d'u
f ( t ) dt
exp ( - t / o ) l
g(t) dt
[e x
'
Ne'"'y:
As the load
increases, so does the real area, not by the individual contacts getting larger but by
the contacts getting more frequeni
In actual contacts, however, not the exponential but the Gaussian probability
distribution has been found prevalent: denoting by o the standard deviation o f z, we
write:
1
9(z) -
exp
-z2/2u 2
o f i
Evaluation of the
the area of contact was found very nearly linearly changing with load, as shown i n
Fig. 23.
0.03,
E'
= 25 kgf/rnm2,
kt-(-
0.01
C.l
1
load /kg)
10
100
Fig. 23. Relation between area of contact and load. Curves shown are for o - 0.03,
25 kg/mm7. The minor role of the nominal area of contact i s shown.
E'
From Greenwood [431
,- P/A ,),
(Fig. 24).
The average value i n the i n i t i a l flat part of Fig. 24 suggests the adoption of
10-5
10'
lo3
lo7
' m .
10'
%x)
1 R u)(E1
Fig. 24. Relation between mean real pressure and apparent pressure. Values used for
Fig. 23 give apparent pressures from 1 0-3 to 100 kg/cm 2, real pressure from
500 t o 1100 kg/mm
From Greenwood [431
'.
Another useful concept born o f the Gaussian asperity model i s the "plasticity
Plastic deformation starts between a spherical asperity R and a flat, at a value
index".
w
= R (p/~')2
where p .- 1.1 q
(44)
was substituted i n Eq. (2.3413).
and i t turns out t o be a good indicator of the type of micro-contact (elastic, plastic or
in-between) existing between two surfaces.
cause plastic deformations; below
surfaces [431
Above
Greenwood and Tripp [451 found that the gross pressure distribution
between rough, round surfaces i s nearly Hertzian only for large loads; otherwise a pronounced t a i l t o the pressure distribution i s added at the edge.
For the stress analysis o f asperity contacts, various asperity models have been
suggested [461
that under the loaded asperities, the micro-Hertzian stress field combines t o give the
macroscopic Hertz contact stress.
sis of asperity impacts (without inertia effects) was made by Fowles [481
7.
the film thickness and pressure distribution when surfaces approach each other normally
against the resistance of lubricant trapped between them.
Bowden and Tabor
C 491
In order to analyze the normal approach problem outlined i n Fig. 25, the basic
Reynolds equotion i s obtained from the Navier-Stokes equations by making a set of
assumptions valid for the typical fluid motion C51 I
integrated over the area of the parallel plates, the total force P i s obtained.
iation of force and film thickness are expressed i n the following equation:
The var-
where L
Fig. 25.
L~
Sound:
<ectongular:
( N o side flow)
Fig. 26.
H -
(cq L -r/mV,
case o f
P,
starting
i s stopped, i s approximately
1 I?
(50)
A derivation o f the impact pressure for f l a t hammers striking a lubricated elastic halfspace was given by Bowden and Tabor [491
relation i s shown i n Fig. 27
i n a qualitative manner.
Fig, 27. Squeeze f i l m pressures for impact loading at various energies vs. distance o f
hammer to anvil. Initial thickness o f film, H = 0.5 mm; q - 25 centipoise; hammer
radius - 1 cm. After Moore [51 I,
The squeeze film between rough surfaces has been analyzed by Moore [511
considering the statistical parameters of the asperity distiibution.
are summarized i n the schematic drawings of Fig. 28.
.-
Smooth
ti
Squeeze film characteristics for rough and smooth surfaces. From Moore C511
I t i s important to consider i n practice that both pressure (p) and temperature (T)
variations greatly influence the viscosity o f oils.
decrease viscosity, while the 7 (p) relation i s often of a dramatic exponentially increasThese two laws are expressed by typical formulae, discussed byCameron [531.
ing nature.
'7 'I,e
where
(57
proximation i s often:
This result was arrived at by consideration o f rigid plates, and Butler pointed out
the necessity of taking into account the elastic or plastic deformation o f the plates i n
the locality of the contoct.
More recently, attention has been extended to the elasto-hydrodynamic squeeze
film problem, which includes the elastic displacement of the solid boundary when subjected to high pressure of the lubricant; this was first tackled by Christensen C561
bibliography of the work done up to 1973 i n this area i s contained i n Lee and Cheng's
paper [571
, which
These
equation and the elasticity equation; both compressibility o f the liquid and variable
viscosity were considered.
during the early stages of normal approach due t o the high pressures prevailing i n the
center of the contact.
metal enclosure, the narrowness o f the gap and the conductivity of the solids are l i k e l y
8.
The two basic heat-generation mechanisms o f impact are (a) surface (frictional)
heating and (b) internal (viscous) energy losses.
sider the heat-generation process and then the heat transfer separately, since impact i s
usually orders o f magnitude faster than heat conduction through the contact region.
general, the differential equation o f transient heat conduction w i t h a source
where
C
L'
In
q"' applies:
K/pC
p.
The heating of sliding contacts was studied by Holm [591, and Ling [601 treated
rolling as well.
effects.
Fig. 29.
be further discussed, see Section 6.4) was applied, normally striking the top surface
at adjustable repetition rate (n
VL
5 m/s.
The thickness
covered b y the moving hammer, and so the final temperature was only seen immediately
after stopping the hammer impacts.
copper-constantan thermocouple,
Figure 30 shows that the temperature rose to a steady-state value AT within roughly
half a minute, depending on H, V and n.
excitation ceased.
I,
20 Hz and
1.827 g-cm2
Es
0.39cm
meq - 0 . 5 5 g
Hommer Length
sr
A-A
Thermocouple
0.
(Transducer)
--4
1 min
Note: Time-recording
is in a right-to-left
direction
H = 0.305 cm
1 min
(b) Measured Temperatures at Approximately Half the Depth; V = 4.57 m/s and n
50 Hz
Fig. 30. Typical temperature traces recorded during steady repetitive impact processes
(butyl rubber specimens). From Engel and Lasky C631.
Fig, 31. Temperature rise measured on the surface, and inside o f buty[ elastomer.
From Engel and Lasky C631.
The thermal fatigue phenomenon i s usually more c r i t i c a l for rubber than for metals,
at operational load levels.
fatigue o f butyl.
Uetz and Gommel [641 studied the impact of small steel spheres (1-2 mm diameter) upon steel plates, at extremely large speeds, between
--
45 and 70 m/s.
The
temperature rise and electrical charges were measured by interposing a thin (5-10
f o i l made of constantan or a nickel-copper alloy.
m)
dragged by the proiectiles into the plastically deforming contact crater, and thus the
temperature was measured on the contact surface, during impact.
perature rise AT
360
O C
During impact, a heat source q arises i n the contact region, due to internal
mechanical energy dissipation.
this may be a good assumption since l i t t l e vibratory energy dissipation takes place.
Q,
(1
- e7) Ul,
(54)
The peak strain energy for spherical contacts has been mapped i n Fig. 32; its maximum
value,
at the apex (z = 0, r
peak pressure.
volume i s Q
0) i s
Uo
max
-0.47q~/~,whereqoisthemaximun
heat balance, AT
Q o/p C
:-
,.
= 280 kgf/mm2
, e - 0.8
and C
462 m ?/sec2 O C ,
the result i s
AT - 4OC. This small temperature rise i s i n l i n e with that found by Bowden and
Tabor [491
radius, r,a
'
--
u
m
Fig. 32. Contour maps for the volumetric strain energy U E/~:,~
i n a spherical
contact, v = 0.3. (a) Distortional energy; (b) Total strain energy.
This type of calculation also lends itself to linearly viscoelastic materials, where
different dissipation factors may be assigned to both the dilatational and distortional
parts of the volumetric strain energy.
strain energy U
The quantity
i n a Hertz contact.
Ud
0.47 a, r = a
(the location of T max ) where the dilatational strain energy i s greatly reduced from its
maximum value:
lnax
= 0.17
:/E.
can be properly
adjusted.
If this amount o f heat were instantaneously generated on the surface, its effect
at a depth z would be maximal
z =a, we obtain t
I f t l/t*
>'
[661 at time t
a 7 2 ~ .
This
situation i s analogous t o a fast-moving heat source on a plane, where the sideways flow
o f heat from the contact can be neglected compared to that flowing inward.
In that
case, for a circular contact, Archard computed the average temperature rise over the
contact area (t* now stands for the time the slider spends over a point i n its path,
i . e . a / v 3 t*):
that the heat generation process i s very fast compared w i t h the conduction process; i t
does not imply heat build-up i n the depth of the material.
Approximating the heating rate dQ/dt b y the average value of QD/tk,
serting the Hertz formulae a
1.24 (mV2R7E';
)0.4
,and Eq.
and in-
Example
Calculate the temperature rise on the spherical surface of a steel impact-wear
test projectile, striking a smooth steel disk.
Chapter 7.
The yield point o f the steel i s high enough t o absorb the impact without
veniently represented i n S.
m = 0.0012 kg
V
1.73 m/s
0.14m
N. m w 2
0.9.
--
1.47 OC.
An
exceedingly simple model i s adopted for the repetitive impact of a slightly curved hammer surface (R >,
k=
SAE/H;
b) [631
the shape factor S i s assumed t o account for the contact conditions, and i t
i s found by static penetration tests o f the hammer against the elastomer slab.
outline o f the hammer contact - a
A i s the
5 f ( lo5 Hz and 23
F T 5 60 OC.
Fig, 33. Frequency-dependent storage modulus for butyl, averaged from four sets of
Rheovibron data, corresponding to F - 3.5, 11, 35 and 110 Hz. Master curves were
shifted to a family of temperatures [631
This was obtained by the transformation methods discussed i n Section 4 of this chapter.
For an impacting equivalent hammer mass m, the impact frequency f i s obtained by trial
and error from the non-linear equation
R t/t*),
the impulse
m v - / ~ ~ s i n n t / t * dt = - e m V
0
which i s solved for P o :
Po-
amV (1 l e )
2t*
The heat generated i s equated with the energy dissipation, U = mv2(1 - e7)/2,
and
the volumetric heat generation per unit time i s written for an "effectively heated plug"
of the slab,
q'" = U n/HA'
(62)
nsu1atir*7
.. .
. . ..
Heat Sink
(Metal Foundation)
E671
Boundary
z - 0 : Conditions:
T=O
z-H:-
aT
az
=O
Initial Condition:
T(z, 0)
Fig. 34. One-dimensional model for heat transfer i n a rubber sheet impacted from
above, and supported by a steel substrate from below.
- -(;
'
2q"'H
K
(t)')
. H ', Since U - (1 - e 2 )
U/H,
result shown by the repetitive impact experiments on butyl rubber, Fig. 31 ,1631
The above analysis allows consideration o f repetitive impact, provided the consecutive energy pulses can be smeared out into single, equivalent, constant-energy
input. This treatment i s admissible for elastomers at repetition rates 10 to 50 Hz since
poor conduction properties ensure the "bottling up" of heat between two consecutive
cycles. The analysis proving this [631 considered the transient problem of consecutive
rectangulai heat pulses and found the equilibrium temperature very close to that of an
equivalent smeared-out constant heat source (with zero delay time), provided the
pulses were close enough. W i t h the aid of simplified boundary conditions, computerized heat-transfer analyses have been found helpful both for transient and for steadystate calculations C681
REFERENCES
Plasticity
1
F. A. McCl intock and A. S. Argon, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, AddisonWesley, Reading, Mass.,
1966.
A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, Vol. I, 2nd edn., McGrawHill, New York, 1950.
3.
10
11
9 (1 930) 593.
Layers
12
13
Viscoelasticitv
14.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
H.H.Calvit,
22
J.Mech.Phys.Solids,
15(1967)141-150.
23
24
25
26
J. P. A. Tillett,
27
28
1 (1973) 229-240.
19 (1975) 791-799.
30
31.
11 (1969) 709.
(1 966) 343-359.
32
33
34
35
36
37
C. Cattaneo, Rend. R. Accad. Lincei Roma, [61,27 (1 938) 342-8, 434-6, 474-8.
38
39
5 (1967) 145-154.
15 (1971) 116-122.
16 (1949) 259-268.
40
41
Asperity Contact
42
43
44
89 (1967) 81-91.
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 295
(1966) 300-31 9.
45
46
34 (1967) 153-159.
48
.,
95 (1 973) 277-286.
Lubrication
49
F . P. Bowden and D. Tabor, The Friction and Lubrication of Solids, Vols. I and
50
E.
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
95 (1973) 308-320.
93 (1971) 207-208.
Thermal Effects
59
60
61
62
19 (1952) 369-374.
Deformable Bodies, Enschede, The Netherlands, August 1974, Delft Univ. Press.
63
Exp. Mech.,
64
65
16 (1976).
67
68
Personal communication.
RECOMMENDED READING
J. B. Bidwell, editor, Rolling Contact Phenomena, Proc. Symp. on Rolling
Contact Phenomena, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1962.
1961
Sneddon, ed.),
CHAPTER 4 -
1.
INTRODUCTION
The next two chapters w i l l be devoted t o t ' i e erosive action o f small solid particles
- 500 m/s.
A t these speeds,
the incident individual particles cause cuts and indentations on the target surfaces,
stressing them into the plastic range.
Abrasion i s some-
times indiscriminately associated w i t h erosion, so that the erosive particles are often
referred t o as "abrasives".
This
action t y p i c a l l y occurs i n transport tubes carrying abrasive material i n an airstream under pressure C1,21
rains may reportzdly be reduced by a factor of ten, due t o ingested sand particles.
Severe erosive damage of rocket-motor t a i l nozzles has been noted, due to solid parti-
.
C51 .
i n a useful manner, as i s done i n sand blasting and shot peening [61 ; various cutting
applications and rock d r i l l i n g have also been suggested C71
i t is
results on erosion prior to 1946. The first systematic investigations were carried out b y
Wellinger, Uetz and their colleagues; a bibliography of their work i s found i n Ref. [ 9 1
These workers found strong dependence of the erosion upon the angle of attack and the
The erosion o f soft steels was found t o peak at f l a t angles, while hard steels
Accordingly,
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Various erosion testing apparatuses have been designed by researchers. A pneuinatic "sandblast" type tester,
[l 1 I
measured by taking photographs w i t h a high-speed double flashlight source; such photographic procedures contributed greatly i n i'nvestigations o f the mechanisms of erosion i n
general.
In order to eliminate the influence o f the f l u i d carrier,
"vacuum free-falling apparatus",
Bitter
[I, 21 used a
A hopper at
Sage and T i l l y
torr.
The abrasive
dust was fed froln a dispensing device (also evacuated) so that i t fell into the path of a
specimen which impacted and bounced the particles into a catchment fitted against the
chamber wall.
About
7% of the dust missed impacting one of the two test faces; the
latter were adjustable for any angl= of attack w i t h respect to the particle fall.
]<leis and Uumeyis [13, 141 described a centrifugal particle accelerator i n which
abrasive particles from a hopper f e l l through a metering device to the center of a rotor;
from here they were thrown through the rotor channels onto the specimens located at a
set angle relative t o the traiectory of the particles.
vacuum rig i n which particles were fed through gravity, and impacted against a rotating
specimen set at the desired angle.
2.
which explained
many aspects of the erosion of ductile materials under the action o f streams of more or
less angular particles.
upon a smooth surface at an angle of attack u , w i l l zut into the surface, much l i k e a
sharp tool.
cutting process.
of a single particle of mass m, inferences can be made about the wear arising due to a
larger quantity of similar cutting bodies of total mass M.
Figure 2 shows the incident particle, a protruding t i p of which plows a traiectory
(x,,
(0).
The contact area w i t h the chip has a vertical pr3jection A; i t has a width b (a;org
which the flow pressure p acts horizontally),
and a height L.
Chip
'0)
I b)
Since a l l erosive cuts are shallow, the motion of the t i p may be simply related t o
the motion (x, z, 0) o f the center of mass: xt
P/F = x
get
= Lbp = q z t bp.
z.
+ 1-0,
Meanwhile F
Ap, or introducing
, we
L/zt
(1
mG+qbpz =O
mz+qbpxz -0
(2)
I Q + q b p r z =O
(3)
where I i s the rotary mass moment of inertia o f the particle about the center of mass.
The i n i t i a l conditions oi' the impact are:
t=O:
x-zLO=O
;( = V cos cu, z
V sin
LY,
. .
0 = 0,
V sin a.
sin p t r ( V c o s c r ) t -
Px
V sina
V sin cu
is
(5)
sin p t
P
mrVsincr
PxI
(sin Bt -
5 t)
0, t
where we introduced
(8)
(qpbx/m)l'2
Two kinds of cutting processes may be distinguished: (a) the particle cuts into the
d u c t i l l surface, and subsequently leaves i t when z,
i s stopped during its scooping action at some depth, as its kinetic energy i s exhausted,
i,e.
x , = 0.
or
p t * =lT
(9)
For the other case, the particle motion stops i n a shorter time, calculated from
x, = x
+ r 0 = 0.
and 0,
= 0, there results
cos p t * = 1
- u /3
mr2/2
tonu
(10)
tan-' ( u /6);
this
(5),
w = -MV'
(sin 2c
lvP x
- sin20
X
5 oo
) we obtain:
cro
), there results:
For maximum erosion, we solve for a from dW/do = 0, and get a,,,
which i s in the rebounding region at a shallow angle, since o
The determination of
x = P/F
1
= - tan
< ffo
~/3,
P forces arising in two similar abrasive processes (namely scratch hardness testing and
surface grinding) are likely to yield similar ratios C161
Thus a value
x = 2,
found as
a good description of those two related processes, i s also justified for erosive cutting.
A value y,
This
yields c
1
w = -M
- V ~
2
P
16.84'
and a
sin 20
18.43'.
3sin2m
; O<rY(ao
(14)
and
It i s remarked that, besides meaning total volume removed, W occasionally stands for
weight or weight of target removed per weight of erosive particles, etc.
M V 1~
W = - 2
P
. f (cr),
Writing
points are also scaled in Fig. 3, the maximum ordinate being selected to coincide with
that of f (a).
In Fig. 3 a discrepancy appears between theory and measurements at large angles;
at a = 90'
tgined.
the theory predicts no erosion, while experimentally, sizable values are ob-
Finnie explained this by the roughening action of the initial impacts of erosive
material; owing to this, the effective angle of incidence would no longer be very close
60
:iO
90
to
90, and a larger erosion rate would be indicated. This explanation i s supported by
Apart from
the i n i t i a l slow start o f some W (M) curves at large angles, steady erosion has generally
been found to be a constant rate process.
10
70
30
40
Fig.
metals [ I 8 1
The anglz cu
20'
,,,
of maximum erosion.
Angular particles of silicon carbide (Sic) were used i n 250 pm average size.
the two impact velocities,V
For
'9
I\,
LTGEND:
Farthest up fro n a straight line i n Fig. 5 are the body-centered cubic (bcc)
metals (Fe, M o and three steels) which erode much more than expected from their
hardness.
raise the i n i t i a l yield stress, and thus the hardness, o f bcc metals.
A t large strain
(0)
Mo
Tool Steel
,i v t j l
Thermally h a r d ~ n e dcond t l o n o t glven metal
1045 Strel
/A1
W
0
100
H
,
200
300
400
500
, V~ckevsharclnacs, kqf
600
P'
700
800
900
Fig. 6. Resistance t o erosion (grams of eroding particles per cubic millimeter removed)
as a function o f the hardness for erosion by 60-mesh silicon carbide particles, d=25OPm,
at a - 20 deg. and a velocity of 76 m/s.
From Finnie, Wolak and Kabil [ I 8 1
2.4
x on the angle
--
a max
0.5 tan-l
(~/3). W h i l e
i s expected from an
x and 9 .
[I91
17' [51
As
A late; e ~ a l y s i s(Wear. 48 (1978). 181-190)cam*. closrr t . , tnis result h y ass~rrninqthe contdrt 'arc? t o i r e
conceritratad at d heiyh* Li2 over the t i p o f the irrcident particlt i n Fic. 2.
Fig.
30'.
erosion continues, plane waves form, and the whole wave form moves downstream.
rate o f ripple growth i s more rapid for soft metals and higher impact velocities.
particles can cause rippling at larger values of
3.
The
Round
Q.
20
40
60
80
20
40
60
80
n , p a r t ~ c l eapproach angle,
deg.
'1:'
(a)
Fig. 8. Erosive wear of a number o f materials versus the particle approach angle; the
abrasive is Sic grit; V - 152 m/s.
(a) Predominantly b r i t t l e materials; grit mesh size
120 (d = 0.127 mm). (b) Predominantly ductile materials; grit mesh size 1000
(d - 8.75 pm). From Sheldon [201
Ideally, b r i t t l e materials cannot deform plastically; they crack and fracture when
subjected t o large tensile stresses.
failure criterion applies,
i n a contact situation.
symmetrical Hertz contact is the radial stress a t the edge r = a o f the contact circle;
for a half-space (E?,
v2
) h i t by a ball (E
;
.
Ring cracks,
0.05585 ( 1 - 2 v 2 ) ( E , ~v
~ ~ ) " ~
(1 6 )
have been noted i n b r i t t l e
[51 .
t o range from 3 to 6.
An analysis for brittle erosion at
08
For expe-
Fig. 9. Enveloping spheres of overall and contact surfaces of abrasive particles. The
contact radius a i s that at which initial cracking of the surface occurs during penetration o f the particle. The final cracked contact region i s defined by a* and R*. From
Sheldon and Finnie C211
Experience with brittle materials indicates that due to the volume and surface
distribution of flaws of various sizes, initial fracture occurs at a tensile stress equal to
the statistical tensile strength corresponding to the stress distribution i n the region.
Thus i n the following derivation that tensile strength aa itself must be found.
The extent of the area containing cracks is determined by the radial tensile stress
which exists only outside the contact radius a, and has the value
o,
cs (a/r)
(r
1a)
(17)
In order t o calculate the fracture stress at the surface, Weibull's theory [221 i s used
now.
where a;, i s the stress associated with zero probability o f failure; S the probability of
survival i s defined S = e
-',where B,
i s a constant
a scaling stress,
2R1z:
Through the depth h at the radius r, the stress ar i s assumed constant for simplicity,
Working out the integral (19), and ultimately equating a,, = 0
(an approximation successfully used i n various other stress ~roblems), one gets
, this
where V b is the volume of the beam, and o b the fractare stress i n bending.
Equating
(22) w i t h (21), we obtain the strength o f the material i n the given Hertz stress state:
'=a
= k2(R' z 2 ) - 1 / ~
where
k 2 = ab
{ vb
(p
- 1)/[4=
(23)
(p + l ) k l ~ ~ ! p
[a
r]
1
- v2
113
andkg-
- 2v
, R'
41T
i s expressed as
z3j2
, where
After the initial cracking of the surface, further penetration of the particle may
Since the cracked surface layer does
cracked space i s delineated by the radius of curvature R* (Fig. 9), and this can be
used as the local radius of curvature of the indenting mass m,
when the ball penetrates to z,.
Solution far the maximum fracture radius a* (or the fictitious contact radius of a ball of
radius R*) i s obtained by use of (a*12 = 2R*z,
( 55
a 3.175 mm diameter steel ball and a brittle pyrex glass surface, having
bending.
kgf, between
t~ = 8
R* and z,
in
The volume removal i s approximately equal to the volume of the spherical cap
defined by R* (or a*) and z :
TI
(a*)
zrn
(27)
From the Hertz solation of a ball >f equivalent diameter 2R and mass density p,,
at the local radius of curvature R*,
hitting
where
W = k, R ' V '
where
W = k, R "
V'
(33)
where
E - I I ~and
k 3 / k 2 = ]/ah
v~~~~.
For b r i t t l e materials,
p i s usually
Thus we get
Figure 10
I t was
Sic g r i t
These
produce stress concentrations upon contact loading, and the probability o f encountering
,o
9O
60 Mesh
'0.25 mm)
00
00
120 Mesh
(d - 0.127mm)
0
0'
Slope 3.0
(b)
(a)
Fig. 10. Brittle erosion of glass by angular Sic grit, at cu - 90' : (a) as a function of
particle velocity, (b) as a function o f particle size. From Sheldon and Finnie [ 2 11
10 20 30
10 50 60 70 80 90
n , p a * t , c lapproach
~
anglr, drg.
Fig. 11. Weight removal as a function o f particle approach angle for plate glass
eroded by angular silicon carbide particles at V . 152 m/s.
From Sheldon and Finnie 1241
strength effectively increases for small size indenters, and the material w i l l tend t o
flow instead o f fracturing.
C241
as follows.
-c
P/R
(36)
y (RP)'
, where
( 3 n / 4 ~J ' "
(redefined for
To estimate the load at which ductile behavior (i.e, plastic flow) i s possible, the flow
pressure p
p/na2
a diamond pyramid.
a <
0.1 C
-
(38)
y3 p2
Sic
540 kgf/mm2.
; C = 4.29 kgf/mm;
I f the indentation i s achieved i n impact, the flow pressure p may be substantially larger
than i n a static application.
achieve d u c t i l e erosion.
120
COMBINED THEORY OF EROSION
4.
The distinct erosive characteristics of ductile and brittle erosion are most pronounced i n the W (Q) curves.
t o assume
that real materials can be characterized by elements of both behaviors combined; thus
the total erosion would be the superposed effect.
In two publications,
Bitter [ 1,
21
postulated the separate existence and superposability of cutting wear and deformation
wear; the former referred t o ductile erosive cutting while the latter was attributed t o
repeated deformation sustained i n collisions, eventually breaking loose a piece of
target material.
Bitter's approach i s based on the computation of the plastic energy dissipation
Up, from the impact parameters of a single erosive particle. The wear i s then postulated to equal the energy dissipation divided by a wear factor which i s a material property, meaning the amount of energy needed to remove a unit volume of material.
Applying the subscripts c and d t o refer to cutting and deformation respectively,
wc
W,
-.
uc/9
(40)
U,/e
(41
and
K1 at which the Hertz theory yields for the maximum peak pressure the
value, q o = aV
, K,
is a constant for a
Deformation Wear
Consider the collision of an elastic sphere (m, R) against a plane which deforms
both elastically and plastically.
reaches a
zel = 24.35
RE,
(43
This is now assumed, for simplicity, t o signal the onset o f the elasto-plastic regime.
After increasing the load (Fig. 12b), the pressure plastically increases to ov
over a
I
I
q av
(2/3)q max
Fig. 12. Pressure distribution and contact deformations i n the contact area.
(a) Elastic impact; (b) The continuing elasto-plastic phase of the impact. From
Bitter [ l I
I-,
<<
(44)
+ZPl
< r<
radius o f curvature i n both the sphere and the deformed piane i s approximately R there.
.- 2 r R (zpl
r ;r
= 2 r Rz
r r t 2 - nrp2
2rR (zel + z p l
- 2rRzpl
2rRzPl = r r ,
/2.
+ z PI );
r r s u v zel
due
energy stored i n the sphere and the plane at the peak o f the impact:
ue + uPe
ve: + -21
r r
Pmax
(45)
91
This energy i s returned t o the particle as kinetic energy m ~ , , 7 2a t the end o f the
impact;
u p- J
0
r rp2u,, dzpl
= ITRZ;,~
uv
V.
since r l = 2Rzpl
, z,,,
U,,
(47)
Neglecting the last term on the right-hand side as small, there results For U p :
Thus, the defornation wear for any mass M of erosive particles i s obtained from the
definition (41):
( 1 / 2 ) ~ (V sin cu
Wd
K1) 7
(49)
Cutting Wear
As discussed earlier under erosive cutting, two possibilities exist for the cutting
process: i f cu
speed
<
ou
, then
after cutting.
<
a.
>
cu0
,V
= 0.
parts of the impact, corresponding t o the incidence and the rebound o f the particle C21
The time o f peak i s calculated from Andrews' analysis,
Wc,
= 2M
C (V sin
cu
C (Vsinc.
K1)
' ( v cos.
where
C = 0.288 ( p p / o y )'"
/oy
For the second case (u > cu o), the cutting wear formula is:
- K1 ) 2
where
K 2 = 8.093
(ap / p p )
E;'
csy
(53)
cyo
(~/6),
or should rather be found by equating (50) and
= tan
The similarity between the cutting wear equations and Finnie's fornulae,
Eqs. (12)
small
with (13).
identical.
Figure 13 shows typical
W,
W,
superposition,
-
0,
Wc,
or
WcI i s calculated from Eq, (49). The total wear curves are plotted by
respectively;
K7
W(,
+ Wc
The
indeed small.
Cln51on
E*oc~ul>
15
00
45
60
15
90
a , d.iillr o f ~ t t c l c k ilq.
,
(0)
15
(b)
45
30
a ,a g
60
75
90
of attack, ~ : c q
Fig. 13. Typical erosion curves of (a) a soft and ductile material, and (b) a hard and
b r i t t l e material, From Bitter [ 2 1
We remark that for the soft material a0 i s smaller (15') than that for the hard
material
(0
- 60' ) i n Fig. 13. The total wear i s very similar t o the real erosion
behavior of ductile materials, which was not quantitatively explained by the erosive
cutting theory.
, who
i n the form o f Eq. (54) and (55), postulated a simpler form o f the cutting
(terms (B) ):
(C)
Altogether, four constants are included: e ,
gential component of the rebound speed.
(D)
9, K ,
Vp
and
I t i s convenient,
however, t o introduce a
new variable:
6 = (\/VCOS a ) 2
which is,
(56)
steeply from a
0.
, the
6 = I- s i n ( n a )
where n i s a constant t o be determined,
W =
7 MV
(cos a ) sin nc
4'
(A)
rr/2a
M ( V sin cu
- K , )2
; (Q < a,
..
dru
= ~
c s ion a s
for cu
<
,9
on the erosion
a. :
(f -;)
a
(58)
(B)
1 ) i t i s negative, past
ru
= a*.
For q/e
= 1,
W i s constant
0 < cu < a
IY
sin noi
cu
,, E q .
tan ,,,oi
0 yields the
I f omax =
then Eq.
'Y
Q,
For soch b r i t t l e systems (e.g. glass eroded b y round steel shots), the W (cr) plot peaks
at cr = 90'.
Figure 14a shows the relationship between,,,c
9 / ~= 0
between 0 and 1.
I t is remarked that
means e
and
-9
E
cos 2crl,2
sin n~~~~ ;
q/e
(~l.'~<ff,)
q/e
.2
0.5 W
Some typical erosion characteristics for progressively larger P/E ratios (passing
from ductile towards b r i t t l e systems) are shown i n Fig. 15.
<
,ao
ation can be performed from the measured W, (cu) curve i n the following way:
90,
can be evaluated.
(1)
By (55), at u
(2)
From term (8) of both Eqs. (54) and (58), the deformation wear curve Wd (cv) can
be plotted.
(3)
Subtracting this from the total wear curve W t ( a ) , the cutting wear curve W, (cu)
(4)
Since 9/e
,,
- 0 means pure cutting wear, from Fig, 140 the intersection of the
a,.
Since e i s
If 9s',
>
The experimental curves of Fig. 16 show a great deal of variation o f e and 9 with
V; the ratio
P/E
S z xe of2 abras~ve
1 0 ~ 4 ~articles:
3En 15
Z.>
Y,~-
-.z
+-
100wm
2 9 7 ~ ~ ~
V,
1.1
V, m:,
Fig. 16. Variations o f deformation and cutting wear parameters w i t h particle impact
velocity. Aluminum plates eroded by aluminum oxide particles. From Neilson and
Gilchrist [261
REFERENCES
J. G.A. Bitter, Wear, 6 (1963) 5-21.
J. G.A. Bitter, Wear, 6 (1963) 169-190.
W. Sage and G . P. Tilly, Aeronaut. J.,
73 (1969) 429-430.
1. Finnie, Soc. Exp. Stress Analysis, Spring Meeting (1 959), Washington, D.C.
J.E. Goodwin, W. Sage and G.P. Tilly, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,
184, Pt. 1,
2 (1967) 682-702.
88 (1966) 393-400.
88 (1966) 387-392.
CHAPTER 5 -GENERAL
1.
(up to about 1968) i n which the properties o f eroded surfaces received far more attention
than those o f the erosive particles.
quantitatively considered for erosive cutting: their hardness and their angularity.
Greater hardness for the particles than for the target was seen essential for significant
rates of erosion (Fig. 4.1).
x and thus
,,,, ,
[11
Tilly's
of chips cut and also gouges and vulnerable extrusions plowed up by the impinging particles.
The second stage i s produced b y radially flying fragments which cause further
Accordingly,
secondary erosion.
By high-speed photography, using a few microsecond intervals, T i l l y and Sage [ 2 1
demonstrated the fragmentation process by firing d
a steel target,
and,
I).
1.7 V.
sphere fractured similarly, but the fragments covered an area enclosed by a 40'
around the main gouge.
angle
The high-speed photographic technique was also applied t o the impact of streams
of sharp, 500-850 pm size quartz particles against steel, at u
90'
The scoured area this time was irregular, and the rebound speed o f the fragments was
0.3 V.
(b) G L A N C I N G IMPACT
fa) A1881YIAL M P A C T
(dl S U R f A C E D A M A G E FOR
(It)
I
1000 ,m
-1c30pm
Fig. 1. Impact of 3 rnm diameter glass spheres against steel at 274 m/s.
Sage C21
From
T i l l y and
In the wake of such erosion tests, the debris was collected and the size distribution for both the erosive and the eroded material plotted as i n Fig. 2.
An important element in Tilly's two-stage erosion theory i s the variation o f erosion rates with particle size, d, which was observed experimentally.
o f quartz particles below the threshold size de.
The abrasiveness
materials,
Fig. 3.
This
Fig. 2. Erosion test of nylon and fiberglass targets by quartz particles: size distribution
for quartz and target chippings after erosion tests at V - 244 m/s and o = 90"
From
T i l l y and Sage [21
Nylun
V 744 n
Fig. 3. The dependence of erosion rate on the particle size at fixed impact speed V.
(a) The influence o f quartz particle size on the erosion o f different types of materials
From T i l l y and Sage [21; (b) Schematic of typical W(d) dependence: no
at cr = 90'
erosion takes place below the threshold size d d, ; the ascending phase i s followed
by a saturation plateau a t d = d,; at larger d (dg), the curve w i l l be expected to rise
again. At some d
the maximum primary erosion takes place, without secondary
,,
we write W 1
and U,
Uc/9
approximately equal t o
occurs at a l l since the impact stress is too small, the elastic energy becomes
3
2
~ n d eVet~
U ~ =
I
The pair of values VeI
d
define a threshold combination.
12
U,
is,
>
9 , p v d /6, where q l
, we
obtained
i s the value of 9 at V = V, :
, i s then
If d>
.
>>
Vel
, i.e.
where no
, then the
Assuming
Example
The test velocity
particles, at LY
for this size, V,,
- 90'.
d = 30 prn, to be W
V,
= 5 pm; therefore,
= 0.4 cm '/kg.
4, :
i s assumed t o be pro-
portional t o the incident kinetic energy U; compared t o this, the (lower) threshold
elastic energy is negligible.
where
We postulate
where s 0 i s the proportion o f the sample (by weight) w i t h i n the specified site range
before erosion testing, and s l
, after testing.
I f a l l particles i n the
where W 2 i s the maximum secondary erosion for the test velocity V, , W7 can be
A
, i s written from
(5)
d,,
312
V6,, l2
v
+42iy)
Fd,v
(10)
11 1
:-
90'.
20
- 30,
30
60
90
An-
other consequence of fragmentation regards velocity dependence. The effective veloc i t y exponent c, i n W - V
demonstrated by
Eq.
(10)
as
As mentioned already, fragmentation may also explain the particle size dependence of erosion (Fig. 3).
5 Clm), no fragmentation
damage varies with the particle size i n such a manner as t o leave the erosion caused
by unit mass of abrasive particles constant,
at which the particle size will cause gross fracture of the test specimen; this renewed
rising tendency would follow the plateau behavior.
Deposition
Investigators were quick to notice that while erosion progressed at a linear rate
with respect to the mass M of particles, i t often required an "incubation" or "waiting"
period to start.
particles can be initially deposited on the attacked surface, and erosion turns from
"negative" to "positive" only after the rate of removal exceeds the rate of deposition.
The variables of deposition were studied by Neilson and Gilchrist
[41
In
particles,
erosion tests of aluminum plates by 210 pm angular aluminum oxide (A1 203)
they found the incubation period to (a) increase with angle of attack for constant
speed (Fig. 5a),
and (b) to increase with decreasing speed for a constant angle (oc
=90 )
40
005 -
192m's
'71
E?
F
100
200
300
100
200
300
400
500
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5. Weight change of aluminum surface vs. total mass o f A 1 2 0 3 erosive particles
90, various
o f 210 p m size. (a) V - 192 m/s, various angles o f attack; (b) u
velocities; (c) V T 129 m/s, various angles o f attack. From Neilson and Gilchrist 141
I t was noted that no deposition took place w i t h spherical particles and with
b r i t t l e specimen surfaces such as glass.
mers [51 at 90 impacts, Fig. 6a.
at V
--
104 m/s,
(Y
40,
Carbon reinforced
showing large i n i t i a l
LEGLND
N: Nylor~
CRN: Cart1011RI.I 1fur~edNy,or,
P Polyp~opylene
400
800
CRN
1200
400
800
M, mass of ab~as'ves,grams
(0)
(b)
1200
Darkening o f nylon and polypropylene was due t o chemical changes arising under an
intensive local temperature rise (190C)
leads t o eventual removal o f material
2.
[21
- erosion turning
positive.
f l u i d (be i t water, oil, etc.) may greatly differ from those o f the surrounding fluid.
Small particles may change their trajectories i n the v i c i n i t y of a solid surface obstructing the flow.
, taking
t i v e spherical size d.
Consider particles of mass density F
density p a
Trajectories for sand particles i n an airstream u = 104 m/s directed against a perpendicular and also against an inclined plane are shown i n Fig. 7.
are hardly deflected while 5 pm particles behave nearly l i k e air i n the v i c i n i t y of the
obstacleland pass around the target.
Similar plots were also computed for a cylindrical target, and the corresponding results
are shown i n Figs. 9 and 10.
90'
Impact
90' Plate
d, particle s i x . p m
100
80
60 prn
7Opm
10pm
ff, impact
5 p m flow
angle, degrees
where k
;= V = 0,
we obtain
-k1
(kut
- In [ 1 + k u t l
(17)
,= 1.52 g/cm3,
--
air density
C), Eq. (13)
particle travel length x during which i t may be accelerated from V = 0 to 100 m/s,
first obtain t = 5.882 rns from Eq. (16), and then Eq, (17) yields x
36 cm.
we
This calculation shows that for larger particle sizes excessive airborne paths may
be needed.
i t i s also d i f f i c u l t t o design
3.
ameters of erosion (particle size and shape, conditions of incidence, chip size, fragmentation,
etc.),
Since erosion rates were seen to be nearly independent of the particle size over a saturation range d,<
<
permissible.
Let us first consider the impact o f a single particle confining particle geometry
t o spherical shapes.
Since the particle size does not essentially influence the pheno-
menon, i t i s the range o f particle impact velocity that determines the character of the
process.
Three ranges may be distinguished [ 8,9, 101 above the range of elastic
V (p a/,,
(pD/oy ) ' I 2
<
, where
)'I7
V (pD/u
,)
<
'I2
pp
2),
the forces and deformations are similar t o those seen i n static hardness tests. Considering ordinary steels, the upper limiting v e l o c i t y i s approximately 500 m/s.
range (2
<
(pp/o
,) 'I2
< 4.5),
In the second
(4.5
<V
(pp/o,
)'I7),
the
cratering associated with the high values o f the nondimensional speed parameter must
account both for i n i t i a l pedetration.of the projectile and for the expansion of the cavi t y which i t occupies deep i n the material.
A l l the erosion tests hitherto referred t o were performed i n the " r i g i d penetrator"
range, characterized by neaily rigid-plastic behavior.
during indentation at a depth less than their radius, thus no f u l l penetration took place.
To explore the impact phenomenon for individual particles i n this speed range,
Sheldon and Kanhere [ 1 1 1 employed a "gas gun" capable o f shooting steel and glass
spheres o f approximately d = 2.5 mm diameter a t a regulated speed up t o V
500 m/s.
The eroded specimens were made of 6061-TO aluminum, a ductile material (hardness
p = 36 kgf/mm 7); both annealed and work hardened versions of this material were used.
For impact angles,
rw
20,
the
target material tended t o f l o w from the front t o the side of the proiectile; material loss
would f o l l o w the reaching of excessive strair..
than the amount removed from the crater
- was
- but
less
mens; for the work-hardened specimens, the material pushed forward tended t o c h i p o f f
sooner.
V = 232 m/s
r,
- 20,
Impacts at
in both
Fracture
Fig. 11. Crater formed by impact of 2.5 mm spherical particles on 6061-TO aluminum
a l l o y surfaces a t a = 20' and V = 232 m/s; magnification 18X. (a) Glass shot, annealed
surface; (b) Steel shot, annealed surface; (c) Glass shot, work-hardened surface;
(d) Steel shot, work-hardened surface. From Sheldon and Kanhere [I1 I
From these experimental results i t c a n be concluded that material was plowed out
b y the incoming particle; the amount o f material removed would be f a i r l y proportional
t o the volume of the crater left behind.
A n analytical derivation of the crater depth
Meyerls law w i l l be given.
C 11 I
based on a statement of
(1 8)
P.-AD"
A and n being constants for the material, and D being the diameter o f the contact circle.
We equate n L 2,
V,
Fig. 12.
Geometry of
'? 0.5.
0) d
and D o
-- (sin
8") d,
Furthermore,
= 1
- cos O0
<
i n double logarithmic
This was quite w e l l borne out
b y test results both for steel and glass shot, as shown i n Fig. 13.
Th
-I
a , .q,
r r' a p , 3x.o-t
t i r o -u
?O
A ~ ocx i n
'np-:t tc,
a,
...,' .
I.
F.,
in,
-?
_I,
9-
5"i'-
Clo:
-' -.I
Cloq
4' n.n,r
'.- d
,%
A. ,
1
4- d
>
I.<In-"
n
1) with experimental
The velocity exponent c .- 3 resulting from this derivation i s notably higher than the
value 2 obtained i n earlier derivations based on ductile erosive cutting and on combined energy dissipation mechanisms. This i s significant because of the many experimental results already quoted which place c between 2 and 3 for ductile erosion.
In Ref. 11, for work-hardened specimens at
cy
2.4.
for a single glass part icle against aluminum target were found quite comparable t o pub-
[2, 41
The mechanism o f material removal b y spherical particles, i n the "rigid penetrat o r " range, was also studied b y Hutchings and Winter
[I21
Shooting d
Interestingly, the
215 m/s).
-- 18.5',
they ob-
3 mm steel
lip was
much higher
For the work-hardened specimens, the surface beyond the front l i p was
quite smooth, w h i l e for the annealed specimens, even far beyond the l i p the surface
appeared rippled and distorted.
materials "sinking i n " occurs, which disturbs a large volume of the material; i n workhardened materials,
13
[131. They particularly focused their attention on the role of the rake
and on the rot ation of a particle during impact w i t h the specimen (Fig.
14).
141 ; i n a study
o f the cutting process the latter had shown that when the cutting tool i s restrained from
rotation, o n l y rake angles larger than
-60
particles
rake angles
, Graham
and Baul's concept i s verified for the case of the plowi n g erosion caused b y spherical
projectiles, as discussed above.
< - 60'
Ref.
13.
P > - 60'
1 44
Impact
Fig. 14. Schematic of the impact of a sand grain and the action of a work tool.
(a) t o (c) progressively diminishing rake angles; (d) cutting, the metal flow bifurcates
the cutting edge of the tool; (e) ~ I o w i n ~i n, which the metal flows continuously past
the cutting edge. From Winter and Hutchings El31
25'.
particle's center of mass would be alternatively ahead, coinciding with or behind the
impacting corner; the latter circumstance influenced the rotation of the particle during
-aw----
Polythene Sabot
(31
Steel Proiectile
l,on R'nq
(b)
Fig. 15. Experimental arrangements for single particle erosion tests: (a) acceleration of
a steel projectile for impact on a lead target; (b) deceleration o f a mild-steel specimen
t o strike a particle suspended i n a chosen orientation; (c) cutting rake angle j3 - 20';
this produced the damage shown i n Fig. 170; (d) plowing rake angle j3 = 70 ' ; this
produced smooth craters w i t h a l i p on the opposite side. From Winter and Hutchings [I31
Fig. 16. Impacts of differently shaped angulor tool steel particles on mild steel, a l l at
- -70 and an impact angle CY = 25O. Velocities were: (a) 123 ms-l,
a rake angle
In cases (a) and (b) the particle rotated and second
(b) 128 ms , (c) 200 ms -'
impacts occurred further along the specimen. In case (b) plowing deformation occurred.
From Winter and Hutchings [ 13 I.
(p
= 5',
-25O,
-45')
failed t o pro-
duce chips, even though severe deformation of the mild steel resulted i n l i p formation,
(Fig. 17a).
At @
5'
men; for greater rake angles, the cutting plane of the particle remained straight.
This
impacting corner (Fig. 16a, b), much of the kinetic energy was dissipated into rotation
instead of sliding.
Thus no plowing would take place, and the particle merely plastic-
The shattering glass particles gave a new insight into the phenomenon of
fragmentation.
The specimen was cut i n a step formation (Fig. 17b), displaying one or
more steps; this could be explained by the parallel breaks forming i n the glass during
impoct (Fig. 18).
particle erosion would suggest that the erosive effect of weaker, fragile particles may
exceed that of strong particles.
Manning [ 151 : fluorite particles (Moh's hardness: 4.0) were significantly more erosive
than alumina particles (Moh's hardness: 9. O), when used against both stainless steel and
6061 -T6 aluminum.
Fig. 17. Photos of craters produced i n mild steel. (a) Etched section of a crater produced by a chromium steel particle at a rake angle p = 45' , u - 2 5 ' , V .- 167 m/~.
Observe the clear boundary between the deformed and undeformed material. (b) Etched
section o f a crater formed by a 7 mm x 7 mm x 2 . t mm glass particle, at P = -25',
V = 169 m/s, From Winter and Hutchings [I31
Fig. 18. Mechanism by which secondary cutting planes may be formed with glass particles. The particle fractures and the bulk o f the particle continues cutting on another
plane. From Winter and Hutchings El31
The erosion caused by large hard spheres was further investigated by Hutchings,
Winter and Field [ 161
latter,
First, experimental verification was sought that the indenter size can be scaled,
w i t h no effect on predictions o f erosion.
(a) predictability o f the crater size, and (b) the mechanism o f raising lips at the
The crater volume W i s basically proportional t o the incident kinetic
periphery.
D2. D2/d,
2
s~thatW'~-m(Vsinc.)
Sincem-pd3ondw=rD
h/8
(p v2sin2 a/p)
175 m/s.
V,
For example,
Fig. 19a), volume loss W and the energy loss U d per impact at
o?
-- 30' were
V = 270 m/s.
cu
The relationship between l i p volume and crater volume i s shown i n Fig. 19b, at
30'.
High-speed photographs o f these impacts (1 9 ps apart) showed that the spherical
+ V,
1 48
effective coefficient of friction p was calculated around 0.05.
Such a
small friction
coefficient i s possible at high impact speeds producing plastic deformations; the possi b i l i t y o f very high temperatures and even melting was deduced from the bluish tinge o f
the craters.
Analytical modeling also supported the above experimental findings, see the solid
lines i n Figs. 19a and 20.
flow pressure and frictional tractions along the contact area was numerically solved.
200
500
100
200
300
(0)
(b)
Fig. 19. The influence of impact speed on the erosion caused by a 9.5 mm diameterhard
(a) Mass loss: the slope of the line i s 2.9.
steel b a l l on mild steel, at cr - 30'.
(b) The fraction o f the crater volume which i s formed into a lip. From Hutchings,
Winter and Field [ I 6 1
(a)
(b)
Fig. 20. The influence of the approach angle on the erosion caused by a 9.5 mm
diameter hard steel b a l l on mild stsel, at V = 270 m/s. The solid line represents
analytical results. (a) Mass loss; note the comparison w i t h Kleis 1171 scaled results
(dashed line) for multiple impacts of round iron shot on mild steel. (b) Crater volume;
the two solid lines represent different flow pressures considered i n the analytical model.
From Hutchings, Winter and Field [ I 6 1
4.
There have been many advocates of the empirical approach to erosion problems
I: 171 .
For various elastomers, erosion by fine alumina particles proved quite inde-
pendent of
angle.
rational quantitative models such as Bitter's would not give satisfactory predictions.
Head and Harr [ 191 argued that while the mechanical models are only applicablrd to
homogeneous erosives, for inhomogeneous materials such as soils, the particle descriptors may be inadequate.
the physical variables, Head and Harr included such "new ones" as round-
The roundness
R in a
where r i are the radii of N corners protruding from the maximum inscribed circle of
radius I
, (Fig. 21 ).
R.
measuring radii of
curvature of corners
Fig. 21. Measurements necessary to determine particle roundness.
Harr C191
(26)
0,
the
While erosion i s probably proportional t o the energy lost i n the impact, measurement of the latter i s difficult; the incident effective particle velocity V i s more convenient to work w i t h as an input variable.
The erosion resistance D per unit volume of target material was somewhat orbitrari l y defined as a combined term containing the hardness H
and H, the
of the
(Ht
- T)
cosa + T
(27)
or alternative1 y,
V
R
cu
H ,H, D Q W
dim:
L3 M-'
impact velocity
dim:
LT
roundness
dimensionless
angle of attack
dimensionless
hardness of particles
dim:
L-IMT-2
hardness o f target
dim:
L - l MT
dim:
dim:
L~
'
MT-?
I n case o f nonhomogeneous materials, the effective roundness and hardness may be used;
this i s defined as the average quantity, weighed in terms o f the grain size distribution.
Since there are three basic units (L,
, IT?, r3,
"2,
"3,
"4,
"5)-
(29)
a,
"7
(30)
(31)
Xi
D V ~
n3-
'1
and thus
-vl -3'1
'
- 1; M
V1 - 1
= 1;
-x1 - 2v2
- 1
WD/V
(32)
n2
H P/D
(33)
H~/D
(34)
.IT3
--
Finally,
solving for W:
The form of (36) sensibly shows the principal dependence of erosion on the impact energy
and the erosion resistance.
Regression analysis for determining the exponents 6 i s performed on its logarithmic form:
log W = Log C 1
log
V7
D
+ 6;,log
R - 6 3 l o g o +Ei410g
H
D
h510g
H+
D
(38)
1=
The
1 . 0 gave the most consistent erosion models. The analysis of Ref. 19 used
test results from groups of mostly single-size particles, to avoid particle size-dependent
interactions. Aluminum was used as ductile target, and glass as a brittle one.
S i c angular particles and round glass beads (d
Hard
Separate analyses were made for brittle erosion and ductile erosion.
From twelve sets of data on brittle materials, the resulting equation was
21D) 1 53Q2 69
W =
(H, /D)"'"
The roundness R was dropped from these results because its exponent turned out smaller
than 0.01
From 3 7 sets of data, ductile erosion yielded
90';
cos cu
(43)
W = 0.000233
- 0.000160 R - 0.000238
Rn (Hp/D)
- 0.000210
an (H, /D)
R an (H,/D)
- O.OOl380lin (Ht/D)
cask
(44)
c~
The maximum erosion angle for natural soils at a ductile target was found to be around
45';
(Fig. 22). Discrepancies seen in brittle target studies were attributed to the rough
definition of erosion resistance; for brittle materials, this concept could possibly be
improved by including considerations of the density and distribution of cracks generated
i n the target surface.
B (Predicted)
B (Observed)
/O
.40
I
1.2
.80
1
f11.6 (rod)
0
30'
60'
90'
cu, particle impingement angle
Fig. 22. Predicted and observe3 erosion rates for two samples of naturol soils, A and B,
on a ductile target. From Head and Harr [I91
There are special applications where targets behave in neither ductile nor brittle
fashion or where particle size introduces an important factor.
An empirical formula
proposed by Williams and Lau [21 I for the erosion of uncoated graphite-epoxy composites by spherical sand particles, postulated the following law:
W = ~d'(Vsin( Q + X ) ) ~
The variables W, dl V and ry are those traditionally used, and the constants Q,
and
(45)
r ,y
were experimentally determined from tests, i n which only one variable was
changed at a time.
V - 93 m/s:
For N = 90,
0. 19 dU.'
For 88 p <
d
<
<
d: p m )
(46)
125 pm:
W - 2.58 x 1
For l n r m
(W: mg/g,
o - V~
3'4
(V: m/s)
d < 250 p m :
4 . 6 5 ~
3'4
1 .o
20
30
M, w f qht of mpactlri(, p d r t ' c l e , (q)
Fig. 2 3 . Weight loss of graphite-epoxy composite for varying impact angle. (Spherical
sand particles, v e l o c i t y
70 m/s and particle size range = 77-125 pm ). From Williams
and Lau [21 I
r
the
0. 9; y = 3.4; A = 2*/15.
10 " m-(r'Y) s ;
Experimental
c,
30"
45"
60"
65"
75"
90"
Correlation
3.4
4.0
4.7
5.3
4.3
5.0
ff
2.5
4.1
5.1
-5.2
5.0
3.8
ImDac' a r q l e , degrees
Fig. 24. Comparison of experimental results and correlation equation (45), for the
erosion of graphite-epoxy composite by spherical sand particles. From Williams and
Lou [21 I
5.
imparting a thin compressive surface layer t o it; (b) cleaning (shot-blasting); (c) combatting tensile surface cracks; (d) removing stress raisers; (e) surface finishing; (f) forming; (g) providing surface preparation.
Particle size,
time of application,
and angle of
Peening
I n the top layer these
and they
stress can extend over a depth roughly equivalent t o a tenth of the particle size.
The
(a) Indentation
Plastic Tensile
Stress, or
Elastic ~e\nsileStress, or
Fig. 25.
f lastic Tensile
Stress
Shot Biasting
Sand, usua1:l.y of angular grain,
t i o n i s m e w h a t o f a health hazard.
while glas is used for lighter precision jdx. The common size mnge is 0.1
- 5 mm.
An
By slitting a
weld t o about one-quarter of its depth, and peening into the slit,
i n addition,
smoothing is achieved;
compressive stress then holds the incipient internal crack surfaces together.
Surface Finishing
Small erosive particles are used t o provide smooth finishes.
Large particles of
shot may induce a roughening effect, thereby rendering the surface more susceptible t o
paint.
Forming
Especially i n the aerospace industry, intricate shapes of metal may be achieved
b y peening, avoiding expensive dies and forming processes.
one side of a plate i s induced locally,
Residual compression on
Surface Preparation
Both larger strength and the benefits of a protective coating can be achieved b y
depositing glass bead plating on metal powders.
Same metals that can be glass-bead plated include aluminum, copper, gold,
nickel,
silver,
REFERENCES
G . P. Tilly, Wear, 23 (1973) 87-96.
1970.
N. C. Byrnside, P. J. Torvik and H. F. Swift, J. Basic Eng.,
94 (1972)394-400.
1975.
CHAPTER 6
1.
- EXPERIMENTAL
INTRODUCTION
Percussive impact wear arises between a pair o f repetitively colliding solid bodies,
w i t h the contact area on at least one o f the bodies kept as the same spot.
I f the adja-
cent contact areas from both o f the bodies are always the same ones, one would expect
a tendency for both sides to wear; this could be the case, e.g.,
teeth o f a gear transmission.
the bodies only
Alternatively,
one o f
I n the latter
case, a selected area on the t i r e could be observed for wear; the wear of the road surface would be a statistical process, loads not being repeated i n magnitude or location.
Somewhat connected with the above classification regarding repetitivity of loading, we speak o f one-body and two-body wear processes.
only the damage o f one partner surface i s o f interest - either because the second partner i s continually renewed or because the wear resistance of the second body assures
that significant changes are restricted t o the firsi body, at least for a long period of
their mutual wear l i f e .
r o l l i n g and impact.
In each case,
Figure 1 shows
i n those three
types o f contact.
I n a slider, the maximum shear stress (on the surface or i n the depth,
maximum shear stress arises from Hertz-type contact, and w i l l rise and f a l l as contact
approaches and recedes w i t h respect t o the observed spot.
i n a similar fashion.
The
Fig. 1. The variation of the maximum shear stress at a point, i n three types of contact:
(a) sliding (the shear stress on the slider i s shown); (b) rolling; (c) impact.
Wear is intimately connected with the shear stresses i n a contact, and this immediately suggests a connection between the wear originated i n any one of these modes
of mechanical contact. True, these are often mixed with one another, i n any given
application.
Compound impact is a term created specifically for the description of a normal
blow combined with relative sliding motion between the two colliding bodies.
relevance i s emphasized throughout this work-
Its
practical machine components work, and also since the relative tangential approach
component is apt t o play an active role i n precipitating wear.
The same diversity of wear mechanisms is seen i n percussion as was identified i n
Chapter 1 for sliding.
sionally during the l i f e of a contact; these occur due to external (e.g. environmental)
or internal (e.g. chemical) reasons. The interaction o f the basic mechanisms (e.g.
fretting wear) i s quite prevalent.
I n the former,
I n percussive wear,
elastic stress states are often cieated but plastic deformations are also common.
Wear
may develop through a fatigue process; oxidative wear and fretting wear are prevalent
between metals.
I n the following chapters on percussive impact wear, the simplified term "impact
wear" w i l l be used, setting i t apart from "erosive impact wear",
i.e. erosion.
In the
present chapter, a background o f the basic experimental processes w i l l be given, together w i t h some qualitative results.
2.
Wear
Either reduction o f weight or the change o f the wear geometry (depth, curvature,
volume, etc.) can be measured, or both.
microbalance accurate to
g i s necessary.
meaningful as the shape or roughness o f the wear scar may be revealing for the wear
mechanism, wear rate or engineering l i f e expectancy.
Talysurf i s commonly used.
scope.
commonly used C1
diffraction methods
C21
lo4-18i s possible.
Micro-
4.
Wear particle studies are most often concerned with chemical composition; x-ray
diffraction analysis and infrared spectroscopy are useful for this purpose.
Transmission
electron microscopy i s useful for finding the distribution of debris size and the particle
shape,
C31
Surface Studies
Microhardness measurements (Appendix 3) are customary on the surface or crosssection o f wear specimens.
etching (e.g, nital),
Temperature
Infrared measurement and embedded sensors can be used.
indicate specific temperatures b y color change.
Electrical Conductivity
During the impact, the size o f the real contact area i s proportional t o the electrical conductivity; this may be measured by connecting c o l l i d i n g (metal) bodies into a
circuit.
3.
120' apart.
Since the impact point i s a t a distance r from the center of the disk, a relative
tangential speed v = wr i s attained, up t o 8 m/s.
exactly the same position o f the projectile, a guide surface i s provided i n the actuators.
The projectiles are slightly slotted on one side t o f i t into this guide w i t h a clearance
25 t.lm).
projectile head.) Various shape projectiles have been used (Fig. 3); their typical mass
i s around 1 gram.
One-body wear is ordinarily investigated on the projectiles, and therefore the
target disk i s made o f a hard and negligibly wearing material.
By proper synchroniza-
tion o f projectile firing w i t h the rotational speed of the disk, two-body wear effects can
also be studied i n the ballistic impact wear tester [ 5 1
associated w i t h the guides, this tester i s used for unlubricated impact wear studies.
Fig. 2. Ballistic impact wear test apparatus: (A) variable DC motor; (8) flywheel
support housing; (C) flywheel; (D) disk-specimen; (E) observing microscope; (F) actuator
assembly (1 of 3).
( a ) Cylindrical
Body
Fig. 3.
( b ) Light-
( c ) Mushroom
Weight with
Cutouts
( d ) Spring Loaded,
Friction Damped
Some projectile specimen designs for the ballistic impact wear apparatus.
fraction o f the solid-body travel time (-300 p), and the latter isa rather small part
o f the firing cycle time
(120 ms).
The central purpose o f using the wear tester i s t o bring about impacts w i t h predictable and adjustable stress conditions.
observed on the proiectile specimens can then be correlated with the stress parameters,
for given material and surface conditions.
Fig. 4. Maximum peak pressure variation vs. head radius and normal impact speed for
1-gram steel projectiles hitting a steel target, by Hertz theory.
0, 25,
The head radii were around R -- 14 cm, and V ( = 2 m/s) was selected such
o/o v
= 58-59,
The target
negligible wear,
Under normal impact, hardly any change of the surface topography was noticed
until
lo7
l o 7 cycles,
further
Some flat,
(a) 13X
(b) 1OOX
7
- normal
impoct.
25 cm/s),
distinguishable amount
The contact area took on a dark, matte look; oxidation appeared oriented
i n the direction of sliding, which is parallel t o the guiding slot on the photos of Fig.
A t the next sliding speed (v =
At v =
762 cm/s,
distinguishable
brighter, uniform look, without striations or any indication o f the sliding direction.
(a) v =
25 cm/s; N = 10
(c) v =
381 cm/s; N
lo5
(b) v
(d) v =
127 cm/s; N
4 x 10
762 cm/s; N = 1 o5
V =: 2 m/s,
6.
(6 = 0.5
t.'m) and R
;-
= 14 cm;
the approach speed was 173 cm/s and the q P Y ratio 0.99.
For normal impact, the first indication of the roughening of the surface appeared
around 10
peared.
cycles.
::
The
254 crn/s)
173 cm/s),
v = 0,
Raising v to
the oxide cover became more grainy and uniform i n appearance; i t became
A t v = 762 cm/s,
the oxides seemed to have been wiped out of the wear scar, which had a bright, matte
look, Wear initiated sooner with the increase of v i n a l l the above cases.
The surface
roughness kept increasing with the number of cycles for normal impact, while for compound impact, maxima were achieved at various points of the wear l i f e (Fig. 8).
Negligible wear of the target disk (alloy-steel 4140,
finish (6
Fig. 8.
-- 4.1
cm, v-16,
6 = 1.1
--
170 cm/s,
giving rise to q O / u v -
0.82.
For normal impact, roughening-up of the surface initiated between
l o 4 and
5 x 1 0 4 (Fig. 9). Wear initiated progressively earlier with increasing sliding speed.
Fig. 9.
lo4
; 200X).
A t v = 25 cm/s
and N
A t v - 127 cm/s,
4.
d l e lubricated contacts, and the sophistication i t required for tuning for specific weight
projectiles.
A basic unit used b y the author i n the IBM Endicott Laboratory was described i n Chapter 3 (Fig. 29) i n connection w i t h repetitive impacting of elastomers.
A hammer i s made
t o impact a stationary target for pure normal impact; reciprocating sliding speed of the
target induces compound impact.
In either case,
Both cylindrical and spherical hammer striking surfaces have been used.
I n compound impact experiments, one-body wear must be induced on the hammer
surface.
flexure arising i n the hammers, leading t o gross fatigue tendencies; a high endurance
l i m i t i s needed for the hammer.
might complicate its analysis, encumbering the prediction of the stress pulse which i s t o
be correlated w i t h the wear process.
problems are more apt t o arise i n pivotal hammers than i n ballistic machines.
often conducive t o small tangential oscillations between hammer and target,
This i s
tending t o
hard disk.
1095,
R, = 48-51) of v-8 finish (6 .- 0.5 p ) , repetitively impacted by air-hardened toolsteel hammers, R, -- 62-64,
tact.
A t 45,000 cycles, only the sharp edges of the hammer striking surface caused
The wear scar was quite shiny; i t gradually widened with the
load cycles.
Dry impacting caused roughening-up of the same steel surface somewhat earlier
(10 4cycles).
(aFez 0 3 )was due to fretting; the average particle size was 250
contact area was shiny.
i.
Elsewhere,
the
While wear appeared earlier i n the dry case than i n the lu-
bricated case, the later progress o f wear exhibited similar characteristics when plotted
i n a log-log scale (see Chapter 8).
The hammers started wearing later than the softer anvil plates; rust developed on
their striking surface in the dry tests.
A test series was performed to find the effect of repetitive impacting at nominally
elastic impact contact stress upon the hardness of the material i n the contact region.
Spring-steel anvil plates o f 2.18 mm thickness were tempered down to a surface hordness R
,= 35,
Fig. 1 1 . Photos o f the impact wear of blued spring steel, by cylindrical surface toolsteel hammers, at V - 292 cm/s, v - 0; 50X. (a) Lubricated plate (SAE 5W20 multiviscosity grade motor o i l + 20% polybutylene lubricant); N - 45,000. (b) Plate after
83,000,000 cycles o f dry impact. (c) Hammer after 83,000,000 cycles of dry impact.
through the longitudinal center plane o f the wear scar, and microhardness measurements
were made across and into the depth.
several scars.
The maps reveal a softer surface layer, perhaps due t o the tempering
5,000,000
= 20,000 and
worn area are also indicated i n the maps; beyond the edges very l i t t l e stress has been
received by the material.
A rotary impact wear tester designed at the University of Stuttgart [81 i s a reciprocating hammering device.
others, i n researches into the plastic stress range, and as such, w i l l be discussed i n
Chapter 9.
A novel reciprocating impact wear apparatus has recently been developed by
S. L. Rice [91 a t the University o f Connecticut. The device, shown i n Fig. 13,
features adjustability and measurement of impulses, and provides for the maintenance
o f a constant peak impact force for the duration o f a given experiment.
5.
VIBRATIONAL CONTACTS
In Chapter 1, Section 10, some contact fatigue experiments were described, i n
Several
popular c y c l i c testing machines exist (e.g. the MTS machine) i n which vibratory loading can be applied; desired shape load pulses can be applied for a half-cycle,
alter-
reactor material and would retain its strength at high temperatures; its wear behavior
needed t o be checked out.
torsional oscillations,
a piezoelectric transducer,
10 ms duration.
this had approximately the magnitude o f the peak sinusoidal load, Fig.
load peaks reached 14 kgf.
I t operates up t o
A fine grey powder was generated as wear debris; x-ray analysis proved this to be
the original SAP.
conducted both i n a nitrogen gas environment and i n the viscous liquid terphenyl; i n the
latter, the wear rate was twice that o f the former, due to the erosive action o f the
fluid.
The wear was found t o vary exponentially with the normal load (Fig.
torsional, normal and combined vibrations.
pure normal vibration the least.
15)both
for
Maximum
Normal Load: Curves a and c
Constant
Normal Load: Curve b
.--.
m
E
E
2
-5
0.1
a,
Normal Vibration
0.01
Vibration
0.001
1
15
5
10
P, normal load, kgf
Fig. 15. Wear of vibrational contact under normal, torsional and combined loading
after 24 hours, From De Gee, Commissaris and Zaot C l O l
The wear of fuel rods, vibrating against grid supports i n l iquid-cooled reactors
was described by Schmugar
El11
6.
CHATTERING
Chattering may be defined as the motion o f periodically excited mechanical com-
comprised of 63-70% Ni and 25-32% Cu, with Fe, Mn, S i and C i n small amounts.)
Excitations of the f = 15-35 Hz range were produced i n a specially b u i l t tester.
tion amplitudes were i n the 0.12
- 0.5
mm range.
Vibra-
Measuring electrical resistance between the tube and ring under dry conditions,
it
was found low during the beginning o f the test but rose w i t h time u n t i l a steady value
(with minor fluctuations) was attained.
1 .5 ms duration
balance.
number of cycles
investigated,
The frequency dependence was found exponentially increasing, and good fits were
obtained according t o the empirical law
W
Kle
K2f
(1 )
2.43 x
mg/cycle,
law was also observed for the wet case; for y/x = 3,
0.1541 s.
-i
K1 = 2.11 x 10
The above
mg/cycle and
Wear was proportional t o the excitation amp1 itude y; i t was also proportional t o
the clearance c, for constant y ( c
<
y).
In the wet tests the electrical contact resistance stayed low throughout the test.
Wear rates were similar t o those o f the dry tests, especially at low frequencies.
The
worn surfaces had a shiny and polished appearance while the dry test specimens had a
dull and porous appearance.
7.
ROCK DRILLING
Percussive rock drills are widely used i n mining and quarrying, road building,
tunnelling,
w e l l drilling,
etc.
must be quite hard and made to resist repetitive blows o f severe stress.
Montgomery C131
described the impact wear of rock bits which contain tungsten-carbide inserts on their
wear faces; these represent a vast improvement over older, all-sfeel bits.
tions extended both to studies of bits worn i n the field,
tester operated w i t h adjustable parameters.
His investiga-
The effect o f a superimposed sliding speed o n the wear rate was not large. ( A t
v/v=
as a result of surface
ratio,
0.625,
0.21.)
Figure 16a shows a scanning electron micrograph of a worn b i t surface.
Figure 16b
Fig. 16. Electron micrographs of a 10% cobalt grade insert from a d r i l l b i t working i n
hard granite rock: (a) Replica of the impact surface; (b) Cross-section o f the impact
surface. From Montgomery 1 131 .
spalls were of the 100 pm range, and their thickness was 20 urn or less.
grades yielded smaller spall size,
Harder carbide
i n general.
In the laboratory tests, the wear was proportional t o the number of impacts.
hardness o f the impacted rock precipitated higher wear rates,
The
Q of a spall,
9
the number C of sites o f possible spall formation and the probability factor
giving the proportion of those sites which receive sufficient energy to produce a spall.
Denoting by U* the effective activation energy for the formation o f a microspall, and
dW
dN
exp
(-"*//;I
Defining X as the fraction o f the blow energy causing stress i n the carbide surface and
U as the blow energy, we may write
r=
U/C,
rate:
Table
Table 1
Data for three rock d r i l l b i t insert materials
C131
Hardness, Rockwell A
(cm3/blow x 10")
QC
1
3
25Ox400x 10
10G
0.02
1
I
3x103
0 . 5 ~1 0 '
C131
[I51
REFERENCES
1
D. Scott and H. M. Scott, Proc. Conf. on Lubrication and Wear, Paper N o . 14,
O c t . 1957, Inst. Mech. Eng.,
London.
9.
10
1971.
11
12
13
14
15
UDC 620.178.167.
(1975).
CHAPTER
1.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we displayed a rather complex array of wear phenomena
For
describe the behavior i n those quoted tests; rather, a similarity w i t h the fatigue endurance of materials (exhibited by the S-N curves) was indicated.
Thus the induction phenomenon has some o f the characteristics of fatigue; i n its
extreme forms pitting, flaking and spalling are induced.
and subsurface crack growth.
Consistent
w i t h the type of contact phenomenon, normally impacting surfaces are often similar t o
those subiected to pure rolling C1 I
ing) of the surface layer i s essentially the result of repeated Hertz contact cycles,
periodically stressing the entire contact region.
force component i s present, and a large shear traction may result, contributing to the
surface damage.
I n percussion, several wear mechanisms are l i k e l y t o arise as the i n i t i a l induction
process i s about t o be completed.
transmission of impact load through the gradually widening wear scar, and affords a
mode of protection.
contacts create new alignment conditions, progressively different from a normal direction,
t o a fretting-type motion, even where impacting had originally been purely normal to
the surface.
Large sliding components tend t o remove the debris from the contact area,
chemical wear (oxidation), abrasive wear (both plowing and polishing) may result i n the
general case - i n
delamination theory of wear closely links fretting wear with surface fatigue
interactions were noted before
[41
131, and
I t i s now necessary
I n Fig. 1, the
typical stages of a percussive impact wear process are shown. As a concrete example,
the stages i n the wear l i f e of carbon-steel proiectiles (Section 6.3) are also indicated.
That stage (d), where a general roughening of the impact area i s evident, w i l l be accepted as the end of the induction period, and following the nomenclature used i n the
Bayer-Ku sliding wear theory C51 i t w i l l be called the "zero wear limit".
As a more precise statement of the zero wear limit, i t i s defined as that point i n
the l i f e of a contact when its surface median has been depressed t o half the depth of the
peak-to-valley finish.
the fact that microscopic, sporadic changes ( i n the asperity dimensions) do occur before
the zero wear limit has been reached; i t i s also practical, regardless the wear mechanism, since i t marks the threshold of distinguishable wear.
The zero wear l i m i t constitutes the i n i t i a l point of the "measurable wear" region
(Fig. 2).
For that reason, the measurable wear rate process i s of great interest
to the analyst who tries to arrive at a l i f e prediction for a cyclically impacted part.
Origtnal Surface
-.
b)
c)
Nb N o t Observed
-N.?-1oR
f)
- N
a)
N o t Observed
173 cm/sec
25.4 cm/s-c
rn - 1.2 grams
14cm
Fig. 1. Typical stages o f change o f the surface due t o impact wear (stylized) [11
Note: The data were obtained by ballistic impact of carbon-steel proiectiles (Rc = 20)
o f V8 finish ( 6 = 0.5 tm), against a t h i c k disc made of a l l o y steel 4140: R,= 40-45,
V16 finish ( 6 .- 1 um). (Also see page 167.)
Zero W?ar
--
Measurable Wear
_/_I
5 2
Sliding
h>S
c)
h
I
-No
Cycles,
For extremely sensitive components, the zero wear limit prediction is,
essential to know.
i n itself,
competing surfaces.
I n what follows,
t i c model.
This is then u s ~ d
t o derive a rational zero wear l i m i t prediction.
Finally,
the idealizations used i n the compound impact model are reviewed, so that i t can apply
t o a great variety of strikers.
2.
target plate are characterized by their elastic properties (E, v, T,, ); the relative normal and tangential speeds of the two bodies ore denoted by V and v, respectively, as
shown i n Fig. 3.
lP
-0
(Gravity is
Neglected)
Fig. 3. Basic compound-impact model. (a) Projectile approaching moving target plate;
(b) Forces acting on the proiectile during impact.
The object of the ensuing analysis i s to find the conditions governing the variation of the contact forces upon the projectile, during its impact on the target.
the normal contact force component
P tends
While
maximal subsurface shear stress, the tangential component F causes shear tractions.
Both the surface and the subsurface stress systems must be accounted for their influence
upon wear.
If the target were stationary, the Hertz analysis alone would describe the impact.
The tangential motion o f the plate, however, imparts ever increasing momentum to the
projectile,
F=pP
(1
For boundary
From Mindlin's
static compound impact. The shear force component F adds nothing t o the normal
elastic approach.
by Hertz theory,
I f slipping can
end during impact, giving way t o adherence of the contacting surfaces, F w i l l become
less than
shall assume a mathematical point mass m for the proiectile, neglecting its rotation and
possible constraints,
These idealizations w i l l be
later.
We now write the equation o f tangential motion for the proiectile point-mass,
during the contact time t * :
mx = F
(2)
7 the Coulomb
(O< x < v)
1P (tl)
t
4=
(p/m)
(3)
material and normal impact
This approximation,
illustrated i n Fig.
4a,
from Hertz theory, while raising the rest of the force-time curve from bell-shaped to
sinusoidal. The consequences of this approximation are not at a l l severe, as impact
wear w i l l be seen to depend heavily on the peak force P
,.
We remark at this pojnt that the term "peak" i s used to refer to the time the
impact reaches its height, while the adiective "maximum" takes on a spacial meaning.
Thus one can speak o f a maximum peak pressure, or maximum pressure at various times
or of the peak shear at r = a/2,
(e.g. t = t*/4),
etc.
x=
(p Pot*/*m)
C1
- cos r t / t * l
(0 < t <-
i)
(5)
Sinusoidal
Po
\
t
Typical
Hertz Variation
(a)
Fig. 4. Concepts used i n the impact model. (a) Sinusoidal approximation for the
Hertz impact force; (b) The slipping t i m e i v s . impact duration, t*.
N o w the slipping time i s obtained by substituting t
t = (t*/r)
cos
=
and xi
=v
i n Eq. (5):
(6)
function above i s character-
istic of the slipping properties of a system, and w i l l be a convenient indicator for some
of the expected wear behavior.
( ~ m v ) / ( ~P o t * )
by f:
(7)
The slip factor can indicate the relative duration o f slipping; i t classifies the impact,
according t o the relative tangential motion, as "normal",
"high sliding speed", as defined i n Table 1.
Table 1
Categorization o f impact according t o the slip faqtor, f = ( ~ m v ) / ( ~ P
t*).
~
Range o f f
Category
f=O
0
< f<
f>
-2
Description
normal impact
&oderate sliding
speed
high sliding
speed
<T<
t*),
and they adhere tangentially for the rest of the impact duration.
This
at t
< f<
caught up w i t h the
2.
"Slip Factor"
Fig. 5. Nondimensionol tangential projectile speed during impact for various values of
the slip factor [ l I
3.
i n i t i a l wear phenomenon; the larger the sliding speed component, the faster wear arises
i n a dry contact. This i s particularly true for a fretting wear mechanism,
We shall argue that fhe wear process, which i s strongly dependent on shear
stresses, i s caused by both surface and subsurface damage.
associated w i t h the normal component of the impact.
reaches its maximum
T max
= 0.31 q
The value o f
T~~~
should
p i s o f a f i n i t e magnitude.
In the absence of
a sliding speed component, the stress state at the projectile apex i s nearly hydrostatic,
allowing\only small shear stresses at the surface.
the sliding speed.
damage should depend on the ratio of the slipping t i m e T to the total contact time t*.
Compound impacts at small slip factors resemble pure normal impact.
slipping throughout the impact duration (f,
2),
In the case of
No p 3 = constant.
-r;
,respectively),
we may write:
(8)
+ Q ~ T $ =const
)
Both
and
i.e.
T/T
= 0.57 o V
Nc
(9
P1
In Eq. (9),
and
P2
Nc may be
adjusted arbitrarily w i t h respect t o y, and thus does not represent an additional constant.
Nc
4.
(10)
basis.
= 2000
(t)lndt
C$[T
where c i s a dimensional constant; n i s an as-yet undetermined large exponent, emphasizing the stress-dependence of wear contribution w i t h i n a cycle.
the surface and subsurface damages D 2 and
We now define
( 1 1).
P=
D2/D1
(12)
T~~~
as a good choice from both previous arguments and also, from later results, i t i s not an
irreplaceable element o f the zero wear analysis.
posed use of the "asymptotic" shear stress ,T
" dt
Assuming sinusoidal variation o f the maximum pressure q (t), culminating i n the peak
pressure o
q (t) =
sin ( r t
/ t*)
'
D l = (ct* C 0 . 3 1 * 0 ~ n /T)
Jsinn
0
d<
The surface damage D 2 i s computed next; the damage integral i s first evaluated for the
moderate, and then for the high, sliding-speed range.
D
<
2)
The integral (1 1) i s extended bver the slipping time only, as no surface damage is
expected during adherence.
T 2
= pq:
T
D, =
J r P q (t)indt
0
and,
(1 7)
>
2)
does not allow for the variation o f f over the value 2, since when f,
the upper limit of the integral.
2, t = t * remains
7 iust
sliding speed, f = f = 2.
t*
D,
= c (v/;)/~~q
0
(t)ln dt
(19 )
An indiscriminate use of the above biasing procedure for slip factors much higher than 2
i s not recommended since different physical factors may also enter at ultra-high speeds,
191 ).
5.
In
these tests, observations were made on the zero wear limit, at controlled stress conditions and at various sliding speeds.
Tables
P o and a,.
The factor
Fixing y, various
integers for n were used i n the proposed damage calculation formula, Eq. (16).
Of a l l
integer values up t o 10, n = 9 yielded most consistent results, and was subsequently
retained i n the model.
W i t h n = 9, the surface damage contribution (Eq. 12) has the expression
= !J9
F (f)
(22)
cos-l(l - f )
where, by (18):
F (f) =
"
(0 < f <
0.31'
0.8127
and, by (21):
F (f) =
sing(d[
2)
(23)
f
2 x 0.31'
The dependence o f
In
[7].
Tables 2 and 3 show the results of the calculation o f the factor y , i f the latter i s
solved from Eq.
(lo),
The evaluation o f compound ballistic impact test series on tool-steel and carbonsteel projectiles resulted i n a common value, y = 1 . 1 for the wear constant
[I 1
For
the exponent, n = 9 was adopted, and thus for the impact wear model, the surface
damage contribution,
impact wear limit.
wear l i m i t No
105
p,
This i s a
Fig. 6b shows the effect o f the wear factor Y on the predicted zero
moderate
sliding speed
-7)- S . S .
(a)
Fig. 6. Surface damage contribution B a n d F(f) vs. s l i p factor,
are defined i n Eqs. (22 - 24).
The relations of F(f) and
R ~ V / ~ Jt *P
. ~
A comparison o f theoretical vs. measured zero impact wear points for the toolsteel and carbon-steel projectiles i s shown i n Fig. 7.
Surface finish:
Note ellipt~cityof several projectile heads. whlch are characterized by double radii R and contact ell~psedimensions 'a'.
Table 2
V8
--
tested.
Note: Each line in the table corresponds to 3 project~les
Given
Calculated
Table
Surface finish:
V8
,
By use o f
measurements
6.
P.
more than zero, and N i s nearly the same as that for normal impact.
over 0.2,
i s not much
But as f grows
range, the influence of v grows at a much slower rate than i n the moderate -v range.
extremely high sliding speeds, this model may of course break down due to unaccountedfor physical phenomena, such as shock waves, melt-lubrication,
etc.
A t this point, comparison o f the impact wear model with the Bayer-Ku zero sliding
wear model [51 i s possible.
where one pass means sliding length corresponding to the contact length, under constant
The value of
force.
yr
is
If we consider a full sliding pass and apply the damage criteria of the previous
section,
we obtain,
t*
Dl =
Using the compound impact wear formulation (lo), we then get, for ~ / 0 . 3 1
T~~~
= I-' a
,and
T,,
= 0.57 u,
>> 1,
Equating Ni w i t h N,
Thus i f y r =
, IJ.
0.54 i s considered,then y
i s some-
The Bayer-Ku theory postulates use of the contact length 20 for pass length S
when the sliding stroke i s smaller than 20,
Adapting this to the limiting case of normal impact (where the stroke length i s zero),
once more the result of (27) i s obtained i f we put
T~~~
0.31 u o and
= 0.
The great generality o f the compound impact wear theory i s manifested i n the
p
f.
factor; this includes those crucial impact-parameters which enter into the
s l i p factor,
The next section w i l l show how sensitive f i s t o the translational and rotational
stiffness.
impact as long as v t *
<
<
The concepts o f adherence and slip, the amplitude o f the tangential motion
and the tangential compliance are extremely relevant i n fretting wear; the wear rate
decreases w i t h diminishing amplitudes
these features, and consequently,
engineering materials,
7.
During
compound impact, the proiectile may actually rotate as well as translate as i t slips, and
later adheres, onto the moving target.
Figure 8 shows the position o f the projectile during impact.
The projectile i s
describe its
8.
The con-
Fig.
Target
Position at Instance
of H i t (t = 0)
Position During
(O<t<tX)
Fig. 8.
The equations of motion during slipping of the proiectile are written as follows:
for translation
mx = F = pP (t)
(28)
=~ F L0+ P ( L -
= 1),
R ) @ = P C I - I L + ~ ( L -R)]
Equation (29) shows that there are several practical alternatives for the rotational motion, depending on the value i n the outer parentheses.
Particularly
If L
= R,
we may neglect the second term i n the outer parentheses, and have
I
,
,
@
= pLP(t)
(b)
If R
> L,
(30)
If R
<
L, rotation will tend to be more accentuated. This case leads to the ad-
herence condition more quickly than the alternative cases (a) and (b), since rapid rotation of the proiectile precipitates faster tangential motion of its contact point, so i t may
catch up with the target.
In evaluating the effect of rotation on slipping, we shall once again resort to the
assumption of sinusoidal impact force variation, Eq.
velocity
(4), which
leads to a translational
Assuming L
R, and thus the validity o f Eq. (30), based on the above arguments
there results:
We now solve for the instantaneous tangential velocity of the projectile contact point B.
The velocity of a point which i s on a moving platform [ 121 i s described i n vector
notation:
-;
where
= ";tuxf
the moving point with respect to the moving system. We thus set, by taking the center
of mass of the proiectile as the origin of the moving coordinate system:
*
xB = x+L8
$1
r'"
~lm
[I-
cos
*
[I ICG/L*
from which:
t
nmv
$-]
P Po t*
P P o t * (I+ ( m ~ 2 ) / I C G )
COS
+ mL2/
EG ).
Com-
paring this result w i t h Eq. (6) for pure translation, we see that the rotation of the
projectile causes the effective slip factor o f the system to be reduced:
This tends to bring about earlier adherence during the impact, terminating slip.
We shall not pursue here the solution o f the practically rarer case o f L
> R;
very
small radii are conducive to large impact stresses, and wave propagation effects tend to
Solution for the translational and rotational motions i s
>R
leods to faster
1 +2.5
the
=- f
3.5
Peff
1.1 and
corrected and uncorrected values, also indicating the range of sliding speed applicable.
Table 4
Rotational correction of tool-steel ballistic test results (see Table 2).
f
0
(normal) ' 0
0.18 (mod.)
0.89 (mod.)
3.92 (high)
7.88 (high)
measured
Peff
eff
0.255 (mod.)
1 . I 2 (mod.)
1.6
1 330 1
1 0'
lo7
lo5
lo5
lo4
Carbon Steel
Table 5 contains the rotational corrections for carbon-steel projectiles based on
Table 3. For these projectiles, once more L << R; mL2 / I CG = 2.67, and f,,,
=f/3.67.
Table 5
Rotational correction of carbon-steel ballistic test results (see Table 3).
Peff
0
8.
(normal)
0.24 (mod.)
0.065 (mod.)
1.19 (mod.)
0.324 (mod .)
3.58 (high)
0.973 (mod. )
7.16 (high)
1.95
(mod.)
x-direction.
(m2= a).
We shall write the equation of motion during slipping; the normal force P (t) i s
assumed known, independent of tangential forces:
m y = p (P(t)
- kx
x=O,ic=O
(34)
Fig. 9.
(4)
- the
V.
geneous ordinary differential equation (34) i s obtained after some manipulation, in the
following form:
IJ Po
x (t)
m (w2-
q2)
[sin p t
-2
sin u t ]
(35)
where we define
w
(37)
iT/'/t*
qIJ Po
m(w2- cp ')
Equating x = v at t =
[ cos q t
coswt - c o s q T - f ( 1 -w2/q2)
Figure 10 shows the effect of w o n i :
increases.
- cos wtl
=O
T:
(39)
Fig. 10.
Now let us combine the effects of rotation and of translational spring restraint (Fig. 11).
Fig.. 11.
We again obtain Eq. (31) for the angular speed, and for the translational speed, by (38):
v
- cos w t - cos q t l
(40)
f(l-w2/92)
"
Stipulating
for
AB
= v at t =
7:
<
Cosd-cOstt
- w2/$,2
L
m
[, -sos$,t]
(41)
I CG
ICG = w
k = 0,
(no rotation).
by first
from (33), and then solving (39), using Fig. 10 with this value entered for f .
answer is an imaginary value, then? = t*,
must be reckoned with.
feif
If the
9.
OTHER-THAN-SINUSOIDAL
IMPULSE
So far, only the sinusoidol pulse shape (4) has been considered for specific derivations.
difficulty i n working with other pulse shapes more closely approximating the actually
occurring one (assuming that a transducer measurement o f the actual pulse can be made).
I n what follows, a few possible shapes w i l l be specifically treated.
Triangular Pulse
Consider a triangular pulse (Fig. 12) and find.7 on which computation o f D2 rests.
Fig. 12.
; ( i i ) t*/2
< T<
t*; and ( i i i )
= t*
x = x = 0, i s solved; now
dition, t = 7:
:=
;= v,
*
therefore f
<
P = (2Po/t*)t,
<t<
tX/2).
ii s obtained:
(42)
f = (nmv)/(p Po t*).
< 1/2;
I f a calculation, by (42),
than w/4),
(0
(ii)
t*/2
T<
has yielded a
7 value
< t <t * ,
P = 2P0 t/t*
P = 2P, (1
ascending phase (0
- t/t*)
( t ( t*/2),
and
t
5 t*).
Several other pulse shapes can be treated, and t h e 7 vs. f relationship determined.
This has been done for three more cases (Fig, 13); the results only are given below.
t/t*
= f/w
< f<
w.
Rectangular Pulse
f
I
Peaked Pulse
c ) Pulse Shape
Cosine Pulse
e) Pulse Shape
d) f vs. t/t*
f ) f vs. i / t *
Fig. 13. Various pulse shapes and the corresponding f vs. t / t * relations: (a, b) rectangular pulse; (c, d) ~ e a k e dpulse; ( e l f) cosine pulse.
I:
P = Po
Region II:
for -It*
for 0.5
( 0.5;
i/t*<
1.0
Characteristic equation:
f =
*t
t*
f =
*t
t*
- sin
*t
.
t* '
*t
- 2;
t*
0 r,
(Region I)
sin
(Region 11)
Characteristic equation:
f =
10.
(2n
sin
2wT
Tr)
W = KPN is considered from the original, pre-impact state, we may postulate an equivalent zero wear limit No corresponding to the depth of wear reaching h = b/2.
Suppose
11.
R/4.
<
imust be found - i f v
t/t* vs. f.
i s of
The
Since
~
i s a constant, independent of the support conditions, we can evaluate
f = * m ~ /Pot*
-t,
never materializes during impact; this continual slipping condition would indicate the
"high sliding speed" region.
In the moderate sliding speed region
complication arises calcula!ing
(7 <
D2/D1
t*),
iyields D2
by Eq
. (16),
and no
(2) Once we are i n the high sliding speed region, we proceed as follows: We
note the slip factor
T at which we would be
I/~L'
w/q,
, etc.,
values.
Dividing
f by f, we obtain
the factor by which to multiply the threshold value of the surface damage for our
problem.
Thus we get
t*
D, =
(f/f)
/C
and
T2
(t) I
dt
= D2/D1 follows.
It i s remarked that in spite of the great variety of possible pulse shapes, the use of a
sinusoidai pulse is gener~$lysatisfactory for the calculation of
and the total impulse
P,
provided both Po
REFERENCES
549-565.
N. P. Suh, Wear, 25 (1973) 1 1 1-124.
R. B. Waterhouse, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,
142-151.
R. D. Mindlin, J. Appl. Mech.,
16 (1949) 259-268.
96 (1974) 455-463.
7 (1964) 435-450.
CHAPTER 8 -MEASURABLE
1.
INTRODUCTION
Most engineering contacts are still useful after having worn past the "zero wear
limit".
In this chapter, we shall study the wear process i n the measurable wear region,
wear i n metal vs. plastic combinations have been observed (Section 10.4).
Steel and
aluminum are l i k e l y to develop fretting wear i f tangential motion, however minute, can
take place during impact.
Faced w i t h a multitude of possible wear mechanisms, the concept o f a zero impact
wear l i m i t ( N o ) has nevertheless been found very practical i n most applications.
usually indicates induction periods of wear which are extremely stress-dependent.
It
Even
for an impact wear process not exhibiting an induction period, the cycle number No
a t which wear has reached half the surface finish, merits knowledge.
(dh/dN) are usually better predicted (by comparison o f past cases) than the actual magnitude o f wear, a point on the wear curve i s helpful.
plotted i n a log-log graph, and short o f an "origin", the zero wear point can be serviceable for analytical purposes.
In the measurable wear range, we invariably speak o f rate processes, which may
be regarded as starting at N o (Fig. 7.2).
pared" (e,g.
"wear-in",
but a geometrical process of enlarging the wear scar has been initiated now.
For the
ensuing treatment, we shall keep the choice o f wear mechanism open; i t w i l l be assumed
that some mathematical statement of the wear mechanism i s available.
For the modeling o f impact wear processes accordingly four basic approaches may
be listed:
plotted, and an empirical wear law fitted, similarly to the erosion studies o f Section5.4.
(b) Linear wear models: Postulating linear wear-dependence an an impact-forcerelated quantity and the number of cycles, a rate equation of the form
The constant
fect of the sliding component, the surface parameters, and the elastic material parameters.
K S/3p,
, have
Comparing with the linear wear laws of sliding wear (W = K P X / ~ ~ ) we
R=
where S is the sliding stroke length, the total sliding path being x = NS. We
note that, i n normal impact, no sliding distance exists; the presence of microslip may
be argued i n some cases, as i n rolling wear (Section 1.10).
(c) Wear models based on activation energy concepts:
proach have been used.
tion 1.5).
the change of wear scar geometry, only about the volume of wear.
Since i n repetitive
impact the continuous widening of the wear scar influences the impact response, the
worn geometry i s best introduced by including stress dependence (force per area) i n the
wear rate equation.
is the current
K f (u,
N), where
cs
alent t o its dependence on volumetric strain energy, which has also been found true i n
various erosion processes. This approach w i l l be explored i n this chapter; its connection
w i t h other (e.g.
2.
subsequent growth of that scar, and shall attempt t o relate its growth mathematically
t o the number of cycles sustained.
ized later. Elastic contact stress and mild wear processes w i l l be treated.
The incipient wear scar can be of various shapes, depending on the impact
parameters, impacting geometries and the yield (failure) properties of the material,
In
most materials, the Hertz shear stress (which rapidly grows from the surface towards the
depth along the vertical axis), may be taken as a "failure parameter"; thus a central
wear scar, in,the form of a crater,
i s expected to initiate.
Occasionally,
one encoun-
ters materials which are sensitive t o the Hertz tensile stresses arising i n the outer region
of a contact, causing a wear scar not at the center, but toward the edge of contact.
This does not refer t o those cases where stress concentrations due to abrupt line contacts
are responsible for the first appearance of wear (Fig. 1).
(Finite Cylinder)
Hard Striker
TOP VIEW:
v
a) Initial Crater at Center
Fig. 1, Three common types of wear scar formation. These shapes are functions o f the
impact geometry and the yield properties o f the material.
I n the following analytical freatment we shall restrict ourselves t o the wear geometry o f a central scar, alternatively called a crater.
ioned i n terms of the impact cycles received.
s (Fig. 2).
3).
Specifically,
Note:
Fig. 2.
1.
Ty17Ty2
2.
R i s Negative (Seat)
q hpN
ph
Measurable
s,=s
ho
I
I
t*
(a) Wear Formation
Fig. 3.
The wear history on the other hand i s the change of a representative crater dimension (say its depth h) w i t h respect to the number of cycles N applied; its mathematical
(predictive) statement i s a wear law.
The impact history i s the variation of contact quantities (e.g. contact force) with
respect to time during a single impact.
"current pressure" which would mean the peak pressure arising at the height of contact
during an individual cycle, after N repetitive impacts sustained i n the l i f e of the
contact.
I n order to approach the problem of wear formation, we shall now define the
optimal wear-path.
. ..n)
wear-
state surface.
+ 1)-dimensional
R).
.I
Q, Failure Parameter
/'
, Q,
space of the x
, restricting
scar geometry.
[31
(2)
C41 :
We shall now consider normal impact, with a softer plane surface wearing towards
conformity with a non-wearing hard ball.
proportional to
0.
shown the asperity force distribution to be proportional to the Hertz pressure for highly
loaded contacts.
G i v e n a contact l i k e that of Fig. 2, w i t h incipient wear i n the shape o f a para4
bolic crater, let us consider the constraints for the growth of the latter.
the wear scar cannot extend outside the current contact area.
I t i s clear that
stress dependency of wear, ~ o s t u l a t e dalready i n the zero wear study; we also exclude
the possibility of brittle fracture.
(a) contact at peak extends over the shoulder of the crater, onto the plane surface; and
(b) contact (at peak) matches the wear crater (Fig. 5).
-K
; @ -
ContactRadius
Radius
a a
Crater
ContactRadius
Radius
Radius
Radius
Fig. 5. Various possibilities for the current wear crater size s, relative to the current
peak contact radius a. Both (a) and (c) may be e l irninated.
For the same impact momentum, i t has been shown [61 that a larger impact stress
results i f contact extends over the shoulder of the crater than i f i t i s confined to a seat;
this eliminates Case (a) from contention,
(4)
s=a
Thus, after passing the zero wear point, the wear crater tends to coincide with the current contact dimension.
the magnitude of the seat radius R toward conformance with the shape of the hard indenter R,.
ap-
Figure 6 shows an
with the usual wear formation of sliding wear, where conformity o f the wearing body to
the hard slider is "instantaneous",
[71
Materials:
Scale:
-
R = I 0 cm
/N
N = 3,500,000
Rz7.5 cm
R=5crn
= 550,000 cycles
/N
f-
= 13,400,000
cycles
cycles
N = 83,000,000 cycles
Fig. 6. The process of changing curvature on f l a t steel target surface impacted by hard
cylindrical hammer C81. A viscous motor o i l boundary lubricant was applied.
From the above, heuristic method of reasoning, we shall now make a sweeping
generalization for the optimal wear-path of normal impact wear and term i t the Princ i p l e of Variable Curvature:
ture on the softer body, toward conformance w i t h the shape of the harder body; meanwhile,
the current worn area tends t o coincide w i t h the current (peak) contact area.
N o w we can show that the optimal wear-path analysis for a repetitively impacted
Hertz crater (s,
R1/R,
we have
(i
= Kl (1 + p )
315
s
where
K t = 0.1258 (E,!
v2m
R ; ~)
K~
K2=
1.2411 (E;'
follows:
(1 + p ) - 2 / 5
where
2 115
v 2 m R~ )
Since s
= a,
alone,
i.e.
s =K2(1 + p )
-2/5
The optimal wear-path principle w i l l be used later i n this chapter for the solution
of a two-body wear problem.
wear-path for one-body wear o f Hertzian contacts with constant impact momentum, we
shall proceed t o the formulation of the wear laws governing such contacts.
The simple
3.
is:
(9)
It is common experience that a contact, having passed the zero wear limit, approximately retains its rebound characteristics.
widening Hertz contact (Fig.
2),
Po
decreases:
Po = 0.407
[ v ~ ~ ~(1 R
+ p)-l
~ E1 ' I:s
Eq. (5).
I n the previous section, the wear formation was discussed. This, together with
the correct wear mechanism, should lead to a predictive formula for given contacts.
A linear mechanism (Eq. 1) may be used when applicable; this i s contrary t o experience
i n many cases of impact wear where the wear rate rather declines, e.g.
formation of an oxide layer.
due t o the
dependence t o the measurable wear range as the one that applied i n the zero wear range:
i.e.
'.
(1 2 )
Regardless of the wear mechanism, we shall want to allow expression of the wear i n
terms of the change of a physically significant geometric parameter, such as the curvature or depth of the scar. To that end, we establish a differential formulation of wear
W, acknowledging its continuous change with both the number of cycles N and the
contact stress o:
aw
aN
&!=
dN + g
aw
a
do;
g = 0: constant rate,
g = 1 : stress-dependent rate
In Eq. (14), the peak pressure o can be related to the contact geometry by the Hertz
equations.
by the
The volume of wear can also be written i n terms of the contact geometry,
s = a.
As initial
1.
t o char-
2.
0,
3. By use of the optimal wear path (s = a), write the wear W i n terms of
5.
To ) must be supplied
differential equation.
Wear of Soft Plane by Hard Ball
Following Fig. 2, we introduce the nondimensional curvature ratio
R,/R,
(0, p
>
-1)
It i s clear that after passing the zero wear limit, R must already be a finite value, with
negative sign according to the corwention; on the other hand, at perfect conformity,
- all
i n terms of the
By the expression s = a, the wear is simply the volume of the paraboloid defined
by the base "a" and the meridional radius of curvature R, so that
which yields
w = where
Kq
subject to the initial conditions o f the zero wear limit, as specified i n terms of half the
original surface finish:
N = No, h = ho (=6/2)
We calculate po from h,
(1 9 )
h = - C s p (1 +p)-415
(20)
(21
The solution of Eq. (18) for
7 ("spheres").
Note that other nondimensional relations between P (or A) and the wear-geometry are shown in Figs. 9.6
and 9.7.
Fig. 7. Solution for impact wear i n terms o f the nondimensional curvature parameters p and A,
w i t h the following i n i t i a l conditions: No = 1, po = -0.01 or A, = 0.99.
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
10
-0.8
-1.0
bc'
(a) Hard Sphere or Cylinder
lo-* -
h=
c x ~ ' ~ ( ~ - x )h =
(b)
10'~
1.0
Fig. 8.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
I"
Fig. 9.
Wear of soft ball: (a) Against hard plane; (b) Against hard ball.
Table 1
Expressions for wear geometry o f a soft ball wearing against a hard plane or a hard ball.
Against Hard Plane
(also see Figs. 7 and 8)
Variable
a
Curvature Ratio
Unworn
Curvature Ratio
(O< A
< w)
cER1/R,
d~ (6A - 7 ) / ~ ( I - A ) = d N / N
Diff. Eq.
4.
R,/R,
(r><>-1)
-d<(7(r-C)+1+<)/((1
= dN/N
+c)(r-0)
Po
that is,
(1
+ e)
2tX
regardless of wear:
mV
(22)
the contact time t * is nearly constant during widening of the target geometry.
Accepting the approximation o f Eq. (22), a measurable impact wear analysis for
cylindrical contacts can easily be developed on the basis of the optimal wear-path approach and the applicable wear mechanism, e.g. (12).
change of stress i n terms of the change o f contact dimensions b i s readily availcble from
Hertz theory, once the force P i s known.
principle yields s = b, the current worn area being equal to the contact area; this
facilitates writing the current volume of wear.
distributed over the width w of the cylinder, without allowing for stress concentration
effects at the edges. The wear of the edge area must be separately treated, however.
P' = P/w
(23)
IJ
= K 3 ( 1 +p)112
= K, (1
(24)
where
and
+ p)-112
where
=-C,p
by h =
- b2/2~:
(1 + p ) - l
R l/R.
= K3A1I2
(32)
b = K, ),-'I2
W =(2/3R1)
h = C,(l
K,
(33)
(1 - A ) A " / ~
-A)/A
(35)
5,
(34)
SOLUTION PROCEDURES
The differential equations resulting between nondimensional curvature ( 5 ) vari-
N ( 5 ) exists.
for which
+p
i s permis-
sible for the use of Figs. 7 and 8, and i n the differential equation solutions.
I.C.:
N = N o , p = po
I.C.:
N = N o , h =Ao
Solution:
Solution:
N = N o
W h i l e the above solutions are exact, they give N as the dependent variable, for any
specified as the independent variable.
the other way around
In usual applications,
a specified number of load cycles, N. A simple "master curve" construction yields the
answer to that problem owing t o the nature of the differential equations involved.
no= 1, -p o = -0.01
(or h o = 0.99),
lo),
a horizontal line is drawn to intersect the master curve at N', p o (or N', h o ). The
master curve i s now shifted o\ver to the right from N' to N ,, and this curve gives the
sought solution, o f p (or A ), for any N.
Thus the wear at N can be found by looking up i n the master curve, the value of
p (or h ) belonging to
N" = N'N
(39)
No
Kf
Log N'
~ o g
Log No
Log N"
Log N
Eq. (38) repeatedly to express N from No, N' and N" i n (39). Thus, for example,
~ ' = i j [ -( h ~0 ) / ( l
-Y)I~-~/(X,/X)
, etc.
G (<)d< = ~ N / N
2. The wear depth at zero wear i s found ( h o ) - this corresponds to half the
original surface finish.
3.
C,
or
C, , depending on whether
4. From ho/C and using Fig. 8, find p (or A, ). Note that i f the nondirnensionol curvature vs. the i n i t i a l volume of wear or contact length i s sought,
Figs. 9.6 and 9.7 can be used.
7).
(h/C)
C.
The above operations 4-6 can be carried out ideally on a slide rule (Fig. 11).
One side i s a fixed log-log scale, w i t h a slider containing the master curve (Fig. 7).
This i s slid over to the right until the curve intersects the p, (A, ) horizontal.
desired N, p (or A ) i s read off.
For the
played, allowing instant conversion from p (or h ) into h/C and v i c e versa.
Fig. 1 1 . The impact wear slide rule. (a) Master-curve part for sphere and cylinder;
(b) p vs. h conversion.
6.
rn q o )
metric criterion (parabolic wear scar) and a failure stress criterion ( Q = ,,T
were selected.
The previous failure stress criterion i s also acceptable for the following reasons.
I n the case of a small friction coefficient
<
(tr
0.31),
the substrate, and i t stays there, while the contact dimensions grow.
For p
>
0.31,
-rmax tends t o rise t o the surface, while its value i s s t i l l proportional t o the maximum
tions remain valid, even though the Hertz contact stress state must be modified for the
influence o f the superposed state o f shear tractions.
Consequently,
impact alike.
rent worn area w i l l be considered equal t o the peak contact area during an impact
cycle, anywhere during the wear history.
Let us also check for any change of the compound impact response, from the
zero wear range t o the measurable wear range.
constant, since the product P o t * i s invariant.
consequently
= D2/D,
O w i n g to this, the wear rate may include, at most, a stress-dependent term, besides
the constant term, and Eq. (13) applies once more, dW = (a w/a N ) d N
+ g (a W/a
u)do
Considering continued surface damage i n the measurable wear range, the following reasonable generalized wear mechanism may be stipulated,
W = K (1 + p ) N o n
Since
i s constant, (1
(40)
+ p ) can be included i n K.
wear formulae (wear laws) can now be derived for various contact geometries; Table 2
gives differential equations for the common spherical and cylindrical geometries.
It is
junction w i t h the master curve shifting method, according t o the procedure described
i n the previous section. Plots for g = 2 were added showing the effect of g.
Table 2
Wear laws for various geometric configurations and wear mechanisms; n (Eq. 40);
g (Eq. 13); C, (Eq. 21); C,(Eq. 30).
Contact Configuration
Nondim.
Curvature
Ref.
Fig.
Differential Eq.
Transformation to
Wear Depth
5-3~(1+gn)dp=d!
5P (1 + P )
N
h = - C sp ( l + p r 4 1 5
p a R,/R
5A (1
h = C s (1 - A ) x ~ / ~
- A)
-
- dN
- N
Hard cylinder vs. soft
plane
p r R1/R
2 - p ( 1 + g n ) d p = -d N
N
2~ (1 + P )
ARI/R
9a
(1 +ng)A
(3
2A (1 - A )
ng)
dA
h=
h =
1+P
(1 - A )
c
A
dN
= N
Experimental findings have shown that compound impact wear due t o superimposed
rigid-body sliding speed tends t o progress along the same wear law as normal impact
wear; e.g. n = 9 and g = 1 have been substantiated i n a large number of tested cases
(see the next section).
normal impact wear curves h (N), shifted to the left i n the log-log wear history diagram
because of the different initial conditions.
dry compound impact cases may greatly differ from those of the corresponding normally
impacted cases, due to the surface damage contribution factor
P.
This completes an extensive engineering theory for elastic compound impact wear.
Its use i s centered on the master curve shifting process.
and surface parameters define an i n i t i a l point (the zero wear point) on the wear curve,
and when these parameters are varied,
the left or right.
are introduced once the zero wear point has been established, see Fig. 13.
Fig. 12. Wear history master curves (No= 1, A. = 0.99 or p = -0.01); (a) Spherical geometry,
(b) Cylindrical
geometry.
Target Dirk:
No. of Cycler: N
Fig. 13. Compound impact wear o f carbon-steel proiectiles tested i n the ballistic
impact approaches (Section 6.3).
(11
mm)
(pin)
1003
-25,403
10,
lo2
lo3
lo4
lo5
1o6
2,540
254
I o7
Fig. 14. Compound impact wear o f aluminum projectiles tested i n the ballistic impact
approaches (Section 6.3).
7.
The ballistic test series on carbon steel, described i n Section 6.3, yielded wear
7
histories up t o 10 cycles, which quite well f i t the compound wear model o f a soft b a l l
wearing against a hard pldne (Fig. 13).
25, 127, 381 and 762 cm/s),
rected ones from Table 7.3 (4980, 4980, 880, 21 and 10 cycles, respective! y).
The
stress severity factor C, was (by Eq. 21) found to be 2.87 pm. Thus the i n i t i a l nondimensional curvature p,
corresponding t o h,/CS
= 0.0975,
yielding p,
= -0.085.
The calculated wear histories were based on n = 9 and g = 1; five curves resulted, each
w i t h its distinct i n i t i a l value o f
. The curves
were obtained by master curve shifting o f the solution curve (n = 9, g = 1) i n Fig. 12a.
Thus analytical modeling was successful for the total considered measurable wear l i f e of
the proiectiles.
A typical slowly declining rate i s seen for the depth h of wear vs. the
number of cycles
The data
indicate that, at moderate sliding speeds, a new wear process arose between l o 4 and
5
10 cycles. The presence of much hard oxidized debris suggests that at some v, a great
deal of debris may act as a polishing agent, causing a switch toward a more linear wear
law.
Study of the zero wear limit, by methods identical t o those used for the steel test
Experimental wear curves are shown i n Fig. 24; the theoretical predictions
8.
IN IMPACT WEAR
Even when a normal impact process i s intended by design, a small relative tanWhile i t may be greatly re-
duced ( i f not eliminated) in a properly designed ballistic impact wear apparatus, fretting
motion i s preval&t
I t i s conducive to "surface-
i s a source o f wear.
readily identified i n steel by the fine red rust (a Fe2 0 3 ) i t generates (see Section 1 .6).
Should the tendency for surface damage be present right at the beginning o f the wear
history, the zero wear l i m i t would be affected (i,e, No lowered).
fretting may start later i n the wear history,
A few specific cases for the generation of fretting motion are as follows:
(a) Self-equilibrating shear tractions (see Section 3.5).
a loose screw i n the v i c i n i t y of the target area, as has been seen i n hammer experiments
on target plates (Fig. 150). The plate i s then locally excited at a high frequency and
rubbing, w i t h however small amp1 itudes, i s caused.
Another source o f looseness is the wear or plastic deformation o f a substrate,
softer than the impacted element i t supports (Fig, 1%).
Hammer
a) L-
Screw
b) Worn Sublayer
c) Wobbling Hammer in
Cmtact with Deflecting
Torget Beam
Fig. 15.
element mentioned i n point (b) above, flexural, shear and torsional vibration may arise
upon impact.
target may be conducive t o wobbling of the hammer, and resulting tangential oscillations (Fig. 15c).
o f Fig. 19.
Flexure o f the hammer during impact may also be responsible for rubbing.
Its amplitude x i s equal t o the rotation of a point on the hammer axis over the impact
point C multiplied by the distance of the point C to the axis (Fig. 2.2).
hammers described i n Sections.3.8 and 6.4,
(e) Debris formation on the target.
Experimental Investigation
Normally impacting pivotal hammers o f the type earlier described (Section 6.4)
were used (Fig. 6 . 1 0 ~ ) ; a spherical striking surface o f radius R = 2.5 cm had been machined from the cylindrical head o f the hammers. The advantage o f a spherical striking
surface i s i n localizing the impact and rendering the stress analysis more reliable.
The
hammer surfaces were carefully hardened after machining t o R, = 60-61; the original
roughness
The hammers h i t on tempered spring-steel plates (Rc = 30-40), (Fig. 16), which
were screwed t o a steel block (AISI
The mating surface between plate and block was polished t o a V4 (6 = 0.2 p)finish,
except i n preliminary tests when this finish was a test parameter.
screwed t o a stubby, stiff aluminum bracket which was cantilevered from a massive
test stand.
i n each case
(Po
Hammer Stations
/
0
/
/
Test
Stand
2 ---
I
I
Target
1
I
-'-
Stiff Aluminum
Bracket
/
I
I
/
4
I ,
5-x
I
#
Fig. 16.
Impact speeds of 1.78 m/s were applied, causing a maximum peak pressure of
cr
= 55.6 kgf/mrn
(against steel).
No= 2 0 0
R,
8 6 . 5 ~1.1
55.6
)g
= 250,000 cycles
1.1, 2.5,
4.51J.m,
respectively).
(2) Thickness of the target plate: H = 0.762 mm and H = 2.18 mm. These sizes
were bath larger than the calculated contact radius, a 2 0.4 mm, and the contact
stresses were therefore localized i n the target plate.
(3) Location along the target plate, i.e, Station 1, 2 and 3.
(4) Lubrication of the target surface: Three types of lubrication were varied, to
be referred to as Lubricant
#I,
Lubricant
thick motor oil blend, with a viscosity r, = 240 centistokes at room temperature,
ricant
#2 was
temperature.
11 = 55 centistokes at room
Lub-
N o significant correlation was seen for No with the original surface finish.
2.18 mm plates, the
For
to half the original finish) and averaged between the three stations (Fig. 17).
l o 5 - lo6
These
Fig. 17. Influence of target plate surface roughness on wear history. Target plates:
tempered spring-steel (R, = 30-40), H = 2.18 mm; spherical steel hammer (R, = 60).
The results for three stations were averaged.
Wear was approximately the same in the thinner (H = 0.762 mm) plates as in the
2.18 mm thick one, and thus the plate thickness parameter was also discarded for its
influence on wear.
Wear depended greatly, however, on the station location.
free end of the cantilever, wear was greatest, and i t became progressively less at station 2 and at station 3.
for
V 36 finish). This is shown i n Fig. 18 for the four surface finishes. The mildest
(station 3) curves generally passed their respective zero wear limits near the predicted
250,000 cycles.
At station 1, the zero wear limit would be passed the soonest, for each
finish; the wear curves for various stations were approximately parallel.
A
Fig. 18. Influence of position x along test bracket.
hammer; dry contact.
Station l
Oxidized wear debris was visible i n the target areas; this was removed and the
surfaces cleaned before inspections.
l o 4 cycles,
At
asperity contact.
o f the bottom of the plate or that of the top of the support block.
Rusting seemed t o
occur, although lessened, even when the plate was glued (by Eastman 910 adhesive) to
the block,
a wear scar.
This seems t o indicate that small tangential motions do occur, and some
fretting goes on at those depths, under greatly reduced load conditions compared w i t h
the surface.
(a) Station
1,
lo4 cycles
(b) Station 2,
(c) Station
N = 820,000
cycles
1, N = 820,000
lo4 cycles
cycles
(e) Station 3, N =
820,000
cycles
Fig. 19. Scanning electron micrographs of wear scars under spherical hammer impacts.
50X.
O n application of the heavy lubricant, however, the large wear scan hitherto
seen at station 1 did not show up.
h = 3.5
pm for
N = 10' cycles, on plates of V64 finish (6 = 4.5 p),at both H = 0.762 mm and
H = 2.18 mm. The wear was about half of that value (h = 2 pm) for a V8 plate
(S= .55 pn), at N = 10' cycles, at a l l stations. Some minor rusting still showed on
the bottom side of the lubricated plates, at station 1.
The zero wear limit, for dry contacts, i s reduced with respect to the lubricated
ones. The effectively boundary lubricated contacts have less surface damage associated
with them than do dry contacts. The dry contacts, which undergo appreciable relative
tangential sliding motions during impact, develop significant surface damage, besides
subsurface damage.
The results discussed above indicate that the surface damage con-
P<
a W/a
This justifies the use of n = 3, and since the stress dependence i s zero,
V64 (6 = 4 , 5 pn) specimen at station 1 i s shown i n solid line. The analytical prediction of the combination (n =
well.
Fig. 20. Impact wear in annealed spring-steel plate : g = 0, n = 3 gives good results
for intensive fretting motion at Station 1.
9.
Normal lmwact
The hydrodynamic role of a lubricant in the impact process can be very signifi-
*, *
cant in its effect on the pulse shape (Fig. 21), the resulting state of contact stress, and
The viscosity of the oil yields this influence; it i s
important to know for impact analyses. The drastic change i n a plastic indentation for
dry and lubricated contacts was discussed i n Section 3.7.
p,
(0)
, I lbl
50
100
50
Ib
Dry
p,
100
25
50
P'
kgf
( c ) Light
Oil (112)
P,
Ib
1 kgf
Fig. 21. Impact pulses measured for various lubricants, due to striking of the test
hammers (Section 6.4) on the steel top of a transducer.
In repetitive impact applications, i t i s probable that asperity contact will be frequent, except for combinations of light pressures, high-viscosity oils and small surface
roughness. When the contact i s merely boundary lubricated, the contact stresses are
not materially reduced. This implies that in a normal repetitive impact mode, the subsurface shear stresses do not greatly differ from the corresponding dry impact application.
Thus a boundary-lubricated contact i s quasi-dry from the point of view of normal impact.
The zero impact wear formula may not distinguish between the dry and boundarylubricated case, except i f a change of the wear factor seems indicated by experimental
observation.
The cylindrically shaped tool-steel hammers earlier described i n Section 3.8
were tested C81 i n normal impact against blued spring-steel plates (Section 6.4.).
The viscous lubricant (No. 1 of the previous section) was used.
of
V = 2.92 m/s,
At an impact velocity
77 kgf/mm2
for the peak pressure. The hammer edges had started an early wear scar i n the plate at
45,000 due to the sharp stress concentration (Fig. 6.1 la). This edge wear did not
appear to influence, however, the central regions of the contact area, where the zero
wear scar gradually grew, changing its curvature towards that of the hard hammer,
while retaining a parabolic appearance (Fig. 6).
the zero wear limit was passed about an order of magnitude earlier (Fig. 22), but the
dry and lubricated measurable wear curves were parallel.
limit in the dry case was attributed to fretting wear due to surface damage, which was
greatly reduced i n the lubricated case.
higher impact speed (V = 3.43 m/s) resulted i n a lower zero wear limit, and parallel
wear cuves, quite well obeying the (n = 9, g = 1) measurable wear model of Table 2.
The measurable wear curves are nearly parallel, since the stress severity factor
C,
= 2P1/E,
impact velocities.
Performing experiments on a softer, carbon-steel plate (Rc = 18-20),
V = 1.45 m/s,both
at
the lubricated and dry contact produced grooves at the edge of the
contact (Fig. 23), by 10,000 cycles of impact. These grooves did not further deepen,
6
however (up to even 37 x 10 cycles),due to what was interpreted as elastohydrodynamic action i n the lubricated contact.
V = 2.92 d s e c , lub.
V = 3 . 4 3 d s e c , lub.
V = 2.92 m/rec,
dry
Fig. 22. Comparison of experimental and analytical wear depths of normally impacted
spring steel plates ( o v = 102 kgf/mrn2). From Engel and Sirico 181.
181
It should be noted that i n the previous two test series involving spring-steel and
carbon-steel,
(Fig. 6.3).
the hammer surfaces started wearing long after the plates exhibited wear
The tendency for the leveling-off o f the measurable impact wear curves
[81 i s
compou'nd Impact
I n a lubricated contact, due to the tendency to f u l l film formation,
imposed sliding speed is conducive t o less wear (see Eq. 1.34).
a super-
This is i n contrast w i t h
dry impact, where the increased sliding speed magnifies the surface damage.
In fact,
the lubrication tends to reduce the sliding friction, so that, even i f a full film does not
form, the surface damage i s greatly diminished i n comparison with the corresponding
dry. case.
The formation of a full elastohydrodynamic film depends on the viscosity of the
lubricant, the impact and sliding speed, the macroscopic and asperity geometries, and
the elastic properties of the solids.
I n particular,
at what values of the above parameters an EHL condition is expected to set in; this
problem has not yet been solved.
I n an experimental study, the sliding and impact speeds and the lubricant viscosity were varied for qualitative observation o f their effect upon wear.
The pivotal-
hammering compound impact wear machine (Section 6.4) was used, with cylindrical
hammers of AlSl Type P5 mold steel tempered to
R,
were used: the "high" value was 3.43 m/s and the "low" 2.16 m/s.
ricant were used: The higher viscosity blend (q = 240 centistokes) and the less viscous
~ e t r o l e u mo i l (q = 55 centistokes),
chapter,
I n Fig. 24, some normal impact wear results are also shown for comparison
I t i s demonstrated that, for light oils which allow wear i n compound impact
.25
1b5
104
10
II
Fig.
24.
lo6
01'
lo7
lb7
..
M
.
I
M.
a.
10'
A
X
Legend:
v =
A: v =
a:
X:
127 cm/s
381 c d s
v =
0 cm/~
0: v = 25.4 cm/s
C8I
lo4
lo5
1 0 6 1 0 7
Light Lube; V = 342 crrl/s
104
lo5
lo6
Light Lube; v = 216 cm/s
.25
-- 2.5
.
w
..
hi r m l
-- 2 5
;04
A
+
2.5
--
25
'-
hlrml
10~
lo5
18
Heavy Lube; V = 342 c d s .
104
lo5
.lo6
Heavy Lube; V = 216 cm/s
--
--
107
10'
a.
h[pinl
240
10.
arguments of Section 2.
Fig.
Rlo/R,
P 2 = RlO/R 2
the Hertz theory yields for the condition of peak contact:
0
= K l ( l +P,/P,
)3'5
a = K2(1 + p 2 / ~ 1 ) - 2 ' 5
The wear of the ball and of the plane
We now determine the optimal wear-path as the steepest descent of the mutual nondimensional failure stress quantity =;
The constraints are: p
of p
= p
and p
and p2
Initial values
p:+p:=r2
where
r2=
(46)
Fig. 26. Optimal wear-paths for two-body wear o f ball vs. plane, repetitive impact a t
constant momentum. From Engel [21
~ (13)
~ .
two expressions:
where
- (r 2 -
(49)
p :)112can be substituted for p 2 , by Eq. (46).
= -0.01
wear results from the plane ( W 2 ) than from the ball (W1 ).
REFERENCES
P. A. Engel, Proc. IUTAM Symp. on the Mechanics of Contact Between Deformable Bodies, Delft Univ. Press (1975) 239-253.
P. A. Engel, ASME-ASLE Joint Lubr. Conf.,
Boston (1976).
Reading,
1964.
96 (1974) 595-604.
CHAPTER 9 -
1.
INTRODUCTION
O u r percussive impact wear study hitherto concentrated on contacts i n which the
however,
analysis, such as the Hertz theory, to connect the changing dimensions of the wearing
contact geometry w i t h the state o f stress.
system coincided w i t h the wear formation allowing fastest relief o f the contact stress
intensity.
Erosion studies of single particles (Chapter 5) dealt with essentially abrasive-type
wear, for the plastic deformations i n f l i c t e d upon the impacted specimens.
This type o f
wear would also be expected i n repetitively impacted contacts i n the plastic stress range.
I t i s quite common, however, for a contact, starting out i n the plastic stress range at
the outset o f the wear history, t o conform sufficiently for i t eventually t o sustain impacts
i n the elastic range.
tions.
This fits the central idea o f this book, according t o which wear i s a change o f
[ l I , at
the
shown t o be extendable t o the plastic range, w i t h ready interpretation of the above results.
described.
2.
[21
impact tester".
This apparatus
was used for wear study i n the high plastic stress range.
The drop tester allows a variable weight t o f a l l a single time.
eters are adjustable,
chines so far discussed use the dropping o f a weight t o produce normal impact, and can
be termed "ballistic impact machines".
The rotary tester (Fig. 1) is a reciprocating impact machine, which uses a smaller
effective mass (85 grams) at adjustable speeds and impact angles.
sured by weighing the test specimens before and after the repeated impact cycles, both
i n the repetitive impact tester and i n the rotary impact tester.
Anvil
Impacting
Bbdy
t l o k e r Dirk
Fig. 1 Rotary impact machine used for research at the University of Stuttgart.
Wellinger and Breckel [ l I
From
In the studies, the striker vs. anvil material combinations corresponded t o one o f
two types:
At
the first blow, the dissipated energy Ud i s mostly comprised of the energy loss due t o
plastic deformation Udefr which i s defined as U def =
energy U
$ P* ( a ) d o .
t
A small amount o f
The energy
balance changes drastically w i t h continued impacts; Udef soon declines, and asymp-
t o t i c a l l y approaches zero.
sible for most o f i t .
efficient of restitution increases (and thus the peak impact force also increases) i n these
highly plastic impact series.
Impact Energy U0
'O0r--
-----
20
40
T-----
60
Number of cycles,
80
N
100
Fig. 2. Typical balance o f various forms o f energy i n terms of the number of impacts.
Material pairing: hard vs, soft. From Wellinger and Breckel [ 1 1 .
Wellinger and Breckel found good experimental agreement between the logarithmic slopes of two sets of quantities:
fixed number of cycles and
U d vs. V,
V, at a
Fig. 3. Wear vs. impact velocity, N = 500,000; hard vs. soft pairing; measured by
the repetitive impact tester. From Wellinger and Breckel I:1 1
Nomencloture.
Striker
Specimen
specimen
o CUG
n CuK
From Wellinger
u,,
W-
vn
(1 )
The
After about a hundred impacts, a dark oxide layer was observed on the slowly
enlarging contact surface.
the inside, a strongly worked metallic structure, while on the outside they were rather
loosely covered by an oxide layer of approximately 1 prn thickness.
While the discolored deformation zone was observed both i n the soft partner of
hard vs. soft combinations and both partners of hard vs. hard combinations,
tended t o produce mostly small, dust-speck-like wear debris.
the latter
Cross-sections through
the contact showed the deformation zone t o extend to 3/80 on the surface, and 1/20 t o
the depth,
deformation and partly to the absorption of corrosive gases by the highly activated target surface [3,41
Inside the zone, dark particles were observed, which were found
t o have gotten inside the material by flow of,the latter from the surface.
To study the phenomenon o f flow from the outside toward the depth, small steel
particles were placed on the impacted surface o f copper specimens, and the latter impacted by a hard striker (X82WMoV65H [Table
11
V = 0.54 m/s,
m = 6 kg, R = 5 mm).
Subsequent cross-sectioning proved that the material flows inward and downward from
the surface; then, on the axis, at a depth o f 1/2a,
Besides the steel particles, oxide inclusions were observed t o move the same way (Fig. 5).
For the process o f material flow,
sipated i n the impact process. With the advanced state of plastic deformation, the
"deformational energy",
the dissipated energy
U ,j,r
The removal o f
wear particles is pictured as the result o f their presence, combined with the material
flow.
While the potential wear body i s squeezed between the rest o f the base material
and the oxide particle, the latter keeps acting as a separating layer, until the whole
wear particle finally emerges on the surface and i s removed.
The above mechanism was highly accentuated i n soft partners of hard vs, soft
combinations,
but was also found i n traces i n the hard vs. hard combinations,
at the
[51
3.
When a contact plastically deforms during the i n i t i a l impacts, an accurate prediction o f the change i n contact geometry is hardly feasible,
ical techniques (Section 3.2).
coupled w i t h wear, which changes the shape of the area of impact on both partner
bodies.
The i n i t i a l changes i n contact geometry are conducive, however, t o stress reduction for the subsequent impacts.
i n the
broader sense, including plastic deformations, which may lead t o a point i n the wear
history w i t h different impact stress distributions.
between striker and anvil, the stress states become elastic at that point; for any further
blows, the Hertz theory may be used for impact stress analysis
[61
wear o f these contacts i s apt t o follow the route o f contacts, elastically impacted right
from the outset.
N , , must be found beyond which further impacting i s i n the elastic range. This
point i s by no means equivalent t o the zero wear point No which was characterized by
wear h o amounting to half the original surface finish.
already greatly exceed h o.
, h,.
anvil geometry, the connection between the i n i t i a l crater depth h, and the value o f
the nondimensional curvature parameter
see Sections 8.3 and
8.4.
(<'
and CCli,c
, , Figs.
Fig. 6. Nondimensional relations between the volume of wear and the variable
curvature.
Fig.
successful.
i n i t i a l wear point can also be regarded as an achievable task, greatly extending the
potency and field of interest of the methods set forth i n the previous chapters.
I n what follows,
The ball vs. plane configuration was used i n the analysis, and a one-
were the following, i n tests o f the steel alloy C67H, first t o be described: m = 0.085kg;
v = 0 (normal impact); and R = 5 mm.
from Wi
the appropriate expression o f Table 8.1 was used (see Fig. 6):
W = C i ( 1 - A ) h-%I5
(2)
where
CIS = 1.8634 [ v 8 m 4 ~ i 4R
(3
loT3V
815
i =
0.463,
method, the rest of the impact wear history A ( N ) was then computed.
converted back t o a W (N) history shown i n Fig. 8; the agreement with the measured
history i s good, especially on the lower impact speeds, V = 3.1 and 6.3 m/s.
Next, some o f Wellinger and Breckel's impact wear measurements on various
other alloys w i l l be considered by the measurable impact wear theory.
iety of input parameters included the following :
Material
Table 1
Characterization of materials used i n impact wear testing
around 0.3; a,, = p/3 is assumed.
Designation
E (kgf/mm2)
a y (kgf/mm2 )
[l I;
v is assumed to be
Specific
Weight
Legend:
Experimental [ 1
Analytical
N i = 8000 used
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 8. Experimental and analytical values of impact wear for steel-on-steel
ments in the rotary tester.
experi-
Geometry
The striker probe had a spherical head of radius R = 5 mm or 25 mm,
The target
Impact Parameters
In the rotary tester, m = 85 g was used, and for normal impact speed,
varied at 3.1,
V was
For checking the wear data taken at N = 20,000 cycles, the C67H material w i t h
parameters R = 5 mm,
V = 3.1 m/s,
The analysis consisted o f two parts: (1) obtaining equivalent i n i t i a l wear data;
and (2) obtaining measurable wear estimate at N = 20,000.
where the subscript "0" refers to the basis o f comparison, the C67H test with V = 3.1,
6.3,
12.7 m/s.
o cc R
yielding,
-315
415 v 2 / 5
115
finally,
N = Ni
W = W i = 0.068 mm3
and by use o f the standard master-curve procedure of Section 8.5,
Using y = y
w i t h n = 9 and g = 1
results were then plotted i n Fig. 9 against the experimental measurements o f impact
wear.
steel, the agreement was not so good, indicating that the wear constant y should be
different than 1.1 for these materials.
Experiment01 W w r
lmm3 I
4.
4.9
- 9.1
kgf/mm
'.
estimated between
w i t h a 0.7 g weight and R = 5 cm meridional head radius, i t was possible t o study both
the i n i t i a l plastic deformations and the continuing wear process arising i n ballistic
repetitive impact testing.
6.3) was used i n two dry test series involving: (a) AG40 zinc a l l o y (4% Al, 0.04% Mg,
Trade name: Zamak 3) die casting, t o be referred t o as "zinc a l l o y u for brevity; and
(b) the above, containing also 8.9 weight percent of N i A12 O5 powder, t o be referred
t o as "composite".
R,=
58-59,
V16 finish,
t i o n was noted, not only on the asperities but also i n a macroscopic sense, depressing
the surface; i n the wear plots h vs. N, this was marked at h, t o ~ b t a i na f u l l history.
Later on, as the contact had widened and impacts progressed into the elastic range, a
form o f fretting wear became the wear
then be applied.
The elastic properties of zinc are not precisely known.
[71
lists its sound velocity c and its mass density p, and by the formula E= c2 p,
3
Poisson's ratio i s v = 0.3.
the Young's modulus i s obtained as E = 9.8 x 10 kgf/mm2
book
As the powder addition was unordered and the proportion o f powder was relatively
small, the bulk elastic properties may be considered the same for both the "zinc a l l o y "
and the "composite" version.
The peak-to-peak roughness o f the specimens was approximately 1 pm i n i t i a l l y .
N i n e specimens o f each kind were tested.
cycle rate and the results were averaged among three specimens impacted simultaneous-
ly.
The change o f wear depth, scar diameter, curvature and finish were observed by
~ a r a l l e and
l
~er~endicula
tor the
guiding slot i n the ballistic impact wear machine actuators (see Section 6.3).
It i s remarked that i n tests # 2 and #3, the impact parameters V and v were the same
but i n #3, the cycle rates were different i n each o f the three bays: they were 5, 20
and
50 Hz, respectively. In addition, wear i n this series was closely followed from
Table 2
Impact parameters for zinc alloy and zinc composite tests.
Test
No.
Sliding Speed,
Impact Speed,
Material
v (m/s)
Zinc Alloy
1.19
Z i n c Composite
1.19
I,
v (m/s)
Cycle Rate
n (Hz)
50
1.07
3.48
Elastic contact stress analysis for V = 1.19 m/s gave a peak pressure o f
- 3uV.
since a,,
o o = 22.6 kgf/mm2,
This was also checked experimentally; after the first impact, 0.5 pm
Assuming
square force pulse with e = 0, gives a value for P equal to mV/t* = 14.15 kgf.
definition o f the flow pressure, the contact radius i s then a =
2
sp
and the plastic approach defbrmation.of the cap i s a /2R = 2.1 pm.
By
= 0.46 mm,
times more than the deformation measured, we conclude that the contact i s not f u l l y
plastic, even at the first,
i n i t i a l blow.
soft metal, the dynamic yield stress exceeds the static one, as discussed earlier i n connection w i t h dynamic hardness tests (Section 3 . 2 ) .
quent impacts i s expected t o decrease further,
Figure 10 shows wear histories o f the zinc-alloy specimens, and i n Fig. 11, the
wear histories for the composite material are displayed.
between the wear behavior of the two materials.
strongly connected w i t h the macroscopic contact stress and yield stress, the above observation i s understandable; the presence o f the small amount of unordered powder
was insufficient for taking on more load, altering the contact stress.
The three wear curves o f Fig. 11 demonstrate that wear increases when a component o f sliding speed v i s applied on top o f approximately equal normal impact speed
Wear again increases when,
V.
The
respective increases are not drastic, and the wear curves are approximately parallel,
exhibiting typical gently declining slopes, similar to the curves seen i n previously discussed measurable elastic impact wear series.
The rate of impacting d i d not affect the wear at all, demonstrating once again
that at the fast rates o f heat conduction i n metals, thermal effects ore often negligible
i n repetitive impacting.
There was a slight tendency for ~ i l i n g - u pat the edge of the wear scars. Wear
was always measured w i t h respect t o some undeformed region i n the surface, located on
(6
1 pm) tended t o be reduced t o a quarter of this value, and the profiles were usually
#I.
The Knoop
hardness numbers were i n the following ranges: at the impacted end of the proiectile,
302-468; at the center, 385-467; at the opposite end, 344-445.
remained nearly constant i n spite o f repetitive impacting, as expected, since zinc does
not work harden appreciably.
= 28-30 at 15-T.
The composite material was appreciably harder, yielding R b = 36-53; this was,
of course, independent o f the location relative to the impact area.
the contact area stayed constant during impacting.
The hardness i n
1
2
3
Number o f cycle,,
No. of
47
47
47
119
119
119
0
M
M
0
127
127
Fig. 10. Measured wear histories for zinc alloy projectile specimens (Ballistic impact
wear testing machines, 0 . 7 g projectiles.)
No. of
4
5
6
0
A
47
42
137
119
107
348
0
M
M
0
127
127
(Ballistic
Hor~zontalD~vis~ons: 7 .':5 cm
Vertical L ivisions:
'.5 p m
Fig. 12. Talysurf trace of zinc-alloy specimen (Table 2, Series #3) after 500,000
cycles.
5.
material, we shall consider the latter having the same modulus as the zinc alloy, the
two thus being comparable. We adopt, as standard, the lightest load projectile, of
series # 4 (Fig. 1I), characterized by the following parameters: m = 0.7 g,
, = 23,200
[v4rn2E
1 .19 m/s.
; ~ R:
Adopting for an i n i t i a l wear point, the set of values N i = 5000; hi = 2.5 pm,
from Fig. 11 we can now calculate the rest of the wear curve.
dimensional wear-depth we have h i/Cs
i s obtained.
N=
l o 6 cycles.
.r
2.50/2.52
--
this corresponds to
6
i.e. ( l o 6 ) (1.4 x 10~)/5000 - 2.8 x 10 cycles. The
2.6 and
finally h - (2.52)(2.6) = 6.55 pm, i n good agreement with the experimental values.
(See Fig. 11 for the experimental data.)
Added Sliding Speed, v
1.27 m/s
N = Ni/l
+p
(8)
The rotational l y corrected effective slip factor (Eq. 7.33) i s approximately 0.4 and
p = 10,
= 1 m/s superimposed
sliding speed causes a b i t more than 1 decade of shift t o the left. This appears to be
i n good agreement with the experimental results of series # 2 and B5, as shown in
Figs. 10 and 11, respectively.
Increased Impact Speed (V
7.27 m/s)
shifted parallel to itself; because o f the increased value of V, the stress severity factor
C S i s also affected by Eq. (8.21).
With V/VO
3.48/1.19
2.92,
we obtain
With this changed stress-severity factor, the shifting procedure i s applicable now.
= 2.50/5.93
We have h,/C,
= 0.42,
resulting i n h ,
N' = 500.
2x
l o 5 cycles.
N N1/NI = (2 x 10~)(500)/10 -
which h/C,
3.0.
from
The experience derived from the application of measurable wear theory to init i a l l y plastically deforming bodies thus supports this procedure. The procedure itself i s
summarized below:
1.
, at
has already deformed enough to develop elastic contact stresses at additional blows.
(NI of the previous examples was i n the 1000-10,000 cycle range.)
2. Calculate the stress severity factor C as usual, from the (original) values m,
V, R, E
, etc.
3. Using the value h, of the i n i t i a l wear depth and the value of C, determine
the initial nondimehsional curvature
4. Using the proper master-curve, shift i t (by Eq. (8.39) to the position corresponding t o the i n i t i a l condition (N
N o t e that i f i t i s necessary t o shift the master-curve t o the left, the farthest i t can be
shifted i s the position N = 1, which i s the smallest u n i t of load cycles possible.
I f the wear history for a certain normal impact configuration
(V,,
R,
m,,
etc.)
i s known ( i t has been measured), and wear predictions are desired for slightly modified
parameters ( i . e. changed
V, R, m, etc.), then:
4. Calculate the equivalent stress severity factor C for the modified case. For
spherical volume (C'), this was shown i n Eq.
accomplished by writing:
REFERENCES
1968.
( 1 964) 62-80.
5
P. 0 .
332-334.
6
204 (1972)
CHAPTER 10-
I.
INTRODUCTION
So for the percussive impact wear study emphasized metallic partners.
In the
present chapter we consider cases i n which the character of impact i s changed by the
interposition of a medium, possibly orders of magnitude more flexible than the metal
striker.
industrial impacting process may be the repeated contact of metal against a soft solid
layer; an example of this i s printing C11 on paper or ribbon stock,
Most frequently,
the interposition o f a soft, t h i n layer between colliding metal surfaces aims at a protection o f the latter against wear.
Occasionally,
function.
2.
heads w i l l be discussed: (a) those representing the large surface area o f a letter character, and (b) wire printers.
a spring-restrained projectile
impacting against a soft but massive target; the latter represents the assembly of the
paper and the massive ' p l a t e n " supporting i t (Fig. 1).
tangential approach speed) i s considered; the relative tangential speed between the
print-head and the paper i s denoted by v, as usual.
paper is negligible while that o f the platen i s commonly much larger than the hammer
mass,
rate C3-51
Fig. 1.
a harder substrate (or one containing hard fibers) could give rise t o a surface fatigue
wear mechanism i n the print-head.
performed.
The abraded volume, W, w i t h respect t o the slipping distance, X, of the striker
relative t o the paper, i s expressed i n a differential form:
Since P varies w i t h time during impact, this variation must be known i n order t o
force.
apply Eq. ( I ) .
b y definition,
X -vt-x
(2)
Assuming P(t),
(0 < t
<
the slipping time i s found by Eq. 7.6; for moderate sliding speeds (0 < f
t = (t*/iT) cos-.' (1
- f)
2):
(4)
f
nmv/p Po t *
- (V
- 4)dt = v
(1
+)
(0 < t
dt;
< T)
(5)
P(t) dX (t) =
where
KvtXPO
-C (f)
"P
~ m v
2~ P
4f
(7)
2 '
where
-d ri,":Te
Sliding
-c
co (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. The function C (f) relating abrasive impact wear to the slip factor. From
Engel and Bayer [21.
Once the "unit wear" AW (wear volume per cycle) has been determined,
the
total wear expected after N cycles can be predicted from the linear rate equation:
WXN.AW
(10)
When the spring restraint and striker rotation are also taken into consideration (as was
done i n Sections 7.7-8),
including the treatment of the friction coefficient p as a variable i n terms o f load and
possibly sliding speed, variables which often materially affect p .
ysis i s also able t o detect and account for the occurrence of double or multiple slippage
during a cycle of impact, which i s quite common due to the spring restraint.
In the analytical and experimental study o f a pivotal hammering type o f printer,
the influence of load P upon p was considered, between steel print character and paper.
This relation had earlier been found a monotonically decreasing function p (P) i n some
[61
IJ = 1 and p = 0.6.
In addition,
t w o cases o f constant
characterized by slipping:
mi
(P)
P (t) - kx (t)
(1 1)
m = 0.16 g
v
7.62 m/s
For p = 1, the slip factor was f = 1.27, f a l l i n g into the moderate sliding speed range.
The abrasive constant K and the hardness p of the print-head surface were considered variables i n the wear solutions for
AW p/K.
was u t i l i z e d which computed the impact motion at smal l intervals o f time, for a specified
p (P) relation.
A check for the end of slipping would be made on completing each time interval:
;<
(12)
From then
- kx (t) = 0
(13)
since
(14)
x = v
A check at the end of each interval was now made t o determine whether the adherence
condition s t i l l held:
(1 5 )
F <CIP
where F = k x (t).
resumed.
The numerical analysis would thus continue until t = t * had been reached. During
each time interval d t of sequential computation, pdW/K
version from x t o
p(P)
relations considered.
t i o n introduced i n Chapter 7.
r n/t*,
while w =
are
a cowen-
(w/q
0.152 kgf-cm.
A t the other end of the frequency spectrum, i.e. at w/q = 0, the value of p does
make considerable difference for wear.
than a smaller one, terminating the slipping process; thus wear i s inversely proportional
to the friction coefficient.
0.0474 and
0.0784 kgf-cm, respectively. The variable p(P) cases run mostly between the two
curves defined by the constant p values.
I n the experimental version,
K = 7.93 x 10
-7
mm case,
R,
58-62.
(For measuring
the necessary experimental constants, see the next section.) This ~ i e l d e dfor p = 1,
AW = 9.20 x 10~10mm3/cycle (p
AW = 9.02 x 10~10mm3/cycle (
d W = 7.28 x 10
AW
Fig. 3.
-- 18.70 x
-10
10
-10
rnrn3/cycle
0.6)
@ variable p )
@ variable p)
[21
= co).
Fig.
N 6 W occurs
However, the doubly logarithmic wear histories are linear (Fig. 5).
-=
t o the wear curves; the wear i s safely under the asymptotic curve corresponding t o inf i n i t e stiffness of the print arm (w/$
the rigid spring assumption
(k = a).Several
Fig. 5.
[21
between the contacting materials can be rather routinely determined (e.g. by the
Bowden-Leben apparatus) at the desired loads and speeds.
[71 found:
t~ definitely
(ii)
(iii)
The latter two points applied t o a single layer of paper or card stock.
The hardness o f the type may be determined by microhardness methods.
For obtaining the abrasive wear constant, sliding wear tests may be u t i l i z e d .
Roshon has devised a revolving drum apparatus [ 8 1 on which paper or ribbon i s wrapped
tightly.
i s pressed against
the 120 cm diameter paper-covered drum, and the latter i s rotated at constant speed.
Thus, friction i s caused and the worn volume o f the sphere i s measured from time t o time
(Fig, 6).
To make the soft surface nearly unused for each slide, a low-speed motion i s
7Paper or rlibbon
f Vlrapped Tightly
\'!heel w i t h
Cutouts
holing e
sphere
against wheel.
rfixture slowly moving
perpendicular t o the paper)
b) Test
a) Drum
Fig. 6.
[2, 8 1
$here
After a fixed number n o f wheel revolutions, the wear W on the sphere i s noted.
Since the wear caused by sliding gives conformance to the flat surface of the wheel
against which the b a l l i s rubbed, we have:
Repetition o f the wheel test w i t h the boll surface smeared with various inks often demonstrates the significance of various surface conditions to the abrasive constant.
The
abrasive constant can also vary w i t h some environmental conditions, such as humidity
and sliding speed; at large values of the latter, tendencies for melt-lubrication arise [91
3.
WEAR OF PRINT-WIRES
In "matrix printing",
of the impression o f a wire on paper or inked ribbon (Fig. 7 ) . The wires are set i n a row,
inside a print-head or guide, and they are propelled against the target i n the proper
arrangement, w i t h appropriate timing.
a) "R";
16 x 14 Matrix
Fig. 7.
Some advantages o f this printing method include the great speeds of printing made
possible due t o the small inertia o f the print wires.
increased de-
mand i s placed on the useful l i f e of each wire, and thus wear performance estimation
becomes important.
Figure 8 shows the arrangement o f a print-wire tester used i n the IBM Endicott
Laboratoiy El01
one anothei i n a row. Wire impact i s made on inked ribbon behind which narrow paper
tape (9.5 mm wide, 0.075 mm thick) runs at a speed o f 0.17 m/s.
Its continuous
motion i s either i n a constant direction or reversible, i n order t o protect i t from shredding and t o allow time for the ink t o flow into the printing track.
A hard polyurethane-
,Print W i r c
Fig. 8.
Wire Guide
length i n the guide was 6.35 cm and their diameter 0.217 mm.
the ribbon at V
1.27 ms
,'.
ducer, and a peak force of 3 kgf was measured over a contact time of 150 ps, i n a
nearly sinusoidal pulse.
During the wear tests the crucial influence of the target medium became obvious.
Printing on paper tape without interposing the inked ribbon resulted i n negligible wear
8
(< 1 pm) o f the wire tips over a span o f 10 cycles. This number o f cycles caused substantial wear with the inked ribbon, as seen i n the experimental curves of Fig. 9.
uninked ribbon likewise caused very l i t t l e wear.
Dry,
i n the wearing process i s that o f supplying abrasive agents or being a lubricant, the dry
ribbon fibers were then saturated with oleic acid resembling the ink used, but not containing the abrasive agents used i n ink. N e g l i g i b l e wear was observed again i n tests up
6
t o 50 x 10 cycles. I t was thus concluded that the abrasive process between hard ink
particles and the tungsten wire is the main cause of the wear.
T 2.20 Fi,
T = 2.20 N.
T = 0.69 N;
0 T ' 0.69 N,
R =rrlstraight platen)
R 25.4 m m icylindrcal pldtenl
R -n
R = 25 4 rnm
Fig. 9.
250
Upper L ~ m i t
Pred~ction
ltr, 7 1 '
[lo] .
The general wear pattern for wires repetitively impacting against inked ribbon
displayed pointed wire tips, with the peak sometimes t o one side (Fig.
10).
The abra-
sive impact wear phenomenon can be attributed to the wrapping of the ribbon around the
wire t i p while the t i p punches against i t
[I11 .
ing, the wire t i p edges wear first; this could be a result both of rotational tendencies
due t o ribbon speed and t o the large pressure arising at the edge o f a flat indenter
(Section 2.2).
(1);now,
however,
i s replaced by
the normal direction, against the ribbon which i t squeezes against the paper and the
platen: dW/dZ
= K P (t)/p.
(0<
<
Z is approximately equal
to the penetration
l o 8 cycles
N - 1.5 x
ing dW between t
ClOl
0 and 7 (where 7
5 t*/2),
The maximum value of AW i s obtained when the wire t i p continually slips, and no adherence takes place, i.e.
AW
KPo
-
t/t*
1/2.
Then
Vt*
*TP
224 g and 7 0 g.
2.54 cm and R
platen radius: R
co
, both
(flat).
hardness enters according t o the abrasive wear law stipulated; from microhardness tests,
p - 640 kgf/mm
, this was
1.1 x
From these,
a t 50% RH,
The upper l i m i t wear p r e d i c t i o n o f Eq. (21) is q u i t e satisfactory for the test results
shown i n Fig,
h = A'N''~,
where A is a constant.
I t is
expected that printing on a constantly renewed inked ribbon surface should result i n
more abrasion, w h i l e p r i n t i n g against a polymer may induce stress-dependent wear tendencies,
4.
contact stresses.
tensity,
Interposition o f a
however,
A t t h e same time,
, another
method extremely
response o f the f i l m is concerned w i t h its behavior under the resulting state o f contact
stress, and also the temperatures generated i n the contact.
Stress Analysis
The results o f Marsh
(where E/uy
impact,
[I31
during
This
l i n e a r l y elastic description
Once
this i s done, the maximum size o f the contact area i s found by stipulating A.
from the uniform pressure distribution.
/p
P (t) i s a function o f the viscoelastic (or visco-plastic) properties o f the materiol. M e o surement of the pulse by a suitable transducer i s now particularly advantageous.
The impact response o f two polymer films was experimentally observed i n the
author's laboratory.
half of what was obtained hitting on the bare steel surface of the transducer at the same
impact speed.
impact; the
contact durations t * remained approximately constant (Fig. 12b), considering first blows
at those two impact speeds respectively. The relationship between
Po
This
by the formula
- 1
(22)
t*
$ Pdt.
Under repeated blows the peak force Po rose slightly, and a small increase i n e
was observable.
1, 2 and 20 cycles.
Further asymp-
Response After
Reoeated
~mbactson
Polyurethane
2nd lmpact
lmpact on Steel
lmpact on
Pol yvrethane
lmpact an Steel
lmpoct on
Pol yvrethane
~ m p o c ton Steel
@)
Response After
Repeated Impacts
on Fairprene
20th lmpact
2nd lmpact
1 st lmpoct
lmpoct on Foirprene
= 2 . 5 4 m/sec
lmpact on Steel
lmpact on Fairprene
V = 4 . 2 2 m/wc
Fig. 12. lmpact response of 0.05 mm thick polyurethane film (a-c) and 0.062 mm thick Fairprene film (d-f);
(a) and (d): V = 4.22 m/s; (b) and (e): V = 2.54 m/s; (c) and (f): V = 4.22 m/s, after 1, 2, and 20 cycles.
(c)
12.5 kgf
Near the lowest impact speed achievable by the given robot mechanism
V = 0.89 m/s
- i.e.
at
Since the hammer width was w = 0.91 mm, the average (flow) pressure was found:
pressures p remained constant since the contact time t * remained the same.
However,
since the hammkr was only 2 mm long (Fig. 13), the contact area was no longer sufficient to develop the above flow pressure above V = (2)(0.89)/0.75
= 2.38 m/s.
Polymer Film
I
/ /
\ \ \
/ \ \ \
/'/
\ \
-I
I / / \ \ \ / / / \ \ \ / / /
Steel Substrate
Fig. 13.
the surface o f polymer Pilms, supported on a steel foundation and repetitively impacted
by pivotal hammers of cylindrical surface.
The viscous energy dissipation results i n a volumetric heating rate q.
The simple
model of heat transfer i n a one-dimensional medium can be used for the calculation o f
temperature.
Perfect insulation above and a perfect heat sink on the bottom were as-
= qH /2K,
where H i s the thickness o f the polymer film and K, its thermal con-
duction coefficient.
we have
Using K = 4.5 x
on the surface.
cal/cm-s
-8
call
The thermal analysis can be refined by including other effects: TO) the variation
o f the complex modulus E* with the temperature, as the sample is progressively heated
during the repetitive excitation process; (b) heat dissipation due t o stress hysteresis;
(c) consideration of the finite heat conduction capacity of the steel substrate
- iu.st t o
-e
= n tan6,
Eq. 3.30.
generated by repeated impacting, then an unstable condition i s achieved, with everincreasing temperatures.
and thus this temperature would be the stable operating equilibrium temperature for the
material.
The contribution of stress hysteresis can be appraised by calculating the area of
the "loop" present i n the stress-strain diagram o f elastomers.
polymer films studied.
and also conduction and convection to the surrounding medium and air, are expected to
counteract each other -without
The con-
It is apparent that a major temperature rise (other than that o f an asperity peak)
occurs only when either excessive stress (near the rupture stress) or a sliding frictional
mechanism (such as fretting motion) i s also present.
0.2
-'
;
tan 6
Polyvinyl
Fluoride
20
40
"C
60
80
polymer films had a tendency t o develop a certain constant flow pressure, p = P/A.
Thus A would stay proportional t o P (and consequently t o
available hammer surface area t o contact.
Both the
polyurethane and the Fairprene films were studied for the effect o f impact speed, steel
sublayer finish, striking angle o f the hammer, and environmental temperature upon the
overstress condition.
At
V = 2.67 m/s,
Three speeds,
V = 0.89 m/s,
length (2b = 2 mm) was not sufficient t o develop the peak force Po = 15
for polyurethane and Fairprene, respective1y.
V and 17.5 V
At the first two impact speeds, wear scars of the order of 1 pm depth developed,
by N =
7.10) with a0
p, y -- 1.1,
Checking the
5 x lo6) and a Fairprene ( N = 12 x lo6) sample; the impact speed was V = 1.78m/s
i n both cases.
Figures
were noted very early. The contact smudge extended the entire length o f the hammer.
3
By about 10 cycles, deep (15 pm) wear-scars were noted, and the material would
Rips then started b y
l o 4 cycles,
The
conclusion from this experience i s that the material was driven t o work beyond its yield
stress and near the rupture stress at this impact speed; this started the early and rapidly
advancing wear process called "overstress".
Changing the original steel substrate from a V-2 t o a V-18 finish ( 6 =
and
0.1 pm
the terrain does not appear rough enough t o couse extensive bouncing and chafing for
the given dimensions of the film.
was seen; nevertheless, due to the plasticity exhibited by the polymer films, no drastic
6
failures (rips) were seen, at least up to 3.7 x 10 cycles for Fairprene and
cycles i n polyurethane, far
15 x 106
1.78 m/s.
For a study o f the influence o f environmental temperature, the test apparatus was
placed i n a thermally controllable oven at 6 0 ' ~ . A t the lower impact energy of
V - 0.89 m/s,
however, than i n the room-temperature version o f the test, because the material became more flexible (p was lowered) at the higher temperature. Of course, for that reason the impact force was also diminished.
5,000,000,
V = 1.78 r n / ~
V - 1.78 rn/r
Horizontal scale:
however at 60C,
have t o be considered; the eventual gross fatiguing of the contact would occur beyond
1 0 " cycles, and for some materials,
(b) Charring.
i n t o t h e decade of l o 8
10' cycles.
ness were subjected t o repeated impact, and showed excessive charring over
without overstress E l 4 1
lo5
cycles,
the
namic dissipation factor peak above 150' C, and the possibility o f generating higher
temperatures through the positive temperature c o e f f i c i e n t exists.
(c) Laminar wear.
Two materials,
SG40TR) were
but
The
metal surface, the striking metal surface may also b e subiect t o wear.
seen on t4e tool-steel p i v o t a l hammers used for the above studies.
l i t t l e wear depth, was seen on the hammers i n the polyurethane f i l m tests, Spalling o f
5
the hammeis occurred after 10 cycles when they were tested against layers o f 30/0
glass-filled n y l o n
6/6; this
led to dehydrohalogenation i n p o l y v i n y l f l u o r i d e ,
this material taken before and after impacting showed the chemical change [ I 4 1
(a) Polyurethane; N = 5 x 10
, 45X
(c) P ~ l ~ c a r b o n a t eN
; = 3.3 x 1 05; 40X; [ I 4 1
130X; [ I 4 1
Fig. 17. Scanning electron micrographs for repetitively impacted polymer films.
Pivotal hammers with cylindrical surface (Fig. 6.10) were used at moderate energies
(V=2 m/s), not causing overstress.
5,
there is firm support beneath the elastomer layer t o which i t is either or not bonded; and
(b) the contact dimension a or b i s comparable to the thickness
H, unlike i n "films".
The dramatic effect of the thickness and o f the repetition rate n (and thus the temperature) upon impact force were demonstrated
ber,
[I51
Fig. 18.
100
IN'
Fig. 18. Effect of thickness on the peak impact force, at various repetition rates, for
butyl rubber slabs subjected to standard cylindrical hammer blows (Fig. 6.10) at a
normal impact speed V 4.27 m/s 1151
for
Several test series by the standard pivotal hammering robot (Section 6.4) were
performed i n the author's laboratory.
utilized, and due t o the great f l e x i b i l i t y o f the elastomers, the entire rectangular outl i n e (2.0 mm by 1.4 mm, Fig. 6.1 Oc) o f the b a l l surface (R = 2.5 cm) was usually i n
contact at the peak o f impact for the usual range o f impact parameters.
In the test range, the influence o f n on W was found surprisingly small, probably
because the stress is inversely proportional t o n, w h i l e the temperature rise AT is proThe inflyence of V was often linear and, as such, more
Among
A more profound
= 3.81 m/s,
large radial
l o 6 cycles,
and com-
at n
2.7 x
lo6
1.2 cm wide and 2.5 cm long; they were bonded along one long edge t o a steel foundat i o n and three hammers were simultaneously impacting at V = 1.78 m/s,
3.81 m/s,
respectively.
1.78,
A t V - 1.78 m/s,
lo6,
M i n o r charring
ations.
Differences between the wearing o f t h i n polymer films and rubber slabs can exisi
because of reduced f retting due t o greater compliance i n the latter.
I
2
3
4
5
6
1.25
2.5
V, impact velocity, m / i
3.75
Fig. 19, Impact wear of H = 1 mm polyester urethane slabs by spherical ended hammers,
at n = 50 Hz, after N = 2 . 7 ~
10' cycles.
Fig. 20. Impact wear o f Pellethane 1 mm thick elastomer slabs, bonded to the substrate,
by spherical hammers, at n = 50 Hz, V = 2.79 m/s.
Note i n i t i a l "sinking i n " followed
by swelling and negative wear. Horizontal scale: 5OPm/div.
REFERENCES
P. A.
Engel and
R.
Chicago,
1975.
CHAPTER 1 1 -
1.
LIQUID EROSION
INTRODUCTION
The subject matter o f this chapter i s the deformation and wear of solids subjected
perhaps two depend the most on the understanding of l i q u i d erosion: the passing of aircraft through drops of rain, and the erosion o f steam-turbine blades.
relative speeds (> 100 m/s).
stresses may arise during l i q u i d impact, so that even on single impact, various failure
modes such as fracture, pitting, or scouring are possible.
magnified b y repeated impacts; furthermore,
failure can be expected at an order of magnitude lower stress level than the one causing
comparable one-shot damage.
o f erosion-resistant materials.
A related subiect i s cavitation erosion, which arises due to the tensile stresses
caused by the collapse of bubbles contained i n the liquid.
While acknowledging i n
some cases the possibility of parallel cavitation erosion, the present treatment w i l l be
restricted t o the effects of the mechanical impact of liquids.
of cavitation-erosion and impact-erosion studies lies i n the fact that, i n both cases, the
resistance o f the material is a function of its a b i l i t y to absorb energy.
Liquid erosion was first analyzed by Cook
[I1
chemical effects; he correctly related i t to the pressure q (also called the "water hammer pressure") arising due t o the compressible nature o f the impacting liquid:
q=pcv
(1
where p i s the mass density o f the liquid, c the speed of wave propagation i n i t and
V the impact velocity. An improvement o f this formula by de Holler C21 resulted from
accounting for the acoustic impedance p c
5
The modern development of liquid impact and erosion was initiated during the
1950's.
analytical studies.
has been w e l l established, the subject i s very much alive, as seen from the periodically
convened International Conferences on Rain Erosion and Related Phenomena
2.
[3,4, 51
instantaneously on the liquid-solid interface, and (b) the radial flow o f liquid over the
target plane, away from the impact area.
solid impacts [61 ; thus the hyper-velocity impact o f a soft projectile on a hard material
may cause the former to disintegrate l i k e a liquid drop while the latter i s dented.
At
even higher energies, the target may also disintegrate locally, developing a cavity
larger than the size of the projectile.
drop on a liquid surface [71
direct impact exists i n the mushrooming o f a soft, ductile projectile (e.g. lead) on h i t t i n g a hard target at high speed
L81
Test Arrangements
The occurrence of industrially c r i t i c a l liquid impacts i s mostly i n the form of
spherical drops.
As w i l l be discussed further,
such diverse-type liquid impacts may be related t o each other, and thus the choice of
impact arrangement can be dictated by convenience i n practice.
Relative approach i n the impact tests may be attained either by the motion o f
liquid against the solid specimen or b y moving the solid surface against o liquid jet or
drop.
As an example o f the former, Fig. 1 shows the schematic o f the water gun test
prene plug; a bullet fired against the latter forces a jet of water out o f a narrow orifice,
against the target specimen.
speed photography; at 0.8 ps intervals, the photos show the impact of a d= 2 mm d i ameter jet against Plexiglas, at V = 680 m / ~ , They show the deformation o f the jet and
its radial wash, as well as the damage wrought i n the target.
Fig.
Fig. 2.
680 m/s.
El01
jet leaving the o r i f i c e depends a great deal on the water surface inside the chamber
prior t o shooting.
i n the air is greatly reduced. A concave liquid-air interface i n the chamber i s apt t o
produce a thin precursor micro-jet (Munroe jet) which i s much faster than the parent
jet C11 I and i s apt t o d r i l l a hole i n the target.
[I21
on a very fine web; a flat-nose solid proiectile specimen would be shot against the drop,
taking care that the imprint o f the drop on the surface was not damaged subsequently.
Following the impact, the shoulder of the specimen would be arrested.
Examination o f
at high speed; impact speeds up t o 225 m/s and repetition rates o f the order of 5 Hz
have been reported
C141 .
[81
Specimen
Rotating Disc
Fig. 3.
>-ly,,-~et
Liquid Impingement
A description o f the liquid impact process was given by Bowden and Field [15]
accounting for compressible behavior during the i n i t i a l phase.
I t i s simplest t o consider
lane, Fig. 4.
From Bowden
The pressure on the contact surface would instantly rise t o the water-hammer pressure
q = pcV, and at the edge o f the jet a tangential flow would initiate.
This outward
flow, becouse of the small height o f the liquid, would be two t o three times faster than
the incident velocity, and would be potentially highly erosive.
pressed liquid trapped under the cylinder i s unable t o escape toward the perimeter u n t i l
at a speed c.
r/c t o start the central liquid flowing outward, at about the speed of incidence, V.
A t that point, the pressure suddenly drops to the value o f the stagnation pressure o f the
2
1.5 rnm radius water cylinder i s calculated from the speed of sound, c = 1500 m/s i n
water.
Thus t = 0.0015/1500r
- a very substantial
itis1500~~m~~(-150k~f/mm~)
pressure.
For the impact of a curved liquid surface against o solid plane, the release waves
may originate from any intermediate point of the liquid-solid boundary line.
Figure 5
(rsin@)Q. ~ h u ;(
s =
k.
v cot Q results.
V = -d (rcosQ)/dt
Plane
/ / / / W T Y p / / / / / /
"
Fig. 5.
drop.
As soon as x = c, the release waves can immediately reach into newly generated
= cosec
xo
Q 0 = r/x
at which x
,,so that
c,
i.e. V cos Q0 = c.
rV/c
(3)
Since tangential flow from this central circle or band toward the periphery is inhibited,
l i t t l e scouring damage i s caused here.
estimate the central area C161 ; this was attributed to neglect of the role o f viscosity
i n the analysis.
The impact of flat-ended cylindrical water jets against convex, concave and flat
inclined surfaces (Fig. 6) was studied b y Vickers
[I71
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram o f jet impact on (a) convex surface, (b) concave surface,
(c) flat-inclined surface, From Vickers El71
By an analysis similar to the case of a curved water surface impacting a flat plane,
the impact of a flat jet hitting a convex surface (Fig. 6a) gives the same result, Eq.
(3),
for x o.
For a concave solid (Fig. 6b), both the outward and inward radial flow must be
considered separately.
= r (1
- cos 0)/V.
I f the radial liquid velocity outward from the circle d i s v, then the
+ 2vt
[ 2r (1 - cos 9 ) v I /V.
O n the
If the impact at the edge of the jet can initiate a wave reaching the axis of the
jet before i t hits the bottom of the concavity, a Munroe jet may form ahead of the main
jet, causing concentrated damage at the center of the target.
occur i s
d
2c
r (1
<
-vcos 0) , or
I n the impact of a flat jet with a flat-inclined surface, compression waves start
out from the initial impact point A, as shown i n Fig. 6c.
wave i s also shown; this i s a tension wave reflected from the wall of the iet delineating
a zone 6 where the flat bottom of the jet w i l l be disrupted and broken up, even before
impact.
Equating the sum of the travel times (a) of the compressive wave from A to C
and (b) the time of the tensile release wave traveling from C to B, with the approach
time of the liquid surface from B to D, theie results
t =
d i 6 -
(d - 6 ) tancu'
6 =
d (1
- [ V cot a']/c)
f (V cot cul)/c
d - 6
cos cu'
Normal impact w i l l result a l l across the jet i f the speed of contact V/cot rut between the
jet and the sloping surface i s equal t o or greater than the speed of the compression wave,
which means 6
0 or 0 5
cu'
< cot
(c/V).
-'(c/V),
then a part
8 o f the iet surface w i l l break up prior to its impact, and on this projection o f the
inclined surface only incompressible flow w i l l occur at the mild stagnation pressure.
Deriving the impact pressure for a spherical water-drop h i t b y a solid plate
traveling at speed V,
She argued
that compressional waves, initiated at the i n i t i a l impact point A (Fig. 7), are reinforced
by waves generated at points o f the surface (e.g.
contact.
exists above the solid surface up t o the "A -planeH, according t o this model; its thickness i s
H = 4R ( 1
- P ) C V/cI2.
P2
p Vc.
In this expression
is a
A:cclerot;d
Wote Mor.
Fig. 7.
Liauid Pressure
The approaches to liquid impact analysis previously described were based on the
water-hammer equation, Eqs, (1) or (2).
tions.
The spatial and temporal variations o f the pressure were reduced t o a suddenly
applied (and later removed) constant-intensity pulse over the impacted region.
The
viscosity o f the liquid, the variation of this and of the density w i t h the pressure and
the temperature were neglected; shock-wave propagation at high impact speeds was
unaccounted for, as were the problems o f the interface behavior between the l i q u i d and
solid (slip or no-slip) and between the liquid and the air; the effect o f strength of both
solid and liquid (fracture during impact) was disregarded.
numerical treatment can explicit analysis be effected.
using marker
particles located along the interface t o keep track of the deformation of the liquid
boundary; the pressure and velocity within the liquid boundary were then computed by
a finite difference technique.
Yang C20, 21 1 t o find spatial and temporal pressure variations for the impact of cylindrical and spherical drops.
Figure 8 shows the pressure-time history for an i n i t i a l l y cylindrical droplet, with
a length-to-diameter ratio L/d = 1, impacting at Mach 0.2; free-slip boundary condition between liquid and solid was assumed.
results.
The pressure rose quickly and was maximum at the center with a distribution
and the
peak pressure was slightly larger (by some 20%) than the water-hammer pressure q :pcV.
The pressures then rapidly declined, with the maximum gradually shifting towards the
periphery.
at time d/c,
c O+ 2V was used
Further analysis showed that neither the viscosity nor the slip conditions at
the liquid-solid interface are crucial quantities for the pressure history.
A more stocky
cylindrical drop shape (small L/d ratio) was found to cause more conformance to the
water-hammer type impact; L/d
radial flow checked out well with respect to the general liquid impact theories C10,151.
Similar analysis was carried out for spherical droplets,
Fig. 9.
surface i s free to deform, the pressure build-up i s affected by the radial release flow
right after first contact.
maximum pressure generated i n a spherical drop i s lower than that i n a finite cylindrical
jet of the same radius.
greater for the spherical drop than for the finite cylindrical one, and this, causing
greater radial velocities,
Smith and Kinslow [241 investigated the spatial distribution o f water-jet impact
pressure by setting up a transducer measurement at variable points of the target area.
They used a water gun l i k e that depicted i n Fig. 1; the iet velocity was 640 m/s and
the iet core diameter 2.4 mm; the diameter of the jet head was 6.6 mm.
A hardened
pressure pin was inserted flush w i t h the rest of the hardened tool-steel target; this small
diameter (1 mm) p i n transmitted the pressure from the impact surface to the pressure
Free-Slip
-----
Mach
0.2
Mach
0.5
o f the impulse exerted on the pin; since i t was triggered by the transducer output,
i t was
not possible t o obtain a spatial variation o f the pressure for f i x e d times from impact
i n i t i a t i o n for anything but a f l a t jet front.
10;the
Pin N o .
0.15
0.10 0.05
0.05
0.10 0.15
however, agrees
-
0.91 p Vc
was
A pulse rise time o f 3 ps was measured and the decay time was
6 ps; these values indicated somewhat slower impact response than thot obtained b y
theory.
46 m/s.
(50mm diameter)
at
3.
Increasing
V toward
Brunton
12).
Over
The area outside the ring crack (extending to about 1 cm or several times the iet
diameter) has a fringe pattern of sharp circumferential crazing features, about 0.01 mm
deep.
Glass
displays short circumferential cracks, which comprise the main ring crack (Fig. 13) on
the periphery o f the jet.
ture during the short duration o f the pressure pulse; these would form around faults.
It
is not apt t o form i n ordinary glass, which seldom has subsurface faults.
:
:
display a deep but narrow central penetration which i s due to tensile failure of the
material under the very large central deformations.
Fig. 11. Ring deformation i n Plexiglas due to the impact o f a water jet at 950 m/s.
The mean diameter of the ring deformation i s 3 mm. From Brunton [261.
Fig. 12. Cross-section through the 3.5 mm-thick Plexiglas plate of Fig. 1 1 . Fractures
at A are shear fractures and l i e along shear trajectories. Fractures at B are caused by the
tangential tensile stresses across the front o f the expanding dilatational wave. Fractures
at C and D are the result of the reflection and interference of the initial com~ression
wave. Note that the scabbing fractures at D are more extensive than the rin$ fractures
on the impact surface. From Brunton [261
Fig. 14. Deformation o f aluminum caused by a 3 mm-diameter water jet a t 750 m/s .
The wavy deformation around the rim o f the depression is caused by tbhe shearing act i o n
o f the high-speed tangential f l o w . From Bowden and Brunton El01 .
harder pol ymers ( e . g. unplasticized PVC) a sheared ring could be found, concentrically
w i t h i n a ring fracture produced by radial tension [261
transmitted through the thickness by dilatational waves which are subsequently reflected
from the opposite side as tension.
a lower speed c
,.
that a circumferential band of fractures may originate i n glass plates due t o the constructive interference o f Rayleigh waves w i t h reflected tensile dilatational waves.
Figures 15b and c show the principle o f the interference phenomenon; the speeds are
c
,-
5750 m/s,
Figure 16 shows
a band o f fractures i n glass, caused by interference of stress waves originated over the
central area Ay.
H
"1
LI
Fig. 15. Reflection and reinforcement of stress waves i n a late. (a) Three types of
stress waves; (b) Interference of two waves originating at a point on the surface;
(c) Load applied over area Ay. From Bowden and Field [15] ,
Fig.
The band marked b y arrows is due to stress wave interference due t o impact over area
Ay. From Bowden and F i e l d [ i 5 1
4.
Erosion o f Plexiglas
a t 150 m/s,
o f mercury
(N, V and d )
i s shown i n
Fig. 18.
a 1.3 mm
by
= 0.75.
A n incubation period
then p i t t i n g occurred.
First
x - v ~.. ~
307
The bands of
Fig. 18. Deformation of a Plexiglas specimen which has been shot through a l-mmThe radius of the iet i s shown by the arrow. The
diameter iet of mercury at 150 m/s.
photograph was taken w i t h reflected light. From Hancaxand Brunton [161.
cracking
pitting
d = 1.35 m m
0.6
0.4
From
ld
Thicker jets produced more damage, sooner; this i s i n line with the longer
duration o f impact, and thus more tangential scouring. Thin specimens, w i t h a width
5
1/10 that of the iet diameter, were unaffected by 10 impacts.
A study of several ceramic and rigid polymer materials showed similar features of
an incubation period as did Plexiglas.
some inorganic single crystals; under Vcr no deformation whatever occurred, but over
Vcr the material would soon fail by tensile cracking. Table 1 shows some examples of
material behavior.
Table 1
Liquid erosion behavior of several materials C161
V = 80 m/s
N = 10
First cracking
Plexiglas
N=lO
First cracking
Sintered alumina
Diamond,
Sic
80 m/s
= 90 m/s
95 m/s
Calcite
Vc, - 36 m/s
Apatite, fluorite
N = 6 x lo5
N = 5 x 10
First cracking
N o sign of cracking
Erosion tests o f polished copper (less than 0.001% impurity, annealed at 850C)
showed many similar features with the
shown i n Fig. 19.
(N) and
For
x = 0.7,
pits formed
very hard cobalt-based alloy o f steel, used i n the leading edge of the moving blades
at the exhaust end of large steam turbines.
diameter jet,
and wide (0.76 mm) groove at 200,000 cycles resembled the pits and cracking shown on
specimens i n service.
had formed as the beginning of an erosion track; some work-hardening was noted at this
stage.
flow.
(A) I n their tests with the wheel and jet apparatus (using filtered water i n a
1.5 mm jet at V = 125 m/s),
i n Fig. 20a; their general form (except for that of cobalt) resembles the scheme of
Fig. 20b.
The first stage o f erosion history was the incubation stage, where no weight
loss occurred, but some plastic or brittle deformation was noted i n the impact area.
stage 2, pits formed and grew by removal of material.
the erosion rate fell to a lower value.
In
into pits was explained by the stress concentrations that arise at these surface formations.
Accordingly,
even though the average stress is low, local soft spots of the material or
bances are very rare at the beginning, the first depressions would appear with some
delay.
Later on, however, with the formation of many depressions, the erosion rate
would rise.
In stage 2, the tangential flow ovei the roughened surface also greatly
I n stage 3, the rate of erosion declines again since the drop i s broken up b y the roughened surface; also, t he impact is no longer normal t o the whole o f the surface.
- 1200
0 copper
m 1 l 8s t e i l
90c
C
5. 105
number o f impact>,
10"
number of ~ m o a c t ,
0\
a1
Fig. 20. The development of erosion i n a number o f metals and alloys eroded at an
impact v e l o c i t y of 125 m s ' w i t h a water jet diameter 1.5 mm. (a) Experimental results;
(b) Three-stage model for erosion process. From Thomas and Brunton [141
(B)
Piston
Fig. 21. Shock wave apparatus. The piston i s struck on its upper surface by a pneumatic hammer so that strong pressure waves are transmitted through the l i q u i d i n the
sealed chamber onto the specimen surface. From Thomas and Brunton r141
This precluded the occurrence o f cavitation i n the liquid; no sideways flow would toke
place either.
experiments.
but between
50 shocks,
300 and 1000 shocks a roughening o f the surface occurred. This consisted
Similar behavior
i n aluminum and mild-steel specimens showed that erosion starts i n the absence o f
tangential liquid flow, at pressures much lower than the y i e l d pressure of the material.
The l ocal yielding o f the solids i s associated w i t h structural inhomogeneities.
Fig. 22.
3500 impacts at 50 m/s; (b) i n shock wave loading after 750 blows at a peak pressure
o f 22 M N ~ - ' .
[I41 .
(C) Thomas and Brunton also investigated the effect o f tangential flow, while
keeping the pressure component small; the g l a ~ c i n gimpact o f a jet at
for
5 minutes, o n polished surfaces o f annealed pure copper. The amount of flow was
V: 100 m/s.
discontinuities (0.02-0.5 mm), readily produced erosion, mostly downstream from the
steps.
Copper surfaces i n which small depressions had been made i n the shock tube
jet apparatus) were then subiected t o tangential flow for one minute.
Again,
heavy
erosion resulted, especially on the downstream side of the depressions. Thus i t was
apparent that tangential flow i s effective i n erosion only when the target surface has
rough features.
Many features i n the liquid erosion phenomenon suggest a fatigue mechanism: the
effects of repetitive loading,
and a chem-
found t o be similar i n the aluminum alloy HE15 also; no endurance limit existed in
either stress-endurance or erosion tests, while i n steel an endurance limit i s clearly
exhibited by both types o f curves.
(a
number o f cycles
number of cycles
(b)
Fig. 23. Stress-endurance and velocity-erosion curves for aluminum a l l o y HE15 and
mild steel: (a) under standard fatigue conditions, and (b) under repeated l i q u i d impact
(- number of impacts needed t o complete the incubation period, and (--) t o increase
the depth o f erosion by 100 pn). From Thomas and Brunton C141 ,
Of
was found most influential for the erosion resistance of ductile materials. This i s demonstrated i n Table 2, where three quantities indicating erosion intensity have been
shown against their toughness.
Table
Erosion indicators and toughness for various metals subjected to repeated liquid
impacts [ I 4 1
-
Material
Increase i n
Mean Depth of
Erosion with
25 x l o 3 Impacts
at Max. Rate, pm
10 6x
Reciprocal
Incubation
Period
133
--
Mean Depth
of Erosion
After 5 x lo5
Impacts, pm
Strain Energy
Per Unit
Volume, M N ~ - ~
Copper
155
1175
80.0
60/40 Brass
105
5.0
800
144
Mild Steel
75
1 1 .O
750
1 98
Stainless Steel
60
3.8
425
41 4
Cobalt
20
4.0
125
12.0
the prestress was the increase of erosion rate for the ductile a-brass.
In the brittle
The
plastic specimens were placed i n three different positions, with the fibers being perpendicular to the jet of water or parallel t o i t (Fig. 24).
the impact speed was variable up to 90 m/s.
prior t o erosion.
shear stress of the composite, instead of on the amount of the fiber loading.
Much of
the erosion resistance of the matrix was lent to i t by the presence of the fibers.
erosion resistance was obtained from the "head-on" fiber position o f Fig. 24c.
Superior
The
Fibers
Fig. 24. Fiber direction configurations i n the iet-and-wheel apparatus for the fiberreinforced-plastic specimens. From Hancox r321
erosion rate, there was a straight-line correlation between the strain energy t o fracture
and the reciprocal of the rate of volume loss (see, also, Table 2).
Denoting by U,
the energy absorbed by the material eroded; AW, the eroded volume; and defining S,
the erosion strength as the energy-absorbing capacity of the material per unit volume
under the action of the erosive forces,
the equation
(7)
U, = AWS,
results.
U,/A,t,
For example, the erosion strength of 1020 steel i n distilled water i s found from the
measured quantities h/t = 6.35 ~ m / ~ e aunder
r
intensity I = 0.3 w/m2;
from Eq
S,
. (8),
-
I t/h=0.3/(6.35~
solving for S,
This value i s about three times the erosion strength of 1020 steel subjected t o erosive
action of a 3% N a C l solution at the same intensity I .
A model of the steady erosion rate (stage 2 of Fig. 20b) was formulated by Busch,
Hoff and Langbein [341
the increase o f volumetric internal energy by plastic deformation and by the formation
o f new surface during the erosion process, a material constant.
U , =AhA,c
(9)
U,-
( 1 0)
I.At.A,
11 1 )
U,/U2,
-+
dh/dt = I b /
(12)
The factor o f absorption must monotonically increase w i t h the applied pressure q, and
therefore w e can w r i t e i t as a function o f
f
(dp),
a f/aq
dp,where p i s the
hardness:
(13)
The constant
relationship between h and S has been shown for plastics; e.g. from b r i t t l e plastics
(Plexiglas) t o tough,
For rub-
bers, erosion resistance can be shown to be inversely proportional t o the elastic modulus
E, or, equivalently,
(14) is simplified t o
This
behavior may also be argued from the fact that the f l e x i b i l i t y o f elastomers prevents
the build-up o f high pressures.
The hardness o f metals, according t o Eq. (14), promotes erosion resistance.
Erosion tests involving whirling-arm surfaces against a r t i f i c i a l r a i n were performed t o
test the effect o f the impact v e l o c i t y on various materials.
3.
AW-v3,since
I = 1/2pV
'P~~,~.V,
Figure 25 suggests a much higher exponent than 3, which may be due t o the
Vcr
The c r i t i c a l v e l -
o c i t y was found to decrease with the angle of attack rut as shown i n Fig. 26; a good
approximation i s given by the equation:
V(0) = V,
/sin ru
indicating that i t i s practical to incline exposed surfaces to the flight direction for rain
erosion protection.
90
o
Fig. 26.
70
50
30
approach angle (degrees)
10
For erosion resistance, the effect of material properties such as modified resilience (MU = u t H/2E),
tensile strength (T = o t
acoustic impedance (Z = (E p )
112
and their combinations were statistically investigated b y Roo, Rao and Rao 1351
. After
the i n i t i a l and development phases o f erosion, the best correlations with a l l available
data were exhibited by the double groupings (U, H),
(TIH),
and (UHT).
d,
A raindrop i s usu-
at supersonic speeds when the shockwaves are apt to disintegrate the drop.
Jenkins 1361
found an empirical formula for the time tC s l o f disintegration o f a water drop of diameter dCml
, t o a size
VCm/sl :
t = 14.3 d / ~
O'''
(17)
which agreed closely w i t h values found b y O . G . Engel 1371 on 1.4 mm water drops.
O n this basis, aerodynamic calculations y i e l d the size o f the drop encountered by an
approaching conical surface 1363
moving blades i n modern turbines; subsequently a steam tunnel was b u i l t for further
investigations.
REFERENCES
S. S. Cook, !roc.
0.G. Engel, Symposium on Erosion and Cavitation, ASTM STP N o . 307 (1 961)
3-16.
Aug. 1971.
18 (1976) 21-25.
15 (1973) 302-310.
260
(1966) 144-149.
G. W. Vickers and W. Johnson, Int. J . Mech. Sci.,
London, Ser. A,
W.
Ser. A,
J. Caldwell,
Ser. A,
1970)
final conditions, activates the subroutines, and stores the resulting position o f the
sphere at equal time irncrements.
state equations.
vHERTZ~C~IV
V Z+AT H E R T Z TF
C2 I
13 1
11
L21
L31
~ 4
L5l
X+(Z+L), VxpppT+O
Z+Z, l f Y+T H U N G E X
+2xTF>T+T+AT
VRUNGECOIV
V Z+T R U N G E X ; K l ; K 2 ; K 3 ; K 4
Kl+ATxT E Q N X
K2+ATx(T+0.5xAT) E Q N X t 0 . 5 x K l
K3+-ATx(T+0.5xAT) EQN X t 0 . 5 x K 2
1 K4+ATx(T+AT) EQN XtK3
Z+X+(KltK4+2xK2+K3)+6
VEQNCnlV
.I]
V Z+T EQN X
Z + X [ ~ ~ , - G - ( X [ ~ ~ < O ) ~ ( E R ~ ~ ~ ~ M ) ~ ( ( ~ ~ B E T A ) * O . ~
Program 2-
respectively); their
. . . Y7.
HIT i s
Fig. A1
hammer.
VHIT[OIV
V AT HIT TF;Zl;W;J
x+(Y4xF:),w,(Y5xk'),w.o,w,(Y7xw).w+v+Y2
[I]
C21
X+((pL)p(T+J+O)).(YlxW),W,(Y2xW),W,(Y3xW).W.X
r 3 I PMINIT~PMAT
[41
DISPLAY T,X
C 5 1 LL:X+T RUNGE X
C61
T+T+AT
[7]
+LLx t(INTERVALtAT)>J+J+l
C 83
DISPLAY T ,X
[91
J+O
ClOl +LLxTF>T
v
VKMATRIXCUIV
V KMATRIX;I;J;R;KK;Rl;R2;KD;JJ;EVN
C11
~ + L C E V N ~ ~ ~ + L C E V N + ~ ~ I - ~ ~ O . ~ X ~ L ]
[21
~+BCEVN+11+BCEVNI
C31
H+HCEVN+lI+H[EVNI
C41
I+(gxg*3)+12
C5l
J+l
C61
KMAT+(R,(R+2xl+oL) )PO
171 ~ 1 : ~ 1 + ( - 6 + & C ~ 1 * 2 ) , ( - 6 + ~ C ~ 1 * 2 ) , ( 4 + ~ I : ~ 1 ) , ( 6 + & C ~ l * 2 ) , 2 + & ~ ~ 1
[El
~1+1~~1~~~(12+&[~!*3),(-6it_r~1*2),(-12+~[~1*3),~1
C91
R~+(~+&CJ~*~),(-~+L~JI*~),(~~~[JI).(~+&JI*~),~+&
[lo] ~ 2 + 1 [ ~ l x ~ x ( - 1 2 t ~ [ ~ l * 3 ) , ( 6 t & [ : J 1 * 2 ) , ( 1 2 ~ J l * 3 ) , ~ 2
Clll KK+(R,R)pOC121 KKCJJ;JJ+( 1 + 2 x J ) , ( 2 x J ) , ( 1 + 2 x J ) , 2 + 2 x J 1 + ( 4 , 4 ) p R l . R 2
C131 KMATcKKtKMAT
VMMATRIXCUIV
Cl]
C23
C31
C41
C51
C6 3
i71
V MMATRIX;MM;IE ;I0;II;INERTIAS;MASSES
C81
C91
MMcLxBxHxRHO
IE+2xt(pMM)+2
IO+IE-1
MAsSES~MMCIOI+MMCIEI
II+(MMx(4xL*2)+H*2)+12
INERTIAS+IICIO] +IIC IE3
MMAT+(pMM)pO
MMATC I0 ]+MASSES
MMAT[IEI+INERTIAS
APPENDIX 2
2.1
- ELASTIC CONTACT
Spherical Contact
SOLUTIONS
2.12)
Define:
22-
z+ia
+ r2)
R 2 - (z;
1
-(z-ia)R2+
1
- r 7 k n (R2+z7)
2
1
- - 2 zz3R2
3 R2+ I
ia
-21
z r 2 2 n (R2+ z 2 )
Then the state of stress i s obtained from the imaginary parts o f the expressions:
u v v - - similar t o ox,
-(3P/2=a3)(-K
uZ7
+ z ~ K / ~ z )
O n the z-axis
o x
o,,
pp/2*a3)
(1
AV)
u LZ = - ( 3 ~ / 2 ~ a ~ ) C a ~ / ( a ~ + z 2 ) 1
- a1
1/2 a3/(a7 + z 2 ) /
where
1 (a2-r2)3/2
Go- -
1 a
K~
- (a2-
71112
2.2
3P/2rra3
[1/3
Spherical Contact
The
a3(1 - 2 ~ ) ( 2 x ' r - ~
-'-')I
- Shear Traction
at z
boundary conditions,
O n l y (Ref, 2.12)
0 are:
= ( - 3 1 - ' ~ / 2 n a 3 ) d Z
s,,
Definitions,
r < a
Z R $ ~
+ ia~~,/2 -
z2R2r2/4
- r4~n(~2+z2)/4
The state of stress i s obtained from the imaginary parts o f the expressions:
1 xE
a,/
2rra3
r2
-32 l,
h a 3
E ,. T y z
az
[2G
II
--'
aH
3pp
Z?
+
xyz
3LH
2r4
3
ax
3 2
(xF)
d
r 2
F]
1
= ( 3 p ~ / 2 n a 3 ) [ ~ z a r c t a n ( a / z )- a - - a2 z 2 ( ~ 2 + a 2 ) - ~ ]
O n the surface inside the contact zone,
a
,,
= [ 3v/(4
+ v )I
a,,
= (x/y)
i.e,,
-v
[ 3v/(2
z = 0, r
IT^^
< a,
3
- (3 ~ P / ~ T I )O ~
8
xv
= - ( 3 p P / 2 ~ a ~ ) ( x r - [~2) ( r 2 + ~ ~ ~ ) F ~ + v ( 3 - 4 1x ~ r ~ ~ ) H ~
gYv
= - ( 3 p ~ / 2 a a ~ ) ( v x r)- [~2 x 2 ~ 0
+ (1
T xv
= - ( 3 p ~ / 2 r r a ~ ) ( y r - [~( )r 2 - 2 v x 2 ) Fa + v (1 - 4 x 2 r - ' )
where
2.3
Fo =
- -21
HO =
-1
a ( r 2 - a 2 ) 'I2
a ( r 2 - a2)3i2
r 2 arctan
- 4y2r-')H,
1a
( r 2 - 02)-li2
r 4 arctan [ a ( r 2 - a 2 ) - l R l
zz
= - -
lrA
I '(
b 2 + 2 z 2 + 2y
$1
2*
-3~92
Hol
- -41
a r 2 ( r 2 - a2)li2
where
APPENDIX 3
- HARDNESS TESTS
(Ref.: H. O ' N e i l l ,
Chapman
Brinell Test
A hard (tungsten carbide or hardened steel) spherical indenter i s used against the
smooth f l a t surface o f the test specimen (Fig. A2).
i s the load P divided by the curved surface area of plastic contact, expressed i n kgf/mm2.
B.H.N.
ITd (d
-,
2P
The B. H.
(D/d
N. varies with
const), i t i s a constant.
various materials, along w i t h a test duration; the latter commonly ranges between
10-60 seconds.
Meyer Test
Instead o f dividing by the curved contact area, the projected area i s used for the
Meyer Hardness Number, M. H. N. :
M.H.N.
4P
*D
A and n are constants for a given material, n being close to 2 for work-hardened and
2.5 for annealed materials. Thus
is
Vickers Test
A polished diamond square pyramidal indenter (Fig. A2b) i s pressed against the
test specimen.
The Vickers diamond hardness number (V. D.H.) is the ratio o f load t o
pressure i s
V.D.H.
= 0.9272~
A great advantage of this test i s its load independence, since geometrically similar
indentations are always produced.
Knoop Test
This test using a pyramidal indenter (Fig. A2c) produces an indentation i n the
shape of a severely skewed rhomboid,
shorter one, and elastic effects are nearly eliminated along the longer diagonal.
The
load can vary between 1 g t o 3 kg force, and i n the high load range the hardness i s
nearly independent o f the load.
Rockwell Test
The depth o f penetration i s measured for load applied i n two steps. The first load
(10 kgf) already leaves a plastic indentation; now the subsequent larger load (90 or
140 kgf) i s next applied, and then removed, leaving the impression to be measured.
The Rockwell
"0" test uses a spherical indenter, and i n the Rockwell "C"test the hemi-
"C"test
Microhardness Tests
Vickers pyramidal tests may be performed at low loads (below 200 gram force)
producing an indentation diagonal i n the range 30-50 pm.
t i o n w i t h a metallurgical microscope.
Shore Hardness Test
The modulus of elasticity of a rubber sample i s indicated by the penetration o f a
hard metallic indenter under controlled force.
rials, the Shore D test with a 5 kg force i s recommended; this test uses a conical indenter
w i t h a 30 deg included angle and a
0.1
mm spherical tip.
causes a decrease o f the hardness value measured after maximum penetration has been
achieved.
The speed of the indentation should be regulated also, for the same reason.
APPENDIX 4-
SURFACE TEXTURE
((May 1974) 41-51) have been devised, and two-dimensional surface coverage i s often
desirable (such measurements can be obtained,
RMS =
an
4 Xy2/,,
rv/n
AUTHOR INDEX
Abrahamson, E. P., 28
Abramowitz, A., 58
Aleinikov, F.K., 27
Andrews, J. P., 100, 122
Archard, J F., 5, 27, 103
Archer, J.S., 59
Argon, A.S., 100
.,
.,
.,
179
Jahanmir, S., 28
Jenkins, D.C., 294,317, 318, 319
Johnson, K. L., 23, 28, 64, 82, 100
Johnson, R.L., 4, 27
Johnson, W., 301, 313, 318, 319
128
158
318
277, 290
.,
100
McCool, J.I.,
12, 27
Vaessen, G.H.G.,
11, 27
Velusvarni, M.A., 51, 59
Vickers, G.W., 296, 313, 318, 319
Vogel, S.M., 80, 101
Volak, J., 110, 111, 128
Wahl, H., 104, 128
Walling, R.L., 158
Walowit, J.A., 70, 72, 101
Wang, H.C., 58, 59
Waterhouse, R. B., 14, 27, 205
Wayson, A.R., 14, 27, 205
Weber, J. R., 48, 58
Weibull, W., 115, 128
Wellinger, K., 27, 104, 105, 128, 179,
244, 245, 246, 249, 252, 253, 256,
263
Whitehouse, D. J., 103
Williams, J.H., 153, 154, 155, 158
Williamson, J.B.P., 85, 102
143, 144, 145, 146, 147,
Winter, R.E.,
148, 158
Yang, W., 299, 300, 318
Youssef, H., 27
Zaat, J.H., 172, 174, 175, 179
Zaretsky, E.V., 28
Zener, C , 59
SUBJECT INDEX
Abrasion, 104, 264
three-body, 7
two-body, 7
Abrasives, 1 11
Abrasive wear theory, 6
Abrasive wear constant, 8; 271, 276
Activation energy, 13, 178, 207
Adhering contact, 79, 81, 186
Adhesive wear constants, 6
Adhesive wear theory, 3
A i r flow, 136
Aircraft erosion, 317
Aluminum, 127, 134, 139, 145, 152,
168, 226, 304, 312
Aluminum oxide, 127, 134, 145
American Chemical Society, 20
Amontons's law 1, 19, 81
Annealed metal, 140, 143, 313
APL, 320
Archard's law, 5, 12, 16, 25
Arrhenius equation, 13
Asperities, 24, 84, 188
statistical analysis, 85
compliance, 87
impact, 88
Auerbach's law, 1 19
Ball testers, 24
Ballistic impact, 162, 245, 257
Bearings, 23
Boussinesq problem, 42
Brass, 31 3
Brinnel l hardness number, 327
Brittle erosion, 1 12, 152
Buckingham's *-theorem, 150
Butyl rubber, 93
Cadmium, 17
Cavitation erosion, 291
Carbon steel, 167, 193, 199, 226
Charring, 20, 285
Chattering, 175
Cobalt, 4
Coefficient of restitution, 31, 76, 99
Complex modulus, 75, 281
Computer programs, 320
Constraints, 21 0
Constraint factor, 63, 66
Contact,
apparent area, 3, 86
approach, 37
asperities, 84
cylinders, 41, 325
fatigue, 23, 25
fatigue apparatus, 25
pressures, 37
quadratic surfaces, 40
quantities, 39
real area, 4, 86
spheres, 37, 323
state o f stress, 43, 323
temperature, 13, 26
Contact Stress,
i n layered media, 70
plane strain, 82, 91
Copper, 143, 248, 309, 31 1
Corrosive wear, 12
Coulomb's law, 1, 19, 81, 184
Cracks, 15, 1 13, 156, 288, 302
C r i t i c a l velocity, 316
Cross-sectioning, 172, 249
Cutting wear, 122, 143
Crystal structure of metals, 4
Deformation energy, 246
Deformation wear, 122
Delamination, 285
theory o f wear, 15
Deposition, 134
Differential expansion, 78
Dimensional analysis, 150, 31 7
Dislocations, 15, 61
Dissipation factor, 76, 282
Drop test, 68, 73, 88, 95, 245
Ductile erosion, 106, 140, 152
Eccentric impact, 34
Elastic layers, 69
Elastomer, 17
Elasto-plastic contact stress, 62, 120
Electrical conductivity, 162, 176
Endurance limit, 312
Energy dissipation, 99, 246, 281
Engineering model, 10, 23, 147
Environmental temperature, 283
Erosion,
angle dependence, 105, 108, 109, 113,
118, 123, 126, 138, 153
brittle, 112, 152
causing ripples, 1 11
coefficient, 117
combined theory, 120
copper, 109
cutting theory, 106
empirical laws, 150, 154
liquids, 291
maximum, 108, 153
metals, 110
plateau, 133
primary, 132
secondary, 133, 145
soil, 149, 153
solid particles, 104
steel, 105, 109
testing apparatus, 105, 139, 144,
146, 309
velocity dependence, 108, 114, 142,
146
Etching, 161
Failure parameter, 21 0
Fatigue, 156, 288, 312
Finite element method, 55, 56, 64
Flash temperature, 92
Flat indenter, 43
Flaw distribution, 115
Flow pressure, 3, 62, 68, 142, 148, 277
Fluid stream, 136
Fluorite, 145
Forming, 157
Fragmentation, 129, 145
Fretting,
motion, 14, 228, 281
wear, 13, 25, 175, 195, 228
Friction, 3
coefficient of, 4, 21, 148, 267, 271
of polymers, 18
Gears, 23
Glancing impact, 32
Glass, 118, 152, 304, 306
erosives, 129, 139
Glass transition temperature, 17
Glass-fil led nylon, 285
Gradient method, 210
Graphite-epoxy, 153
Griffith's theory, 10
Grubin's equation, 22
Hammer, 51, 278
pivotal, 92, 169, 267
wear by polymers, 285
Hardness,
dynamic test, 67
elastic contact, 87
effect on erosion, 1 10
indium, 69
lead, 69
mapping, 172
testing, 327
Heat transfer, 92, 99, 281
Hertz contact, 36, 213
High-sliding speed, 186, 205, 266
High-speed photography, 130, 146, 292
Hyper-velocity impact; 292
Mass matrix, 57
Master curve solution, 220, 242, 253,261
Matrix printing, 272
Measurable wear, 181, 206, 255
Meyer hardness number, 142, 327
Microhardness, 161, 259, 329
M.I.T.,
15
Moderate sliding speed, 186, 205, 265
Moh's hardness scale, 145
Molybdenum disulfide, 15
Monel, 175
Munroe jet, 294
Murphy's toughness criterion, 149
Newtonian liquids, 21, 88
Nondimensional curvature, 214, 262
Nylon, 135
Optimal wear-path, 207, 241, 250
Overstress, 282
Oxidative wear, 12, 13
Oxides, 165, 228
Peening, 156
Penetration, 139
Percussion, 29
center of, 35
Pin-and-disk machine, 15
Pits, 309
Plastic,
deformation, 25, 62, 84, 88, 119,
139, 141, 146, 156, 228,248, 257,
302, 315
displacement, 16
Plasticity index, 87
Plating, 157
Plexiglas, 77, 293, 302, 303, 310, 313
Plowing, 106, 141
friction, 7
Point-matching, 79
Polishing, 8
Polycarbonate, 285
Polyester urethane, 288
Poi ymers, 17, 277, 302
wear, 277
Polypropylene, 135
Polyurethane, 278
Polyvinyl fluoride, 285
Pressure-viscosity parameter, 91
Printing, 264
Print wires, 272
in,