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DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
(Contains Hard to Find I, II, III, IV, and V with index)
Volume 1
Jim Burke
distjimb@aol.com
109 Dorchester Pines Court
Cary, NC 27511
Jim Burke
Table of Contents
I.
PREFACE.................................................................................................................................................. 6
II.
III.
TRANSFORMERS ................................................................................................................................. 20
A.
B.
C.
D.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
PRIMARY ............................................................................................................................................. 35
RELAYS ................................................................................................................................................ 35
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION .............................................................................................................. 36
GENERAL............................................................................................................................................. 36
XII.
XIII.
COSTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
A. GENERAL............................................................................................................................................. 42
XIV.
RELIABILITY DATA............................................................................................................................ 44
XV.
XVI.
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 50
XVIII.
CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ 50
XIX.
DISTRIBUTED RESOURCES.............................................................................................................. 51
XX.
RELIABILITY ........................................................................................................................................ 53
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
XXI.
XXII.
LOADING ............................................................................................................................................... 57
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
XXIII.
XXIV.
DECIBELS .............................................................................................................................................. 65
XXV.
XXVI.
XXX.
XXXI.
INDEX.116
Burke
Bio....119
I.
Preface
There have been little tidbits of information I have accumulated over the past 40 years that have helped
me understand and analyze distribution systems. I have pinned them to my wall, taped them to my
computer, stuffed them in my wallet and alas, copied them for my students. Much of them are hard, if
not impossible, to find in any reference book. A large percentage of them could also be classified as
personal opinion so they should be used carefully. For whatever, I hope they are as useful to you as
they have been to me.
Over the many years, this document has taken on a life of its own. There have been many suggestions
and much help from so many distribution engineers that it is impossible to thank all of you. From the
new topics such as stray voltage and grounding to the many surveys weve all done together
(lightning, loading, etc) and finally the less serious sections like Ways We Scare Ourselves and
Airline Cabin Announcements, this has been a lot of fun to work on.
Jim Burke 8/05
B. Fault Levels
There are two types of faults, low impedance and high impedance. A high impedance fault is
considered to be a fault that has a high Z due to the contact of the conductor to the earth, i.e., Zf is high.
By this definition, a bolted fault at the end of a feeder is still classified as a low impedance fault. A
summary of findings on faults and their effects is as follows:
138 kV Distribution
Substation Transformer
ISC = 10,000 A
13.8 kV
Feeder Breaker
S
Normally Open Tie Switch
Distribution
Transformers
4-15 Holmes/Transformer
R
Switched Capacitor
Bank (=600 kVAR)
FCI
FCI
Normally Open Tie
Underground Lateral
Normally Open Tie
Pothead
Elbow Disconnect
10000
Bolted Fault
1000
Z Fault = 2 Ohms
100
0
10
15
20
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
20
WET GRASS
DRY GRASS
DRY SOD
40
WET SAND
60
WET SOD
80
Type of
Figure 3. High impedance fault current levels
Fault
Current
Load Current
2 Sec
2 Sec
Recloser
Lockout
2 Sec
(Contacts
Open)
(Contacts
Closed)
Fault
Initiated
Time
Reclosing Intervals
(Contacts Open)
Line Recloser
Isc
30
Cycles
5
Seconds
15
Seconds
30
Seconds
Dead Time
These reclosing sequences produce inrush primarily resulting from the connected transformer kVA. This
inrush current is high and can approach the actual fault current level in many instances. Figure 5 shows
the relative magnitude of these currents. What keeps most protective devices from operating is that the
duration of the inrush is generally short and as a consequence will not melt a fuse or operate a time
delay relay.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Transformers
Laterals
Feeders
Location
When a lateral fuse misoperates, it is probably not the result of this loss of diversity, i.e., the fuse is
overloaded. This condition is rare on most laterals. Relay operation during cold load pickup is generally
the result of a trip of the instantaneous unit and probably results from high inrush. Likewise, an FCI
operation would not appear to be the result of loss of diversity but rather the high inrush currents. Since
inrush occurs during all energization and not just as a result of cold load pickup, it can be concluded
that cold load pickup is not a major factor in the application of FCls.
10
3 2 l
Where Z is the line impedance and 2Z is the loop impedance assuming the impedance of the phase
conductor and the neutral conductor are equal (some people use a 1.5 factor).
Line-to-Line Faults =
2l
3
Line-to-Line =
2( + l )
where
ZT =
l = RL2 + 2L
Z T % 10 E 2
kVA
11
2)
3)
Two expulsion fuses cannot be coordinated if the available fault current is great enough
to indicate an interruption of less than .8 cycles.
4)
5)
6)
Capacitor protection:
7)
12
The fuse should be rated for 165% of the normal capacitor current. The fuse should
also clear within 300 seconds for the minimum short circuit current.
If current exceeds the maximum case rupture point, a current limiting fuse must be
used.
Current limiting fuses should be used if a single parallel group exceeds 300 KVAR.
Transformer
Self protected - weak link is selected to be about 2 1/2 times the continuous when
no secondary breaker is used (which means that minimum melt is in the area of 4 to
6 times rating).
Back-Up current limiting - the expulsion and CLF are usually coordinated such that
the minimum melt I2t of the expulsion fuse is equal to or less than that of the back up
CLF.
8)
Conductor burn down - not as great a problem today because loads are higher and
hence conductors are larger.
9)
General purpose - one which will successfully clear any current from its rated maximum
interrupting current down to the current that will cause melting of the fusible element in
one hour.
10)
Back up - one which will successfully clear any current from its rated maximum
interrupting down to the rated minimum interrupting current, which may be at the 10
second time period on the minimum melting time-current curve.
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
The maximum voltage produced by a C.L. fuse typically will not exceed 3.1 times the
fuse rated maximum voltage.
17)
The minimum sparkover allowed for a gapped arrester is 1.5 x 1.414 = 2.1 times
arrester rating.
18)
General practice is to keep the minimum sparkover of a gapped arrester at about 2.65 x
arrester rating.
19)
J. Capacitor Fusing
1)
Purpose of fusing:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2)
Recommended rating:
a. The continuous-current capability of the fuse should be at least 165 percent of
the normal capacitor-bank (for delta and floating wye banks the factor may be
reduced to 150 percent if necessary).
b. The total clearing characteristics of the fuse link must be coordinated with the
capacitor case bursting curves.
3)
Tests have shown that expulsion fuse links will not satisfactorily protect against violent
rupture where the fault current through the capacitor is greater than 5000 amperes.
4)
The capacitor bank may be connected in a floating wye to limit short-circuit current to
less than 5000 amperes.
5)
Inrush - for a single bank, the inrush current is always less than the short-circuit value
at the bank location.
13
6)
Inrush - for parallel banks, the inrush current is always much greater than for a single
bank.
7)
8)
9)
The fuse link rating should be such that the link will melt in 300 seconds at 240 to 350
percent of normal load current.
10)
The fuse link rating should be such that it melts in one second at not over 220 amperes
and in .015 seconds at not over 1700 amperes.
11)
The fuse rating must be chosen through the use of melting time-current characteristics
curves, because fuse links of the same rating, but of different types and makes have a
wide variation in the melting time at 300 seconds and at high currents.
12)
13)
Manufacturers normally recommend that the group fuse size be limited by the 50%
probability curve or the upper boundary of Zone 1.
14)
Short circuit current in an open wye bank is limited to approximately 3 times normal
current.
15)
Current limiting fuses can be used for delta or grounded wye banks provided there is
sufficient short circuit current to melt the fuse within cycle.
K. Conductor Burndown
Conductor burndown is a function of (1) conductor size (2) whether the wire is bare or covered (3) the
magnitude of the fault current (4) climatic conditions such as wind and (5) the duration of the fault
current.
If burndown is less of a problem today than in years past it must be attributed to the trend of using
heavier conductors and a lesser use of covered conductors. However, extensive outages and hazards
to life and property still occur as the result of primary lines being burned down by flashover, tree
branches failing on lines, etc. Insulated conductors, which are used less and less, anchor the arc at one
14
point and thus are the most susceptible to being burned down. With bare conductors, except on multigrounded neutral circuits, the motoring action of the current flux of an arc always tends to propel the arc
along the line away from the power source until the arc elongates sufficiently to automatically extinguish
itself. However, if the arc encounters some insulated object, the arc will stop traveling and may cause
line burndown.
With tree branches falling on bare conductors, the arc may travel away and clear itself; however, the arc
will generally re-establish itself at the original point and continue this procedure until the line burns down
or the branch falls off the line. Limbs of soft spongy wood are more likely to burn clear than hard wood.
However one-half inch diameter branches of any wood, which cause a flashover, are apt to burn the
lines down unless the fault is cleared quickly enough.
Figure 7 shows the burndown characteristics of several weatherproof conductors. Arc damage curves
are given as arc is extended by traveling along the phase wire, it is extinguished but may be reestablished across the original path. Generally, the neutral wire is burned down.
L. Device Numbers
The devices in the switching equipment are referred to by numbers, with appropriate suffix letters (when
necessary), according to the functions they perform. These numbers are based on a system which has
been adopted as standard for automatic switchgear by the American Standards Association.
15
Device No.
11
24
27
43
50
51
52
64
67
78
87
M. Protection Abbreviations
CS -Control Switch
X - Auxiliary Relay
Y - Auxiliary Relay
YY - Auxiliary Relay
Z - Auxiliary Relay
1)
To denote the location of the main device in the circuit or the type of circuit in which the device is
used or with which it is associated, or otherwise identify its application in the circuit or
equipment, the following are used:
N Neutral
SI - Seal-in
16
2)
To denote parts of the main device (except auxiliary contacts as covered under below), the
following are used:
H - High set unit of relay
L - Low set unit of relay
OC - Operating coil
RC - Restraining coil
TC - Trip coil
3)
To denote parts of the main device such as auxiliary contacts (except limit-switch contacts
covered under 3 above) which move as part of the main device and are not actuated by external
means. These auxiliary switches are designated as follows:
a" - closed when main device is in energized or operated position
"b - closed when main device is in de-energized or non-operated position.
4)
To indicate special features, characteristics, the conditions when the contacts operate, or are
made operative or placed in the circuit, the following are used:
AERHRMTDCTDDOTDO-
Automatic
Electrically Reset
Hand Rest
Manual
Time-delay Closing
Time-delay Dropping Out
Time-delay Opening
To prevent any possible conflict, one letter or combination of letters has only one meaning on
individual equipment. Any other words beginning with the same letter are written out in full each
time, or some other distinctive abbreviation is used.
2x Load (Minimum)
1 Lateral
2x Full Load
(Minimum)
2x Full Load
(Minimum)
17
There are few things more confusing in distribution engineering than trying to find out rules of
overcurrent coordination, i.e., what size fuse to pick or where to set a relay, etc. The patented (just
kidding) Burke 2X Rule states that when in doubt pick a device of twice the rating of what it is you're
trying to protect as shown in Figure 8. This rule picks the minimum value you should normally consider
and is generally as good as any of the much more complicated approaches you might see. For various
reasons, you might want to go higher than this, which is usually OK. To go lower, you will generally get
into trouble. Once exception to this rule is the fusing of capacitors where minimum size fusing is
important to prevent case rupture.
O. Lightning Characteristics
1)
Stroke currents
a.
b.
c.
2)
3)
4)
50
21
3
5)
Direct strokes to T line - 1 per mile per year with keraunic levels between 30 and 65.
6)
7)
18
Col. 1
Urban Circuits
Col. 2
Semi-urban Circuits
Col. 3
Rural Circuits
Col. 4
Discharge Circuits
20%
35%
45%
1,000 amps
1.6%
7%
12%
5,000 amps
.55%
3.5%
6%
10,000 amps
.12%
.9%
2.4%
20,000 amps
.4%
40,000 amps
8)
12 operations.
P. Arc Impedence
While arcs are quite variable, a commonly accepted value for currents between 70 and 20,000 amperes
has been an arc drop of 440V per foot, essentially independent of current magnitude.
Zarc =
440 l / I
I = current
Assume:
IF = 500 amperes = I
Arc length = 2 ft.
Zarc =
440 2/5000
= .176 ohms
19
III.
Transformers
A. Saturation Curve
Figure 9
B. Insulation Levels
The following table gives the American standard test levels for insulation of distribution transformers.
Table 3
Windings
Bushings
Impulse Tests
(1.2 x 50 Wave)
Chopped Wave
Insulation
Class and
Nominal
Bushing
Rating
Minimum Time to
Full
60-cycle One-
60-cycle 10-
Impulse 1.2 x 50
Dielectric
Flashover
Wave
minute Dry
second Wet
Wave
Tests
kV
kV
kV
Microseconds
kV
kV (Rms)
kV (Rms)
kV (Crest)
1.2
10
36
1.0
10
10
30
21
20
60
5.0
19
69
1.5
60
8.66
26
88
1.6
75
27
24
75
1.8
95
35
30
95
70
60
150
15.0
34
110
25.0
40
145
1.9
125
34.5
70
175
3.0
150
95
95
200
3.0
250
120
120
250
3.0
350
175
175
350
46.0
69.0
20
Lowfrequency
95
140
290
400
C. -Y Transformer Banks
The following is a review of fault current magnitudes for various secondary faults on a -Y transformer
bank connection:
D. Transformer Loading
When the transformer is overloaded, the high temperature decreases the mechanical strength and
increases the brittleness of the fibrous insulation. Even though the insulation strength of the unit may
not be seriously decreased, transformer failure rate increases due to this mechanical brittleness.
Insulation life of the transformer is where it loses 50% of its tensile strength. A transformer
may continue beyond its predicted life if it is not disturbed by short circuit forces, etc.
The temperature of top oil should never exceed 100 degrees C for power transformers with
a 55 degree average winding rise insulation system. Oil overflow or excessive pressure
could result.
The temperature of top oil should not exceed 110C for those with a 65C average winding
rise.
Hot spot should not exceed 150C for 55C systems and 180C for 65C systems. Exceeding
these temperature could result in free bubbles that could weaken dielectric strength.
21
Standards recommend that the transformer should be operated for normal life expectancy.
In the event of an emergency, a 2.5% loss of life per day for a transformer may be
acceptable.
Percent Daily Load for Normal Life Expectancy with 30C Cooling Air
Table 4
Duration of
Peak load
Hours
0.5
1
2
4
8
22
70%
178
149
132
117
107
90%
164
139
124
113
106
IV.
Instrument Transformers
A. Two Types
1) Potential (Usually 120v secondary)
2) Current (5 amps secondary at rated primary current)
B. Accuracy
3 factors will influence accuracy:
1) Design and construction of transducer
2) Circuit conditions (V, I and f)
3) Burden (in general, the higher the burden, the greater the error)
C. Potential Transformers
IN
OU
RCF=
True Ratio
Marked Ratio
E2
Zb
Burden is measured in VA VA =
Assume:
10:1
10V
True Ratio =
10
.9
.9v
= 11.1
RCF =
Marked Ratio =
Zb
10
1
11.1
10
= 1.11
= 10
23
Voltage at secondary is low and must be compensated by 11% to get the actual primary voltage using
the marked ratio.
D. Current Transformer
True Ratio = Marked Ratio X RCF
True Ratio
RCF =
Marked Ratio
E. H-Class
Vs is fixed
Is varies
5 amp
Bushing CTs tend to be accurate more on high currents (due to large core and less saturation)
than other types.
2)
At low currents, BCT's are less accurate due to their larger exciting currents.
3)
24
4)
Accuracy calculations need to be made only for three-phase and single-phase to ground faults.
5)
6)
7)
The reactance of a tapped coil varies as the square of the coil turns, and the resistance varies
approximately as the turns.
8)
9)
10)
"Ratio correction factor is defined as that factor by which the marked ratio of a current
transformer must be multiplied to obtain the true ratio. These curves are considered standard
application data.
11)
The secondary-excitation-curve method of accuracy determination does not lend itself to general
use except for bushing-type, or other, CT's with completely distributed secondary leakage, for
which the secondary leakage reactance is so small that it may be assumed to be zero.
12)
The curve of rms terminal voltage versus rms secondary current is approximately the
secondary-excitation curve for the test frequency.
13)
g. The higher the number after the letter, the better the CT.
h. A given l200/5 busing CT with 240 secondary turns is classified as l0L400: if a 120-turn
completely distributed tap is used, then the applicable classification is 10L200.
i.
For the same voltage and error classifications, the H transformer is better than the L for
currents up to 20 times rated.
25
26
current enters at the polarity end of the primary winding, a current in phase with it leaves the polarity end
of the secondary winding. Representation of primary marks on wiring diagrams are shown as black
squares.
Hazardous Open-Circulating - operation of CTs with the secondary winding open can result in a high
voltage across the secondary terminals which may be dangerous to personnel or equipment. Therefore,
the secondary terminals should always be short circuited before a meter is removed from service. This
may be done automatically with a by-pass in the socket or by a test switch for A-base meters.
27
2/3 kVAR
100% Load
100% Load
"Place 100% of load at 1/2 point on the feeder to obtain the same voltage drop as the voltage at
the end of the feeder for a uniform distribution load."
28
Wire Size
Amps
6
4
2
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
336
397
565
795
55
75
105
145
170
200
240
330
370
480
620
2)
3)
4)
5)
Most common method to find fault is radar with a thumper, followed by a thumper by
itself then an FCI.
6)
Most utilities use an insulating jacket type, followed by the use of the semi-conducting
jacket.
7)
30% use fiber optics in the underground system for telephone, SCADA, computer-tocomputer, video, etc.
8)
9)
29
C. Impedance of Cable
Impedance of the main feeder is:
1)
2)
2)
3)
4)
Table 6
30
Voltage - Customer shall not cause voltage excursions. Any voltage excursions must
be disconnected within 1 second.
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
31
32
1)
V = Voltage
A = Current
K = 1000
Capacitors connected in parallel: CTotal = C1 + C2 + C3 + - -
2)
CTotal =
C1 x C2
C1 + C2
CTotal =
1
+
1 + 1
C1
C2
3)
4)
5)
1
C3
+ --
Reactance Xc (Capacitive)
a.
Xc =
106
(2f)C
b.
Xc =
2653
C
b.
Xc =
KV2 x 103
KVAR
Capacitance C
a.
C=
b.
C=
106
(2f) Xc
KVAR x 103
(2f)(KV)2
Capacitive Kilovars
a.
KVAR =
(2f)C (KV)2
103
b.
KVAR =
103 (KV)2
Xc
33
6)
Miscellaneous
a.
Power Factor =
Tan
34
KVAR
KW
Cos
KW
KVA
X. European Practices
A. Primary
European
Generator
EHV
400 kV
500 kV
765 kV
345 kV
500 kV
765 kV
Distribution System
MV
33 kV
22 kV
11 kV
HV
36 kV to
300 kV
34.5 kV
69 kV
115 kV
138 kV
230 kV
34.5 kV
24.9 kV
13.8 kV
13.2 kV
12.47 kV
380/222V
416/240V
120/240V
208/120V
United States
Figure 15. European / US Voltage Levels
Secondary
Europe
U.K.
U.S.
416Y/240V, 3, 4-Wire
208Y/120V, 3, 4-Wire
&
1, 120/240V, 3-Wire
B. Relays
35
Based on the premise that all loads are 3 phase and balance
Considers the effect of line capacitance mismatch
Uses residual current
D. General
phase angle must occur within a specified range (makes capacitor application difficult)
Table 7
KV
33
22
11
kA
25
20
20
U.S.
120/240
1-phase transformers heavily overloaded 25
kVA typical.
4 homes/transformer fairly typical
Higher load density
Fuses are typically expulsion
36
Europe
380 Wye/220, 4-wire.
416 Wye/240, 4-wire (UK)
Residential units in 300-500 kVA range No
overload
100 to 200 dwellings per transformer 3-phase
xfrms >> $ 1-phase 5 to 10 radial, 3-phase, 4-wire
secondary feeds, per transformer
Less load per home than U.S.
Fuses are current limiting
132 kV
33 kV
Zig-Zag Resistance
Grounded
No Fuses
Clearing Time 5-8 Cycles
Distance (sometimes) and Overcurrent
Zone 1-5-8 Cycles
Zone 2-30-33
33 kV
11 kV
Uniground
37
B. Sags
Typical number of customer sags caused by the utility system 50
Typical number of customer sags for all causes 350
*Voltage below .9 PU of nominal
Harmonics
IEEE P519A
Filter Design Task Force
Task Force on Harmonic Limits for Single Phase
Equipment
Transients
OEEEA NSI C62
38
Transients
Impulsive
Oscillatory
nsec to msec
3 msec
Typical Voltage
Magnitude
na
0.8 pu
Short Duration
Variations
Instantaneous Sag
.5 30 cycles
0.1 0.9 pu
Instantaneous Swell
Momentary
Interruption
Momentary Sag
Momentary Swell
Temporary
Interruption
Temporary Sag
Temporary Swell
.5 30 cycles
1.1 1.8 pu
30 cycles 3 sec
30 cycles 3 sec
0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 1.4 pu
3 sec 1 min
3 sec 1 min
3 sec 1 min
0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 1.4 pu
Sustained Interruption
Longer 1 minute
0.0 pu
Undervoltage
Overvoltage
Longer 1 minute
Longer 1 minute
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Intermittent
0.8 0.9 pu
1.1 1.2 pu
.5 2%
.05 2%
0 20%
0 20%
NA
0 1%
0.1 7%
NA
Typical Duration
Categories
Long Duration
Variations
Voltage Imbalance
Waveform Distortion
Voltage Fluctuations
Power Frequency
Variations
DC Offset
Harmonics
Inter-harmonics
Notching
Noise
39
Commercial $/kWh
Industrial $/kWh
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
$0.1067
$0.1761
$0.1672
$0.1482
$0.1328
$0.1279
$0.1690
$0.0899
$0.0732
$0.1058
$0.0998
$0.1039
$0.0720
$0.0950
Table 11
State
National Rank
New York
$0.156
Pennsylvania
$0.152
Pennsylvania
$0.148
Pennsylvania
$0.146
New York
$0.137
Massachusetts
$0.137
Hawaii
$0.136
Massachusetts
$0.135
Massachusetts
$0.131
New York
$0.130
10
Hawaii
$0.125
11
Connecticut
$0.124
12
40
Table 12
State
Idaho
National Rank
$0.041
191
Washington
$0.043
192
Washington
$0.044
189
Oregon
$0.047
188
Idaho
$0.047
187
Kentucky
$0.051
186
Oregon
$0.052
185
Washington
$0.053
184
Dist. of Col.
$0.054
183
Minnesota
$0.054
182
Oregon
$0.055
181
Tennessee
$0.056
180
41
XIII. Costs
A. General
1)
2)
3)
$ 704/kW
$ 99/kW
$ 666/kW
$1469/kW
$ 9/kVAR
$ 5.5/kVAR
$ 21/kVAR
Transformers (installed)
a. Single phase padmounts (installed)
12.5 kV (loop feed)
25 kVA
$2552
$3119
50 kVA
$2986
$3931
75 kVA
$3591
$4725
100 kVA
$4972
$5728
75 kVA
$ 7,749
$10,584
150
$ 9,450
$11,605
300
$11,718
$15,574
500
$13,608
$20,034
750
$21,357
$21,377
1000
$25,515
$28,350
1500
$40,824
2500
$50,841
NOTE: Above costs include necessary cable terminations, pads, misc. material and transformer,
but no primary or secondary cable.
42
4)
5)
$3,348,000
$1,026,000
$4,050,000
$3,960,000
$5,040,000
Miscellaneous costs:
a. Cable (approximate)
6)
$
90/ft
$
38/ft
$
63/ft
$ 2,698
$ 2,822
$ 20,871
$ 11,203
$ 11,367
7)
Mainline, conduit
Mainline, D.B.
Lateral, conduit
Install transformer
Change out transformer
Install - 3 switch
Replace - 3 switch
Install - 1 fuse switch
1 - $180/ft.
3 - $360/ft.
43
44
SAIDI - 96 min/yr.
SAIFI - 1.18 interruptions/yr.
CAIDI - 81.4 min/yr.
Failure Rate
6/100 mi-yr (conductor miles)
10/100 mi-yr (circuit miles)
0.4%/yr
0.62%/yr
0.3%/yr
0.12%/yr
0.12%/yr
0.1%/yr
0.2%/yr
.01%/yr
.06%/yr
.06%/yr
.02%/yr
b.
Electromagnetic Field
Permanent Magnet Field
Series Field Only
KVA I HP
1.0
0.95
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.8
45
c.
Reduced-voltage Starters
Table 14
Reduced-Voltage Starter Type
Autotransformer 50% tap
Autotransformer 65% tap
Autotransformer 80% tap
Wye-delta
Part-Winding
Primary Resistor 80% tap
Primary Resistor 65% tap
d. Characteristics of Motors
DC Motors
Advantage of DC Motor is that the torque-speed characteristic can be varied over
a wide range and still have high efficiency
3 Basic Types - Shunt, Series and Compound
Shunt - In this motor the field current is independent of the armature having been
diverted (shunted) through its own separate winding. Increasing the field current
actually causes the motor to slow down. Torque and power however are higher.
Series - The series motor is identical in construction to the shunt motor except the
field is connected in series with the armature. At startup, armature current is high,
so flux is high and torque is high. If load decreases, speed goes up. Series
motors are for high torque, low speed applications such as the starter motor of a
car or the motors used for electric locomotives.
Compound - A compound motor carries both a series field and a shunt field. The
shunt field is always stronger. As load increases, the shunt field remains the same
but the series field increases. At no load it looks like a shunt motor.
The diagram shown below illustrates the basic characteristics of these motors:
46
Induction Motors
Figure 19
Synchronous Motors
e. Adjustable-Speed Drives
Adjustable speed drives have the advantage of being both efficient and reliable
Used for compressors, pumps, and fans that have variable-torque requirements
Six basic types:
DC drive with DC motor
Voltage-source inverter with induction motor
Slip-energy recovery system with wound-rotor motor
Current-source inverter with induction motor
Load-commutated inverter with synchronous motor
Cycloconverter drive for either a synchronous or an induction motor
The figure, shown below, is a one line diagram for a typical current-source inverter. The
current-source inverter has a phase controlled rectifier that provides a DC input to a six-step
inverter. The reactor provides some filtering. Control of the inverter serves to regulate current
and frequency, rather than voltage and frequency as with the voltage-source inverter.
47
48
E dA =
B d A = 0
Generalized Amperes law
B ds = I +
0
0 0
d
E dA
dt s
Faradays law
E ds =
d
B dA
dt s
Got that!!!!!!!!
49
Hard to Find.Part II
XVII. Introduction
Since Part I was a huge success, I decided to write Part II to address issues Im seeing as a result of deregulation. As usual, many of the topics are completely unrelated and it is questionable if they have
anything to do with the major theme. They are simply things that I see from time to time that keep
cropping up and I forget where the reference material I found on that topic might be. So, I put them
here!!!!
As usual, some things in this document are not guaranteed. I have tried to find good sources for the
majority of this material. Personally, I only write what I believe and try very hard to make it correct, as
well as useful
Finally, a note to the New Engineer: Computer programs are useful but understanding stuff is a lot
better!!!!!
XVIII. Contents
Part II is meant to supplement the original document. Part I is the blue collar stuff that makes the
traditional distribution engineer impossible to replace. Part II addresses some old issues (that needed
some updating) and some new issues (that have become important in this de-regulated environment).
Anyway, I hope they are some use to you. Some of the topics covered are:
Distributed Resources
Reliability
Modern Physics
Communications
Custom Power
Maintenance
Decibels
Computer Jargon 101
Equipment Loading
Cost of Interruption
Interesting Points
DR Efficiencies
Technical Specifications
51
Hard to Find.Part II
DR Costs
Wind Systems
Fuel Cells
Solar (home, installed)
Solar panels
Batteries
Backup Generator
Inverter
UPS
Motor/Generator
SMES
Capacitor
Flywheel
Microturbines
Reciprocating Engine
Reliability
1. Typical Equipment Failure Rates
Cable Primary
Cable Secondary
Switch (Loop)
Elbow
Splice
Fuse (transformer)
Circuit Breaker
Bus
Station Transformer
Overhead Line
Distribution Transformer
Lateral Cable
.03
.11
.05
.0067
.0068
.005
.0066
.22
.02
.2
.005
.1
Frequency
XX.
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
5 kV
15 kV
25 kV
Lightning
Tree
Equip.
Other
Total
Cause
3. Effect of Major Events
Major Event
Included
YEAR SAIDI SAIFI MAIFI
1990 202
2.3
1.6
1991 360
2.4
1.7
1992 225
1.9
1.5
1993 161
1.7
1.4
1994 153
1.7
1.3
1995 187
2.8
2.3
1996 168
1.9
1.6
1997 560
2.8
1.8
1998 230
2.4
2
Major Events
Excluded
SAIDI SAIFI MAIFI
145
1.8
1.4
143
1.8
1.5
150
1.7
1.4
151
1.6
1.2
149
1.6
1.1
145
1.5
1.4
147
1.6
1.2
166
1.8
2.4
140
1.7
1.7
53
4. Indice Definitions
SAIFI [system average interruption
frequency index (sustained interruptions)].
The system average interruptions
frequency index is designed to give
information about the average frequency of
sustained interruptions per customer over a
predefined area. In words, the definition is:
total number of customer
Interruptions
total number of customers
SAIFI =
served
SAIDI
SAIFI
110 min/yr
min/yr
CAIDI
1.4 int/yr
79
SAIFI =
NT
SAIDI =
r N
i
r N
N
i
54
NT
CAIDI =
SAIDI
SAIFI
MAIFI e =
ID N
e
NT
5. Voltage Sags
SARFI %V =
NT
SARFI 90 50
SARFI 70 20
SARFI 50 10
SARFI 10 5
Typical number of sags for all causes = 350
Typical number of momentaries for all causes =
10
6. Interruption Survey
7. Loading
Increased loading of equipment will take life out of the equipment and could ultimately contribute to
equipment failure. The following are some important considerations when overloading equipment, especially
transformers:
Insulation life of a transformer is when it loses 50% of its insulation strength.
The temperature of top oil should never exceed 110C for transformers having a 65C average
winding rise.
Peak short duration loading should never exceed 200%.
Hot spot should never exceed 180C for 65C systems due to the possibility of free bubbles that
could weaken insulation strength. Under normal conditions, hot spot should not exceed 130C.
Transformers should be operated for normal life expectancy.
A 2.5% loss of life per day may be acceptable in the event of an emergency.
55
Color Charge The so called color force does not fall off with distance and is as follows:
Red
Blue
Green
Quarks Quarks are the fundamental particles (called fermions) of nature. There are 6:
Up Quark
Down Quark
Charmed Quark
Strange Quark
Top Quark
Bottom
Quark
56
Hard to Find.Part II
XXII. Loading
Probably no area of distribution engineering causes more confusion then does loading. Reading
the standards does not seem to help much since everyone appears to have their own
interpretation. Manufacturers of equipment are very conservative since they really never know
how the user will actually put the product to use so they must expect the worst. On the other
hand, many users seem to take the approach that since it didnt fail last year with traditional
overloading values, it wont fail this year either. In fact, it wont fail until after retirement. Heck!
Save a Buck and Get a Promotion. The author of this document is not a psychology major and
frankly has no idea of what the thinking was when much of the following was produced. The
material that follows, however, was taken from sources with excellent reputation. Use it with
caution!
All modern transformers have insulation systems designed for operation at 65C
average winding temperature and 80C hottest-spot winding rise over ambient in an
average ambient of 30C. This means:
(OLD system: 55C winding rise + 30C ambient = 85C average winding temperature
65C hotttest spot + 30C ambient = 95C hottest spot)
Notice that 95C is the average winding temperature for the new insulation system
and the hottest spot for the old. A source of immense confusion for many of us.
The temperature of the top oil should not exceed 100C. Obviously, top oil
temperature is always less than hottest spot.
The maximum hot-spot temperature should not exceed 150C for a 55C rise
transformer or 180C for a 65C rise transformer.
Peak .5 hour loading should not exceed 200%
The conditions of 30C ambient temperature and 100% load factor establish the basis
of transformer ratings.
The ability of the transformer to carry more than nameplate rating under certain
conditions without exceeding 95C is basically due to the fact that top oil temperature
does not instantaneously follow changes in transformer load due to thermal storage.
An average loss of life of 1% per year (or 5% in any emergency) incurred during
emergency operations is considered reasonable.
Most companies do not allow normal daily peaks to exceed the permissible load for
normal life expectancy.
The firm capacity is usually the load that the substation can carry with one supply line
or one transformer out of service.
Portable fans
Water spray
This next example shows the loading practice of various utilities for substation transformers:
Normal
Condtions
Top Oil
Hotspot
Utility
A
95
125
Utility
B
110
130
Emergency
Top Oil
Hot Spot
110
140
110
140
Utility
C
95
120
Utility
D
95
110
110
140
110
130
Utility
E
95
120
Utility
F
110
140
110
140
110
140
Utility
G
110
120
110
140
What happens when the hotspot is raised from 125C to 130C? This is shown as follows:
Maximum Hotspot
125
130
An example of the effect of load cycle (3 hour peak with 70% pre-load for 13 hours and 45%
load for 8 hours) and ambient on transformer capability via the ANSI guide is shown below:
Transformer
Type
20000 - OA
30,000
15000/2000 28,700
OA/FA
27,500
12000/16000/
20000
OA/FA/FOA
20000 FOA
27,500
58
24,200
23,800
28,400
27,500
32,000
30,700
23,200
26,800
29,700
23,200
26,800
29,700
The following is the effect on transformer ratings for various limits of top oil temperature:
MVA
50
55
59
Normal Rating
New Rating
Emergency Rating
3. Distribution Transformers
The loading of distribution transformers varies more widely than substation units. Some utilities
try to never exceed the loading of the transformer nameplate. Others, particularly those using
TLM, greatly overload smaller distribution transformers with no apparent increase in failure rates.
An example of one utilities practice is as follows:
KVA
25
50
75
100
Padmounted
Install Range Removal Point
0-40
55
41-69
88
70-105
122
106-139
139
Submersible
Install Range Removal Point
0-34
42
35-64
79
65-112
112
113-141
141
Conductor
Size
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
267
336
397
ACSR
Normal
Emergency
319
365
420
479
612
711
791
331
379
435
496
641
745
830
All Aluminum
Normal
Emergency
318
369
528
497
576
671
747
334
388
450
523
606
705
786
59
Station Transformer
Current Transformer
Breakers
Reactors
Disconnects
Regulators
140%
125%
110%
140%
110%
150%
60
61
62
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
63
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
64
XXIV. Decibels
Heres some interesting information on decibels:
Decibels
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 db
30 db
70 db
100 db
120 db
Power Change
1.25
1.58
2.0
2.5
3.15
4.0
5.0
6.3
7.9
Decibels
10
11
12
13
14
15
20
30
40
Power Change
10.0
12.6
15.8
20.0
25.1
31.6
100
1000
10000
65
66
67
Type of Industrial
/Commercial
Electrical Products
Crude Petroleum
Machinery
Paper Products
Logging
Printing and Publishing
Primary Textiles
Transportation
Textile
Automotive
General Merchandise
Household Furniture
Personal Services
Entertainment
68
Fuse Cutout
Gang Operated Switch
Disconnect Switch
OCR
DA Load Break
DA Recloser
$1300
$5500
$2500
$9000
$33,000
$40,000
69
TRANSFORMERS
Overall dielectric
DGA,
onlineVHF/UHF PD
SWITCHGEAR
Drive contact
position, constant
velocity,
vibrational
analysis, trip-coil
current
Tap Changer
dynamic resistance,
drive power
Secondary
System trip-coil
current
Bushing loss
angle, capacitance
Overall Dielectric
online PD,
vacuum leak
testing
CABLE
PD Techniques
0.1 Hz off-line
detection and
localization,
online VHF
detection,
single/double
sided localization
in point to point
cables and
branched
networks
Diel
Spectrosocopy
loss angle,
capacitance
GENERATORS
Stator/Rotor
Windings insulator
resistance,
conductor
resistance
,polarization index,
loss angle,
capacitance PD
measurement, high
voltage tests, video
endoscopy
Core no load
losses
Paper - furfural
analysis
70
XXX.
Major Events
In the area of reliability indicies some utilities are allowed to exclude major events (storms, etc.).
The concern in the industry is what constitutes a major event. There are many definitions. The
two most popular are:
10% of the system is out of service for usually 24 hours
Exclusion of events outside 3 sigma. This definition is based on Chebyshevs
Inequality (you needed to know that right!). Anyway, outages a utility may have
during the year have a probability distribution. This concept basically says that
events not within 3 standard deviations of the mean can be excluded. For reference,
approximately 56% of events are within 1 standard deviation, 75% are within 2
standard deviations and 89% are within 3 standard deviations. So this would mean
approximately 10% could be excluded.
71
kV
15
25
35
115
230
500
72
Overhead
(kVAR)
1
3
6
66
265
1,250
Underground
(kVAR)
10
30
60
660
2,650
12,500
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Hydraulically controlled reclosers are limited to about 10,000 amperes for the 560
amp coil and 6000 amperes for the 100 amp coil.
Many companies set ground minimum trip at maximum load level and phase trip at 2
times load level.
A K factor of 1 (now used in the standards) means the interrupting current is constant
for any operating voltage. A recloser is rated on the maximum current it can interrupt.
This current generally remains constant throughout the operating voltage range.
A recloser is capable of its full interrupting rating for a complete four-operation
sequence. The sequence is determined by the standard. A breaker is subject to
derating.
A recloser can handle any degree of asymmetrical current. A breaker is subject to an
S factor de-rating.
A sectionalizer is a self-contained circuit-opening device that automatically isolates a
faulted portion of a distribution line from the source only after the line has been deenergized by an upline primary protective device.
A Power Fuse is applied close to the substation ( 2.8 to 169kV and X/R between 15
and 25)
A Distribution Fuse is applied farther out on the system (5.2 to 38kV and X/R between
8 and 15).
The fuse tube (in cutout) determines the interrupting capability of the fuse. There is an
auxiliary tube that usually comes with the fuse that aids in low current interruption.
Some expulsion fuses can handle 100% continuous and some 150%.
Type K is a fast fuse link with a speed ratio of melting time-current characteristics
from 6 to 8.1 (speed is the ratio of the 0.1 minimum melt current to the 300 second
minimum melt current. Some of the larger fuses use the 600 second point.
Type T is a slow fuse link with a speed ratio of melt time-current characteristics from
10 to 13.
After about 10 fuse link operations, the fuse holder should be replaced.
Slant ratings can be used on grounded wye, wye, or delta systems as long as the lineto-neutral voltage of the system is lower than the smaller number and the line-to-line
voltage is lower than the higher number. A slant rated cutout can withstand the full
line-to-line voltage whereas a cutout with a single voltage rating could not withstand the
higher line-to-line voltage.
Transformer fusing 25@0.01, 12@0.1, 3@10sec.
Unsymmetrical Transformer Connections ( delta/wye):
Fault Type
Multiplying Factor
Three-phase
N
Phase-to-phase
.87 (N)
Phase-to-Ground
1.73 (N)
Where N is the ratio of Vprimary/Vsecondary
( Multiply the high side device current points by the appropriate factor)
K Factor for Load Side Fuses
a. 2 fast operations and dead time 1 to 2 seconds = 1.35
K Factor for Source Side Fuses
a. 2 fast-2 delayed and dead time of 2 seconds = 1.7
b. 2 fast-2 delayed and dead time of 10 seconds = 1.35
c. Sometimes these factor go as high as 3.5 so check
Sequence Coodination Achievement of true trip coordination between an upline
electronic recloser and a downline recloser, is made possible through a feature known
as sequence coordination. Operation of sequence coordination requires that the
73
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
upline electronic recloser be programmed with fast curves whose control response
time is slower that the clearing time of the downline recloser fast operation, through the
range of fault currents within the reach of the upline recloser: Assume a fault beyond
the downline recloser that exceeds the minimum trip setting of both reclosers. The
downline recloser trips and clears before the upline recloser has a chance to trip.
However, the upline control does see the fault and the subsequent cutoff of fault
current. The sequence coordination feature then advances its control through its fast
operation, such that both controls are at their second operation, even though only one
of them has actually tripped. Should the fault persist, and a second fast trip occur,
sequence coordination repeats the procedure. Sequence coordination is active only
on the programmed fast operations of the upline recloser. In effect, sequence
coordination maintains the downline recloser as the faster device.
Recloser Time Current Characteristics
a. Some curves are average. Maximum is 10% higher.
b. Response curves are the response of the sensing device and does not include
arc extinction.
c. Clearing time is measured from fault initiation to power arc extinction.
d. The response time of the recloser is sometimes the only curve given. To obtain
the interrupting time, you must add approximately 0.045 sec to the curve
(checktheyre different)
e. Some curves show max. clearing time. On the new electronic reclosers, you
usually get a control response curve and a clearing curve.
f. Zl-g = (2Z1 + Z0)/3
The 75% Rule considers TCC tolerances, ambient temperature, pre-loading and
pre-damage. Pre-damage only uses 90%.
A back-up current limiting fuse with a designation like 12K means that the fuse will
coordinate with a K link rated 12 amperes or less.
Capacitor Fusing:
a. The 1.35 factor may result in nuisance fuse operations. Some utilities use 1.65
b. Case rupture is not as big a problem as years ago due to all film designs.
c. Tank rupture curves may be probable or definite in nature. Probable means
there is a probability chance of not achieving coordination. Definite indicates
there is effectively no chance of capacitor tank rupture with the proper 0%
probability curve.
d. T links are generally used up to about 25 amperes and K link above that to
reduce nuisance fuse operations from lightning and in
Line Impedance Typical values for line impedance (350kcm) on a per mile basis are
as follows:
Cable UG
Spacer
Tree Wire
Armless
Open
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Zpositive
.31 + j0.265
.3 + j0.41
.3 + j0.41
.3 + j0.61
.29 +j0.66
Z0
1.18 + j0.35
1.25 + j2.87
1.25 + j2.87
.98 + j2.5
.98 + j2.37
1A-3B is a necessary when sectionalizers are used downstream from the recloser.
Vacuum reclosers have interrupting ratings as high as 10 to 20kA.
Highest recloser continuous ratings are 800 and 1200 amperes.
Sectionalizer actuating current should be <80% of backup device trip current.
Interrupting ratings of cutouts are approximately 7 kA to 10 kA symmetrical.
74
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
K Factor can mean a voltage range factor or a shift factor caused by the recloser
heating up the fuse.
Sectionalizer counts should normally be one count less than the operations to lockout
of the breaker or recloser
Sectionalizer memory time must be > than cumulative trip and reclose time.
Fuses melt at about 200% of rating.
Sectionalizers have momentarr ratings for 1 second and 10 seconds.
25% Rule for fuses includes pre-load, ambient temperature, and pre-damage.
Characteristics of Chance Sectionalizers include:
100 amp continuous
160 amp actuating
2 counts
12,000 amp momentary
4,000 amp @ 1 second
2500 amp @ 10 second
0.3 amp detector threshold
Minimum time delay = 80 ms
Reset time approximately 25 seconds
Minimum duration of current impulse approximately 1 to 3 cycles.
Short time curves are 20% of the normal curve ( in time).
Long time curves are 10 times the normal
The PCD2000 incorporates a 32 bit microprocessor and a 16 bit microprocessor.
The PCD has the following relays:
27 Undervoltage
32 Directional Power
46 Negative Sequence
50 Instantaneous
51 Inverse Time
59 Overvoltage
67 Directional Overcurrent
79 Reclosing
81 - Frequency
75
76
of the substation grounding as a whole and the maximum shock current a person might
be exposed to.
One of the problems of ungrounded systems was that as the systems grew, faults were
no longer self clearing due to the large capacitive currents.
When doing soil resistivity measurements (4-Point Measurement), the distance
between electrodes should be 20 times the electrode depth. The depth of the resistivity
measurement is equivalent the distance between electrodes.
For a multigrounded system a fault about 2 miles from the substation produces the
highest overvoltage on the unfaulted phases of about 135%.
Moisture Content in the soil dramatically affects soil resistivity. Soil with no water has 2
million times as much resistivity as soil with 30% moisture content.
Temperature changes between 68 degrees and 14 degrees F, change the resistivity of
soil by a factor of about 40.
Length is more important than width for a ground rod
The resistance of an 8 foot ground rod for one utility varied between 40 ohms and 1150
ohms.
To measure ground resistance for an 8 foot ground rod, the distance to the furthest test
electrode should be about 72 feet (3 point test.middle conductor is at 45 feet).
20 ground rods produce a ground rod resistance about 1/10th of a single ground rod
Magnitude of swells depends on system grounding
Delta systems have good characteristics and they are not grounded
Current split between the earth and the neutral conductor during faults is about 50/50
A broken conductor can create an overvoltage of about 1.8 per unit during a line-toground fault
High impedance faults almost always have a fault impedance above 100 ohms.
Ground rod resistance does not significantly affect fault current levels
Fault levels should be calculated with 0 ohms fault impedance
Shield wires need low ground resistances and arresters do not.
Severe Stray Voltages exist at about 7 volts. 1 to 2 milliamperes (about 0.5 to 2 volts)
can cause significant behavioral change in cows
Good Grounding is Important for:
- Lightning surge dissipation
- Level of swells
Good Grounding does not significantly affect:
- Line protection using arresters
- Fault levels
77
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Average
191
200
300
200
350
200
200
100
100
500
250-300
400
150
200
67
100
250
200
400
150
300
192
530
300
200
300
100
300
200
100
300
200
400
240
200
200
100
300
200
Peak
175-225
318
300
300
550
320
600
800
300
150
400
700
512
300
450
102
200
350
300
600-700
200
450
338
373
840
500
400
400
200
400
400
250
350
450
400
500
420
350
350
400
320
78
* About 30% of these values come from co-ops which tend to have lower load levels
79
80
LTC can make voltage problems worse for some phases and feeders
We use both
Easier to maintain feeder regulators with minimal impact to our customers
Whichever cost less to give us good regulation
Regulators allow better control to control peak loads
On rural feeders some lines are much longer than others so individual control works
better
In general, we regulate by circuit. We have one station that is bus regulated. About 5 of
our 170 circuits are from LTC banks
Our mobiles do not have regulation so LTC is a problem when we have it
We regulate individual feeders as necessary with a combination of line regulators, and
switched and fixed capacitors out on the line
We have short and long lines. Individual circuit regulators give more flexibility.
81
Y2K
Ive seen a heap of trouble in my life, and most of it never came to pass Mark Twain
Annual Frequency
22.9
2/4
1.1
1.1
1.1
Heres a thought: the power of the cars and trucks sold in the US in 2003 is 2.5 times more than
the total U.S. generating capacity Not sure where that puts the electric car?
82
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
20
0
WET GRASS
DRY GRASS
WET SOD
DRY SOD
40
WET SAND
60
80
Typ e o f S urface
83
The authors also state that they wouldnt expect fault impedance to vary with system
voltage level.
The subject paper and discussion provide insight into how the values that the industry now uses
for fault impedance had their origin. There are, however, some points that should be made with
respect to the above:
1. Maximum fault levels for bolted faults in this study were on the order of 500 amperes
or less with the vast majority being less than 200 amperes (almost 40 ohms of
impedance for a bolted fault).
2. Load levels may not have been subtracted from the calculation. This would result in
a huge error since the high impedance fault levels are around 50 amperes or less
and load currents could be considerably higher. There is no indication that load
currents were subtracted out of the calculation. If the recorders only triggered on a
fault event, it might not have been able to record pre-fault load data with recorders of
this vintage.
3. The authors of the paper indicated that use of 40 ohms proved more than
ample.and might have been reduced to 30 ohms. All data in the past 30 years
indicates that use of 40 ohms would be extremely inadequate and values around
200 ohms or more would be needed to have any significant effect.
There have been many, many tests on downed conductors performed by utilities,
manufacturers, universities, EPRI and consultants. The results have been consistent at all
voltage levels, indicating the use of 40 ohms impedance provides virtually no level of
protection for high impedance faults. No tests have shown anything to the contrary. A
summary of some of these findings is shown below:
Texas A&M (EPRI)
Surface
Dry asphalt
Concrete (non-reinforced)
Dry sand
Wet sand
Dry sod
Fault Current
0
0
0
15
20
84
Dry grass
Wet sod
Wet grass
Concrete (reinforced)
25
40
50
75
PTI
Surface Type
Old Gravel
Grass
Dirt/Sand
Concrete
Old Gravel
Reinforced Concrete
Old Gravel
High Impedance fault current levels are very low and almost always should be represented by an
impedance of 80 ohms or more (e.g. 80 amperes of fault current is approximately equal to 100
ohms of fault impedance on a 13.8 kV system or 90 ohms on a !2.47 kV system). Fault
impedances of 200 ohms or more would have to be used to simulate average fault levels caused
by most high impedance faults. All the data that could be found, which represents the past 25
years of research, suggests that the use of 10, 20, 30 or 40 ohms has virtually no value in helping
detect high impedance faults. No research the author is aware of, in the past 40 years, supports
use of these values and there is no evidence that fault impedance varies depending on primary
distribution voltage level or distance from the substation.
85
Voltage Unbalance seems to confuse many. Here are some things to keep in mind:
Voltage Derating for polyphase equipment
% Voltage Unbalance
Derating Factor
5
4
3
2
1
0
.75
.82
.90
.95
.99
1.0
The formula to calculate voltage unbalance is %Unb = 100 X (Max. deviation from Average V
(Average Voltage)
86
Four Wire
2400
4160
4800
6900
13800
23000
34500
4160Y/2400
8320Y/4800
12000Y/6930
12470Y/7200
13200Y/7970
13800Y/7970
20780Y/12000
22860Y/13200
24940Y/14400
34500Y/19920
87
Jim Burke
Introduction I have so many requests lately on the subjects of stray voltage, capacitor
application and power quality standards that I thought Id add a few pages on these subjects.
XXXXIII. Stray Voltage
Introduction
Stray Voltage has always been a term related to steady state voltages between the
neutral and ground that caused problems for dairy farms and swimming pools. As such, stray
voltages were not lethal. The term stray voltage is taking on a life of its own and becoming all
things to all people. The following are terms interchanged with the term stray voltage which are
incorrect and causing a lot of the present confusion:
a. Stray Voltage the term as generally defined by utility engineers refers to the voltage
imposed on the distribution primary neutral due in large part to return currents (unbalanced
loads). In the context of the last 40 years, the voltage is associated with problems in dairy farms
and generally the voltages do not exceed about 8 volts. They are not easily mitigated and are not
considered dangerous or lethal (unless, of course, you consider the 9 volt battery in your radio a
threat to your life).
b. TOV Temporary Overvoltages are commonly referred to as stray voltages which they
are not. TOVs are 60 Hz overvoltages that occur on the unfaulted phases of a 4-wire multigrounded system during a fault (see Fig. #1). Temporary overvoltages can be a consideration for
voltage sensitive equipment such as surge arresters.
c. Contact Voltage We normally use the term contact voltage to address the condition
where the hot lead (120 volts or more) contacts the outside shell of something like a streetlight.
This voltage is dangerous and can result in death. Contact voltage is not stray voltage although
it is sometimes misapplied in this context.
88
1.45
1.4
1.35
1.3
4 gpm
8gpm
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1
10
100
1000
89
Figures #3 and #4 (not related to the example above) illustrate the typical effect of unbalance
current flow on stray voltage. Figure #3 shows that the stray voltage level at substation is high,
as it also is at the end of the feeder. There are 2 interesting things to point out. First, the stray
voltages near the substation are opposite to those at the end of line (current reversal) and
voltages in the middle of the feeder are relatively low. Also, it is interesting to note that if the
substation ground is good (1 ohm) things get worse in some areas and better in others.
All too rarely, airline attendants make an effort to make the in flight "safety lecture" and
announcements a bit more entertaining. Here are some real examples that have been
heard or reported:
1. On a Southwest flight (SW has no assigned seating, you just sit where you want)
passengers were apparently having a hard time choosing, when a flight attendant
announced, "People, people we're not picking out furniture here, find a seat and get in it!"
2. On a Continental Flight with a very "senior" flight attendant crew, the pilot said, "Ladies
and gentlemen, we've reached cruising altitude and will be turning down the cabin lights.
This is for your comfort and to enhance the appearance of your flight attendants."
3. On landing, the stewardess said, "Please be sure to take all of your belongings. If you're
90
going to leave anything, please make sure it's something we'd like to have.
4. "There may be 50 ways to leave your lover, but there are only 4 ways out of this
airplane"
5. "Thank you for flying Delta Business Express. We hope you enjoyed giving us the
business as much as we enjoyed taking you for a ride."
6. As the plane landed and was coming to a stop at Ronald Reagan, a lone voice came
over the loudspeaker: "Whoa, big fella. WHOA!"
7. After a particularly rough landing during thunderstorms in Memphis, a flight attendant
on a Northwest flight announced, "Please take care when opening the overhead
compartments because, after a landing like that, sure as hell everything has shifted."
8. From a Southwest Airlines employee: "Welcome aboard Southwest Flight 245 to
Tampa.. To operate your seat belt, insert the metal tab into the buckle, and pull tight. It
works just like every other seat belt; and, if you don't know how to operate one, you
probably shouldn't be out in public unsupervised."
9. "In the event of a sudden loss of cabin pressure, masks will descend from the ceiling.
Stop screaming, grab the mask, and pull it over your face. If you have a small child
traveling with you, secure your mask before assisting with theirs. If you are traveling with
more than one small child, pick your favorite."
10. "Weather at our destination is 50 degrees with some broken clouds, but we'll try to
have them fixed before we arrive. Thank you, and remember, nobody loves you, or your
money, more than Southwest Airlines."
11. "Your seat cushions can be used for flotation; and, in the event of an emergency water
landing, please paddle to shore and take them with our compliments."
12. "As you exit the plane, make sure to gather all of your belongings. Anything left behind
will be distributed evenly among the flight attendants. Please do not leave children or
spouses."
13. And from the pilot during his welcome message: "Delta Airlines is pleased to have
some of the best flight attendants in the industry. Unfortunately, none of them are on this
flight!"
14. Heard on Southwest Airlines just after a very hard landing in Salt Lake City the flight
attendant came on the intercom and said, "That was quite a bump, and I know what y'all
are thinking. I'm here to tell you it wasn't the airline's fault, it wasn't the pilot's fault, it
wasn't the flight attendant's fault, it was the asphalt."
15. Overheard on an American Airlines flight into Amarillo, Texas, on a particularly windy
and bumpy day: During the final approach, the Captain was really having to fight it. After
an extremely hard landing, the Flight Attendant said, "Ladies and Gentlemen, welcome to
Amarillo. Please remain in your seats with your seat belts fastened while the Captain taxis
what's left of our airplane to the gate!"
16. Another flight attendant's comment on a less than perfect landing: "We ask you to
please remain seated as Captain Kangaroo bounces us to the terminal."
17. An airline pilot wrote that on this particular flight he had hammered his ship into the
91
runway really hard. The airline had a policy which required the first officer to stand at the
door while the Passengers exited, smile, and give them a "Thanks for flying our airline."
He said that, in light of his bad landing, he had a hard time looking the passengers in the
eye, thinking that someone would have a smart comment. Finally everyone had gotten off
except for a little old lady walking with a cane. She said, "Sir, do you mind if I ask you a
question?" "Why, no, Ma'am," said the pilot. "What is it?" The little old lady said, "Did we
land, or were we shot down?"
18. After a real crusher of a landing in Phoenix, the attendant came on with, "Ladies and
Gentlemen, please remain in your seats until Capt. Crash and the Crew have brought the
aircraft to a screeching halt against the gate. And, once the tire smoke has cleared and the
warning bells are silenced, we'll open the door and you can pick your way through the
wreckage to the terminal."
19. Part of a flight attendant's arrival announcement: "We'd like to thank you folks for
flying with us today. And, the next time you get the insane urge to go blasting through the
skies in a pressurized metal tube, we hope you'll think of US Airways."
20. Heard on a Southwest Airline flight. "Ladies and gentlemen, if you wish to smoke, the
smoking section on this airplane is on the wing and if you can light 'em, you can smoke
'em."
21. A plane was taking off from Kennedy Airport. After it reached a comfortable cruising
altitude, the captain made an announcement over the intercom, "Ladies and gentlemen,
this is your captain speaking. Welcome to Flight Number 293, nonstop from New York to
Los Angeles. The weather ahead is good and, therefore, we should have a smooth and
uneventful flight. Now sit back and relax... OH, MY GOD!" Silence followed, and after a few
minutes, the captain came back on the intercom and said, "Ladies and Gentlemen, I am so
sorry if I scared you earlier. While I was talking to you, the flight attendant accidentally
spilled a cup of hot coffee in my lap. You should see the front of my pants!" A passenger
in Coach yelled, "That's nothing. You should see the back of mine
Background
Utility companies have always made major efforts to provide reliable power with good
characteristics. The term power quality, however, took on an entirely new meaning about 20
years ago resulting from concerns with sensitive loads such as computers, PLCs, digital clocks
and VCRs. In these 20 plus years, no one has successfully been able to come up with a
definition of what constitutes good power quality. Power quality, like beauty, seems to be in the
eye of the beholder. While there is no agreed upon definition for good power quality, much work
in the areas of harmonics, surges, voltage flicker, interruptions, etc. has taken place.
The purpose of this section is to update the reader on the status of all these areas that
comprise the term power quality. Much has been done in terms of measurement,
standardization, surveys, and mitigation that this paper will attempt to summarize in a meaningful
fashion.
92
Definitions
Over the years, the number one problem with discussions between utility engineers and
customers has been in the area of definitions. Industrial engineers tend to refer to power
disturbances as dips, blips or flicker. For many of them (especially those without electrical
backgrounds), a blip could encompass anything from a momentary interruption to a sag, or even
voltage flicker. Figure shown below, illustrates some of the more common power disturbance
that are considered power quality problems that could result in mis-operation of sensitive
equipment. A brief, non-IEEE, definition of some of these disturbances is as follows:
93
industry defines reliability indices on the basis of momentary and sustained interruption
parameters only.
Voltage Flicker (not shown) Voltage Flicker is a repetitious variation in the luminance
of a light source. The visibility of this fluctuation is a function of the repetition rate, the change in
voltage and the type (and rating) of the light source. Voltage flicker can be seen with very small
changes in voltage and is an annoyance to humans and not considered to be a problem for most
sensitive loads.
Overview of Industry Standards and Activities
The following is a list of the status of some of the significant PES industry activities in
many of the utility distribution power quality areas:
Reliability IEEE Guide for Electric Power Distribution Reliability Indices - P1366.
The purpose of this guide is to foster a uniformity of terms and definitions among utilities as well
as to establish consistent reporting practices and calculation methodology. The group has also
been at the forefront of performing surveys to help utilities benchmark their systems.
Harmonics ANSI/IEEE Std 519, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements
for Harmonic Control in Power Systems. The purpose of this document is to establish goals for
the design of electrical systems that include both linear and nonlinear loads. The voltage and
current waveforms that may exist throughout the system are described, and waveform distortion
goals for the system designer are established. This document addresses the steady state
limitations and sets a level of harmonic quality that should be provided at the point of common
coupling.
Sags There are no utility guidelines for sags. The IEEE has established a task group
whose purpose is to establish guidelines with respect to the measurement and effect of voltage
sags. The group is presently addressing the steps necessary to develop sag indices. These
indices will no doubt have to address such items as the magnitude and duration of the sag as
well as the number of phases involved.
Swells - The magnitude of a swell is largely a function of the system grounding.
Information on the magnitude of swells for different types of system grounding can be found in
the IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems, Part IVDistribution. Work in this area has not really taken place for the past 10 years.
Voltage Flicker Most utilities continue to use the General Electric Flicker Curve,
originally published in 1921. A study published in 1994 by EPRI/CEA indicated that new
electronic and compact florescent lighting may be more or less prone to flicker that the standard
incandescent. Lamp dimming practices too, made flickering lamps more visible. The IEEE is
sponsoring a Task Group on Voltage Flicker. This group has proposed the adoption of the IEC
Flicker Standards with some minor commentary to reflect the difference in secondary voltage
level.
Industry Surveys, Guidelines and Statistics
One of the problems a utility has in assessing their power quality is finding information to
compare how they are doing with others. We all recognize that utilities are vastly different when
compared on the basis of load density, weather conditions, animals, etc. and hence it may be
impossible to come up with performance standards in most of these areas. It is, however, good
to know how you generally compare. The purpose of this section is to provide data from a
number of sources in the area of power quality that may prove helpful in any assessment of this
nature.
Reliability Reliability for most utilities means, sustained interruptions, i.e.
interruptions of power to one or more customers lasting more than 5 minutes. While there are
many indices in use today, the primary indices being used by most utilities are SAIDI (average
amount of time a customer would expect to be without service), SAIFI (average number of times
a customer would expect to see an interruption of more than 5 minutes), and CAIDI (average
duration of an interruption). It should be noted that survey data in these areas is flawed since
94
utilities vary in how accurate their interruption numbers actually are. Utilities using sophisticated
computer systems to track outages accurately tend to have higher interruption times than those
that dont. It has even been suggested that most of the utilities in the first quartile (best) are able
to do so because they do not keep accurate records. Some typical outage numbers (SAIDI) are
shown in Figure, below.
300
245
250
200
150
121
95
100
67
50
0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Quartile
Number of Incidents
60
50
50
40
30
18
20
10
10
0
SARFI90
SARFI70
SARFI50
SARFI Value
95
referred to as IEEE 519. The voltage limits recommended (simplified) in this document are
outline in Table 1.
Nonlinear loads produce harmonic currents, which in turn can distort the voltage. How
much the voltage is distorted is a function of the source impedance (high short circuit areas have
low source impedance and vice versa). Since these loads can be evaluated in terms of current
distortion prior to their actual installation, these current levels can be used (injected into a load
flow) to produce voltage distortions which can be evaluated based on the parameters shown in
Table 1. The industry has come up with limits for current distortion based on system short circuit
level. If the system short circuit level is high (source impedance low), a higher level of harmonic
current is allowed since it will have less effect on voltage distortion. Table 2, shown below, is a
simplified version these limits.
96
Surges Surges normally refer to voltage transients resulting from lightning and
switching. These surges can have a high enough voltage level to cause insulation to break down
resulting in failure of the equipment. Surges are very common since they can be the result of
simply turning on a light switch (current chopping e=L*di/dt). Surges per a study performed some
time ago and found in C62.41 are shown in Figure .
25
20
15
10
5
0
350-500
500-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
Introduction
The application of capacitors has become commonplace in the United States. There was a
time when the application of capacitors on a wide scale basis was unusual because losses didnt
cost that much and regulators handled the voltage drop quite well.
97
Things have changed. Losses are a major concern. Voltage quality, due to more sensitive
loads, is an issue. Finally, in todays world of cutting costs, capacitors are seen as the cheap
way to reduce losses and get more watts out of whats already there.
The purpose of this section is to very briefly review some of the considerations distribution
engineers might address in the application of capacitors.
Benefits of Capacitors
The proper application of capacitors serves to reduce the system current and raise the system
voltage. This accomplishes 3 benefits:
1. Reduces loading of thermally limited equipment.
2. Reduces system voltage drop
3. Reduces system losses
The application of capacitors benefits the entire system and the value of these benefits for the
entire system should be considered when considering how many capacitors should be installed.
It should not be overlooked that kilovars flowing through the system cause reactive as well as
real losses. This means that when a certain quantity of kilovars is required at the load, more than
that will be required at the source of the kvars.
Typical Placement Studies
Most utilities try to apply capacitors optimally. Years ago, when voltage levels were low and
wire sizes were smaller, an optimal placement study might mean placement of the capacitor
banks to obtain a reasonable voltage profile. Today, optimum placement normally means place
to minimize losses at the lowest cost.
Placement Studies are normally performed in one of two ways:
Place capacitors until optimum power factor is reached (point where the cost of adding bank
exceeds value of losses reduction and equipment utilization benefits).
Place capacitors until a predetermined power factor is met. This number is sometimes quite
arbitrary.
Optimal placement would be easy if the load didnt change. The problem with placement
studies is that loads change during the day, week, month and most schemes have to deal with all
these changes as best they can. Shown below, is a plot of a scheme that was not optimized for
the summer peaking period. As can be seen in figure 9, the var needs change dramatically over
a fairly brief period of time. The challenge to the distribution engineer is to pick the correct size of
the banks to be used, the placement of these banks and minimize the cost.
10.00
8.00
MVAR/MW
6.00
4.00
MW
MVAR
2.00
0.00
8:30
7:00
6/30/98 7/1/98
5:30
7/2/98
4:00
7/3/98
2:30
1:00
7/4/98 7/5/98
23:30
7/5/98
22:00
7/6/98
-2.00
-4.00
HOUR/DATE
98
KVAR
fixed and switched banks. This placement was determined using a computer optimization runs at
various load levels.
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Switched
Fixed
910
100.00%
80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
0.00%
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
99
Temperature is simple and inexpensive. It seems to work very well in many areas of the
country where air conditioning load dominates peak conditions. One drawback is that it
does not recognize holidays or weekends and for this reason usually requires some sort of
voltage override.
Time is also simple and inexpensive. It does not sense abnormal loads and can often get
out of sync due to extended power outages, holidays, etc. The more modern voltage
controllers avoid most of the concerns associated with the older mechanical units and have
had good success in some areas.
Power Factor is similar in application to VAR control. One consideration with this type of
control is a low power level, low power factor load could switch the banks in unnecessarily
(the opposite could also be true).
Automation of capacitor controls is showing very strong promise and customer acceptance
since the costs of these schemes is coming down and the benefits, in todays environment
can be significant. Some of the benefits of automating the banks are greater flexibility,
better VAR support for transmission, control schemes are simpler, and it is easier to detect
failed banks.
Combinations of the above are commonplace especially where voltage is used as an override for emergency conditions.
For delta or ungrounded systems, delta connected banks are usually used except at system
locations where fault current is excessive, ungrounded banks are most common.
100
For grounded, 4-wire systems, grounded banks are used in most locations. Where fault
current is excessive, ungrounded banks are used. Ungrounded banks should be used on the
load side of switches.
In substations the banks are almost always wye-connected. On delta systems they are
always ungrounded and on 4-wire systems they are either grounded or ungrounded.
B. Fusing
When a capacitor bank fails, the energy stored in its series group of capacitors is available to
dump into the combination of the failed capacitor and fuse. The failed capacitor and fuse must
be able to absorb or hold off this energy with a low probability of case rupture of the capacitor
unit. The available energy is about 3.19 joules per kVAR. The available energy is compared with
the rating of the fuse and capacitor unit. This is one of criteria for selecting a current limiting fuse
for high energy applications (large banks) as opposed to an expulsion fuse.
Capacitor Switching
Most textbooks on distribution engineering (including my own ) cover the mechanism by which
capacitors can cause overvoltages as a result of either energization, or de-energization with
restrike. While even low level capacitor switching transients have been known to cause
misoperation of customer equipment (e.g. adjustable speed drives), we rarely encounter
switching transients on distribution systems which can cause utility equipment failure. The
conditions that can create problems on distribution systems normally occur at the higher voltage
levels while switching large capacitor banks or long distances of cable. Digital calculations of
transient overvoltages are shown below, for an actual 34.5kV underground system having a
very large 15 MVAR capacitor bank at the substation.
- Energization of a 15 MVAR substation bank = 2.65 p.u.
- De-energization of 15 MVAR substation bank with re-strike >3 p.u.
- Energization of Feeder Cable = 2.18 p.u.
- Cable De-energization (no restrike) = 1.0 p.u.
- Pre-insertion resistors reduce surges by about 40% for energization of the substation bank.
Series Capacitors
Series capacitors were used some years ago when systems were lower voltage, wire was
smaller and power factor was low (uncorrected). Series capacitors were used to instantly
respond to load changes resulting in voltage flicker. Over the years, series capacitors obtained
somewhat of a poor reputation (some say undeserved) for causing system problems, some of
which are addressed below. Modern systems generally do not see as much benefit from series
capacitors since system power factors are generally higher. However, there have been a
number of modern applications where series capacitors have proven very effective and without
the possible problems due in some part to modern series capacitor design.
101
Some of the collective application wisdom, with regard to series capacitors, is as follows:
Applicable to radial load circuits supplying loads of about 70 to 95 percent lagging power
factor. Below that, shunt are usually better and above that, the benefits are low.
KVAR in series caps is generally less than half that for a shunt bank with the same
voltage effect.
The current rating of the capacitor bank equals that of the circuit since they must carry
rated circuit current continuously. In addition, they must be able to carry temporarily, the
starting current of the largest motor plus other loads. The total steady state current plus
transient current should not exceed 1.5 times rating.
The rating of the series capacitor (kilovars, voltage, and current) for a radial feeder
depends on the desired voltage regulation, the load power factor, and the amount of
resistance and reactance in the feeder relative to each other and the circuit rating.
Standard capacitor units can withstand about 200 percent of their rated working voltage
for brief periods without damage to the dielectric; therefore it is necessary to use
capacitors with continuous current ratings equal to 50 per cent of the maximum current
that may flow during a fault. It is usually more cost efficient to use protective devices
across the bank.
Operating problems with series capacitors include:
o Subsynchronous resonance of a motor during starting can usually be avoided
with a resistor in parallel with the capacitor. Sometimes just shorting the
capacitor during starting works (gap may go over anyway due to the half
frequency impedance of the capacitor).
o Ferroresonance of a transformer - High magnetizing inrush of transformer may
create a resonant condition. This is generally automatically cured by the parallel
gap. The gap is usually set at twice the rating of the capacitor. A resistor
shunting also works.
o Hunting of motors
102
103
There are many ways to ground a distribution system primary. This paper will deal
primarily with the effects of grounding on a 4-wire multigrounded system since it
predominates in this country. The following section, however, gives a brief overview of
some of the advantages and disadvantages of the various system grounding practices in
use today.
Distribution systems are classified as either grounded or ungrounded. While there are
advantages and disadvantages of each type of grounding, it is impossible to say which is
the best. The following is a general description of the major types:
A. Ungrounded Systems
Ungrounded system have the secondary windings of the distribution substation
transformer connected either ungrounded delta or ungrounded wye, with the former
connection being more common. The distribution feeders are three-wire, three-phase
and two-wire single-phase circuits. The major advantage of an ungrounded system, like
a delta system, is that a single line to ground fault will not result in high levels of fault
current sufficient to disrupt service beyond the fault itself. This is also a disadvantage in
that overcurrent protection for this type of fault is difficult if not impossible to detect. The
delta system also gives better phase balancing, lower energy into a fault, and produces
less EMF.
B. Grounded Systems
Grounded systems are usually derived from a distribution substation transformer with
wye-connected secondary windings with a neutral point of the windings solidly grounded
or connected to ground through a non-interrupting, current-limiting device such as a
resistor or reactor. A grounding transformer may be used to establish a grounded
system, as is common in Europe. The circuits associated with grounded distribution
systems generally have a neutral conductor connected to the supply grounding point.
The neutral conductor of the distribution circuits may be connected to earth at frequent
intervals (multigrounded), or it may be fully insulated and have no other earth connection
except at the source (unigrounded). In three-wire unigrounded systems, a neutral
conductor is not run with each circuit, but the system is grounded through the
connections of the substation transformer or grounding transformer. The neutral
conductor associated with the primary feeders of multi-grounded neutral distribution
systems is connected to earth at intervals specified by national or local codes. It is also
common practice to bond this neutral conductor to surge-arrester ground leads and to all
noncurrent-carrying parts, such as equipment tanks and guy wires, and to interconnect it
with a secondary neutral conductor or grounded conductor. In some situations, the same
neutral conductor is used for both the primary and secondary systems. Several types of
grounded systems are as follows:
Four-Wire Multigrounded Systems: This system is by far the most popular in the U.S.
and has the advantage of being easy to protect for most overcurrent fault conditions. It is
also preferred since a large portion of the loads in the U.S. are single phase and can be
connected between the phase wire and the neutral conductor. It is much cheaper for
single phase service, especially for underground, since only one cable, bushing, switch,
104
fuse, etc., needs to be used as compared to a delta system which needs almost twice as
much equipment. It also can use lower rated arresters and BIL.
Four-Wire Unigrounded Systems: This system uses 4 wires, but is only grounded at
the source. It is used sparingly in the U.S. The primary advantage of this system is that
greater ground relaying sensitivity can be obtained in comparision to the multi-grounded
system. It also produces less EMF. A disadvantage of this system is that it creates
higher voltage swells than the multigrounded system.
Three-Wire Unigrounded Systems: These systems are popular in Europe. Because
line-to-ground current levels are generally low using this system, it is difficult to
coordinate series overcurrent devices (similar to problems with a delta system). With the
predominance of 3 phase loading in Europe, the system tends to be much more
balanced than a system found in the U.S. allowing for much greater sensitivity to ground
fault detection.
Five-Wire Distribution System: This is a new system which utilizes three phase wires,
a multigrounded wire and an isolated neutral. It has several advantages over the fourwire multigrounded system in that it has the ability to detect high impedance faults,
reduce EMF, see faults farther out of the substation, and reduce stray voltages.
EFFECT OF GROUNDING
A. Capacitor Banks
There are a number of ways to ground capacitor banks. While grounded wye banks are
normally used, there are sometimes reasons why this connection may not be optimum.
A summary of considerations in this area is as follows:
A three phase capacitor may be connected in delta, wye-ungrounded or wye-grounded.
Delta or ungrounded wye offer the greatest possibility of neutral inversion or a resonant
condition when one or two conductors on the source side of the bank are open. It can
consequently be a problem to locate these banks on the load side of a switch or fuse.
Grounded wye banks are usually used on 4 wire multi-grounded systems only. A
grounded wye bank on an ungrounded system creates a ground source that may
interfere with sensitive relaying as well as contribute to overvoltages during ground faults
on these ungrounded systems.
Grounded wye banks are generally easy to clear since there is adequate ground current.
On the other hand, ungrounded banks have the currents limited to 300 percent of normal
phase current by the impedance of the other two legs. The fuse must have a continuous
current rating of 135% of rated current of the bank and clear in 5 minutes for reasonable
coordination. It is sometimes difficult to satisfy both conditions.
To summarize:
For delta or ungrounded systems, delta connected banks are usually used except at
system locations where fault current is excessive, ungrounded banks are most
common.
For grounded, 4-wire systems, grounded banks are used in most locations. Where
fault current is excessive ungrounded banks are used. Ungrounded banks should be
used on the load side of switches.
In substations the banks are almost always wye-connected. On delta systems they
are always ungrounded and on 4-wire systems they are either grounded or
ungrounded.
B. Overvoltages (Swells)
105
Swells are steady state overvoltages caused by faults on adjacent phases. The duration
of these overvoltages is dependent on the protection practices used by the utility. Swells
can result in power quality problems as well as failure of arresters. Some grounding
considerations regarding the magnitude of swells are as follows:
Maximum L-N Voltage (p.u.)
1 .4 5
1 .4
1 .3 5
1 .3
4 g p m
8 g p m
1 .2 5
1 .2
1 .1 5
1 .1
1
1 0
1 0 0
1 0 0 0
G r o u n d F o o tin g R e s is ta n c e (o h m s )
Effect of Footing Resistance, Soil Resistivity and Ground Rod Spacing: Studies run
by the authors show that if an arbitrary swell limit of 20% is desired (this is the value used
for arrester application by many utilities), it is necessary to have a ground footing
resistance of less than 1 ohm for a typical 4-wire system. A footing resistance of 25
ohms produces overvoltages (near the end of the line) of about 1.31 per unit for the same
system. Using a ground footing resistance of 25 ohms does reduce overvoltages for
faults within about 5 miles of the substation as compared to 100 ohms. Faults beyond 5
miles produce swells that are virtually identical. The results of this study also showed
that the use of the standard 4 grounds per mile is not sufficient to keep these
overvoltages (swells) down to the desired level (see figure 2). If the number of grounds
is increased to 8 per mile, there will be a reduction of about 2% with a footing resistance
of 25 ohms. Augmenting the number of grounds per mile does not have a significant
effect on reducing swells. This is especially true since there are many equipment
grounds on the system. When soil resistivity was changed from 100 ohm-m to 1000
ohm-m, virtually no change occurred in the magnitude of the swells.
Broken Neutrals: Neutrals play a major role in the effectiveness of the grounding
system. Studies show that fault 10 miles from the substation can cause swells of 1.33
per unit for a broken neutral on any part of the system. Even faults at only 1.5 miles from
the substation can cause swell of up to 1.5 per unit if a broken neutral exists. The size of
the neutral conductor appreciably reduces swells, whereas good grounds do not affect
the voltage much. This indicates that the neutral is more important than the grounding.
Substation Grounding: Substation grounding has little effect on swells. Substation
grounding impedance of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 showed little difference in their effect on
swells caused by faults out on the feeder.
C. EMF
Unbalanced load current flows in the ground and the neutral wire. The current flowing in
the ground creates most of the magnetic field associated with EMF. Current in the
neutral tends to reduce this field. Studies show that for typical conditions approximately
50% of the return current flows in the earth and the other 50% in the neutral. A case can
be made, that poor grounding forces more current in the neutral and thereby reduces the
EMF. Measurements taken by one of the authors on actual systems shows ground
impedance to be far less of a factor than what many studies show. You be the judge.
106
D. Fault Levels
Studies show that ground rod footing resistance does slightly affect fault current levels for
close in faults but has little effect for faults more than 4 or 5 miles from the substation.
Figure #3, shown below, is a plot of actual measure faults, faults calculated with 25
ohms neutral ground rod impedance and faults with no ground rod impedance
(symmetrical components). As can be seen, there is very little difference. Since close in
fault magnitudes are almost always sufficient to operate protection properly, footing
resistance in this area is not an issue. Fault magnitudes farther from the substation are
not seriously affected by footing impedance. It can hence
be argued that footing resistance is not important in the area of overcurrent protection.
107
problem is less serious due to the much higher BIL levels of the structures and large
energy capability of the arresters). It can be argued that poor arrester grounding may
help the arrester survive since the arrester closest to the lightning hit does not absorb all
the energy and shares it with adjacent arresters.
Percent
Flashovers
per Strike
25
100
250
G ro u n d R esistan ce
Fig. 4 Effect of Resistance on Arresters
G. Shield Wires
Ground resistance is very important when using a shield wire as is the spacing of the
grounds. A shield wire can be very beneficial if very low ground resistances can be
achieved. For example, simulations on a standard distribution system design indicated
that with a ground resistance of 0 ohms, essentially no flashovers could be expected. If
the ground impedance was increase to 25 ohms, about 22% of the hits would cause a
flashover and with a ground footing impedance of 100 ohms, over 82% of the direct hits
would cause the line to flashover. Using a shield wire, it is essential to put grounds on
every span to achieve good protection. Field tests by one of the authors have proven
this to be true. A sampling of about 50 feeders with static wire protection and a
significant percentage of poles without static grounds (>15%) revealed a dramatic
difference in performance (>50% reduction in lightning related flashovers) when grounds
were added to these poles.
108
Percent
Flahovers per
Strike
25
100
250
500 1000
Ground Resistance
Fig. 5 Effect of Resistance on Shield Wires
Tidbits
a. Fuse Save vs. Fuse Blow Survey Results
Historically, one of the primary purposes of reclosing, was to save the fuse during
temporary fault conditions. It has been well known that in high fault current areas (above
approximately 4kA depending on fuse size and type), it was impossible to save the fuse since the
fuse was simply too fast (.5 cycles) and hence could not be saved even by the fastest breaker or
recloser (after you get about a mile or 2 from the substation, it is usually possible to save the
fuse).
We have seen the industry reassess their overcurrent coordination practices, on
overhead systems, in an effort to address power quality issues (momentaries). There are now
essentially 3 approaches that utilities use:
1. Fuse Save This approach makes the attempt to minimize customer interruption
time (reduce SAIDI) by attempting to open the breaker or recloser faster than it takes
to melt the fuse. This saves the fuse and allows a simple momentary interruptiona
blink. For most systems, this works pretty well. In high short circuit areas, it may not
be possible to make this approach work.
2. Fuse Blow The approach here is eliminate the fast trip of the breaker or recloser
and have the fuse operate for all permanent and temporary faults. The purpose of
this scheme is solely and entirely to minimize momentary interruptions. This scheme
is very successful in high short circuit areas where a fuse save approach didnt
work anyway. The downside of the Fuse Blow concept is that it increases SAIDI,
i.e. in an effort to increase power quality (momentaries), we decrease reliability.
3. Both Many utilities use both schemes for a variety of reasons:
Fuse Blow for high short circuit current areas and Fuse Save
where it will work.
Fuse Save on overhead and Fuse Blow on underground taps
109
78
54
Fuse Save
Fuse Blow
Both
24
17
Total Save
Fusing Philosophy
* Total Save - This category is the number of utilities that are presently using a fuse save philosophy at least on some
portion of their system
Survey Observations:
Most of the utilities adopting the Fuse Blow philosophy are from the northeast area of
the United States, and have relatively high short circuit levels. These utilities indicate
that momentary operations are their primary concern. Most seemed to recognize that
this approach will reduce system reliability (SAIDI).
A surprising number of utilities reported that they do the best they can to tailor their
philosophy to the conditions (short circuit levels, type of customer, etc.) and choose the
philosophy thats best for the individual situation.
The vast majority of utilities use a Fuse Save philosophy, when it works, and do not
consider momentary operations more important than interruptions.
Most of the utilities, indicating the Both category, try to save the fuse on overhead lines,
if they can. They indicated both because they either had very high short circuit areas
(fuse operates anyway) or a large portion of underground taps (no temporary faults).
A large number of utilities block their instantaneous trip in high fault current areas and
install a recloser out on the feeder where fuse saving can be successful.
Utilities going to a Fuse Blow approach appeared to be cognizant of the fact that they
were converting temporary faults into permanent interruptions and thereby greatly
increasing the frequency of interruptions (by a factor of 4) for faults on overhead lateral
taps.
Some of the utilities listed in the Fuse Blow category do not actually have their entire
systems implemented with this scheme although it is their chosen philosophy.
There are a number of instances where results were received from more than one
recipient from the same company. Since so many companies today operate with totally
different practices, due to mergers, etc., there was no attempt to consolidate those
results.
This is an informal, unfunded survey.
110
Ever been confused about slant ratings? Join the crowd! Slant rated cutouts are
referenced by ANSI C37.42 as being 7.8/15 kV, 15/27kV or 27/38kV. Slant rating 7.8/15kV for
example, can be used on grounded wye, wye or delta systems as long as the line-to-neutral
voltage of the system is lower than the smaller number, 7.8kV, and the line-to-line voltage is
lower that the higher number, 15kV.
The rating implies that one cutout will interrupt the full rating when the lower number
7.8kV, is applied during a line to ground fault. Two cutouts in series, such as with a line-to-line
fault, will share the applied voltage and, thus, interrupt the higher voltage rating,15kV. If there is
a line-to-line fault of a low current magnitude, two cutouts in series may not share in the
interruption and, thus, the applied voltage. One cutout may be required to perform the interruption
by itself. A slant rated cutout can withstand the full line-to-line voltage whereas a cutout with a
single voltage rating could not withstand the higher line-to-line voltage.
c. Energy Outlook
Wind
Leading technology in terms of growth
Approximately 2,000 MW per year being installed
Tax incentives remain main drivers
Photovoltaics
Still twice as expensive as normal grid power
Growth is dependent on government support
Biomass
Niche opportunity
Market uncertain
Low-Impact Hydro
Significant untapped potential, but U.S. market is small absent major changes to
the permitting and licensing process
Geothermal
Dependent on government subsidy
Nuclear
When I started in the business (1965), it looked like the industry would go totally nuclear
since it was cleaner and less expense (pre-lawyers.I guess). Much of the world depends on
nuclear. Canada, the only country, shown below, using less nuclear then us, has a lot of hydro.
The chart below makes you wonder whether were smarter than the rest of the world or quite the
opposite when it comes to generation. I would suggest that much of the push to DG is a step
backward. Are renewables real or just a hobby? You decide!
111
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Li
th
ua
ni
Fr a
an
Be ce
lg
iu
Uk m
ra
i
Sw n e
Sw ed
itz en
er
la
nd
So J a
ut pa
Un h K n
ite o re
d
St a
at
e
Ca s
na
da
% Nuclear
Nuclear Generation
c. Critical Flashover The critical flashover voltage (CFO) of self-restoring insulation (meaning
no damage after the flashover) is the voltage where the insulation has a 50% probability of
flashing over from a standard 1.2X50 microsecond voltage wave. A statistical BIL is the 10%
probability value for the standard test wave. Normally the CFO and BIL are within a few percent
of each other. CFO for some components is:
Kv/ft.
Air
180
Wood
100
Fiberglass
150
d. Cost of Poor Power Quality Here are some neat numbers (large Industrial Loads) for you
PQ types:
Disturbance
Voltage Sags
Momentary Outage
1 Hour Outage with Notice
1 Hour Outage without
Notice
4 Hour Outage
e. Electric Cars - The power of the 16.6 million cars and light trucks sold in the United States
in 2003 adds up to 2.5 times the total U.S. generating capacity. So much for electric cars!
112
f. Lightning A direct hit to a distribution line is difficult to protect for whether you use a shield
wire, lightning arresters or both. The success of lightning arresters and higher insulation levels is
probably due to their ability to mitigate induce hits (strokes to surrounding trees, buildings, etc.
Induced voltages have been measured up to 300 kV. Strokes hitting 60 feet away induce about
5.25 kV per kA and those 400 feet away about 2.23 kV/kA. Lightning strokes can be as high as
100 kA or even more. More typical is about 30 kA. Shield wires do not work well if the ground
rod resistance is high (about 10 ohms or more).
g. Surge (Characteristic) Impedance - A transmission line can be represented by a whole
series of small series inductors and shunt capacitors connected in an infinitely long line. The
inductance and capacitance values per unit of line, depend on the size of the conductors and the
spacing between them. The smaller the spacing between the two conductors, and the greater
the diameter, the higher the capacitance and the greater lower the inductance. Each series
inductor acts to limit the rate at which current can charge the following shunt capacitor, and in
doing so establishes a very important property of a transmission line, its surge impedance.
When the voltage is applied to the sending end of a line, the voltage at any point on the
line actually consists of two voltages, one voltage traveling from the sending end of the line
toward the receiving end, the other traveling from the receiving end back to the sending end. The
former will be designated as E+, the latter E-. Each of these voltages is accompanied by the
corresponding current, I+ and I-, respectively. The ratio of either voltage to its corresponding
current at any point in the line is a constant Z0, which is independent of the line length but is a
function of the series resistance, the series inductance, the shunt conductance, and the shunt
capacitance of the line per unit length. This constant is the characteristic impedance of the line
and can be expressed as;
+
E I
= E
Z0
R + j L
=
G + j C
Z0 =
L
C
113
BPL uses a form of spread spectrum called orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM), which has the benefits of high spectral efficiency, resiliency to RF interference, and low
multi-path distortion. The BPL OFDM typically uses and unlicensed spectrum between 1
megahertz and 100 megahertz. The FCC requires that these signals not cause interference with
other users and accept any and all interference from other users.
114
It is estimated that over 75 utilities have pilot projects in the area of BPL. Some of the
pros and cons of BPL are:
PROS:
Uses existing power lines where cable might not be present
It works
Can interface with many types of electrical equipment
CONS
Interference concerns with amateur radio operators, short wave emergency
communication, fire departments and police, etc.
Problems are sometimes difficult to track down and solve
Possibility of multiple lawsuits due to interference concerns
Cost (requires economics of scale to be attractive)
Competing technologies
Rural areas may not be economically feasible
Alternatives to BPL include:
DSL
Cable TV
WiFi and Wimax
Mesh Networks
Wireless Internet Service Providers
FiberSatellite
Technology Improvements
Jim Burke
109 Dorchester Pines Court
Cary, NC 27511
distjimb@aol.com
115
INDEX
Arc impedance19
Arrester grounding..107
BIL20
BPL.114
Broadband.. 114
Cable facts29
Cable impedance..30
Cables..29
Capacitance Line Charging..72
Capacitor Application..97-102
Capacitor application.. 97-102
Capacitor formulas..33
Capacitor grounding.105
Characteristic Impedance..113
Charging current.72
Cold load pickup.10
Commercial..45
Computer Jargon..63
Conductor burndown..14
Conductor current rating.29
Conductors..29
Coordination rules..17, 73
Cost of Poor PQ..82
Cost of interruptions.68
Cost of poor power..82, 112
Cost of Power Interruptions..68
Cost of sectionalizing equipment..69
Costs of equipment..42
Critical Flashover..112
Current transformers..24
Current-dangerous levels..32
Custom power.67
Decibels..65
Device numbers ..15
Distributed Generation..31, 51, 111
DSG Info..51
DSG Requirements..31
Electricity Rates..40
EMF..106
Energy..111
European Practices.35
Fault calculations.11
Fault Currents..66
Fault data..66
Fault Impedance.83
116
Fault levels..7
Fuse save vs. blow..109
Fuse application.12
Fuse Blow Survey..109
Fuse Save Survey..109
Fusing Capacitors.. 13
Fusing Rules..12
Grounding information.76, 103-109
Grounding, Pros and Cons 103-109
High Impedance Faults - 8,9,83-86
Humor..81, 90, 114
Impedance of Faults..83
Impedances of Cables..74
Impedances of Lines..74
Industrial Data..45
Inrush currents..9, 66
Instrument transformers..23
Interruption Cost..68
Jokes.81, 90, 114
Lightning characteristics..18
Lightning damage survey..79
Line Charging..72
Load Survey..78
Loading 57-62
Loading of Equipment21, 57-60
Loading survey..78
Low impedance faults..8
Maintenance..70
Major Event..71
Maxwells Equations..49
Modern Physics..56
Nuclear..111
Overcurrent Protection Rules..73-75
Potential transformers..23
Power Quality..38, 92
Power Quality Costs..82, 112
Power Quality Data38-40
Protective device abbreviations.16
Quarks56
Rates for Electricity..40
Ratings, Voltage 86
Reclosing..9
Reliability..53
Reliability major events..71
Reliability Data..44, 53-55, 77
Rules of Thumb..28
Safety..33
Sags..55
Saturation curves20
Sectionalizing Equipment Costs..69
Shield wires..108
Slant Ratings..110
Stray Voltage..88-90
Substation Voltage Regulation..80
Surface current levels..9
117
Surge Impedance..113
Survey Load..78
Survey on Fuses..109
Survey, Lightning Damage..79
Survey, Voltage Regulation..80
Symmetrical Component Values..74
Transducer terms.26
Transformer Loading..21, 57-62
Transformer Saturation..20
Transformers..20
Uniformly Distributed Loads..28
Voltage ratings.86
Voltage Regulation..80
Voltage regulation survey..80
Voltage Standards..86
Wind..82, 111
118
Jim Burke
EXPERIENCE
Mr. Burke joined InfraSource in 2006 as an
Executive Advisor after 45 years in the industry. He is
recognized throughout the world as an expert in
distribution protection, design, power quality and
reliability.
Mr. Burke began his career in the utility
business with the General Electric Company in 1965
training and taking courses in generation, transmission
and distribution as part of GE's Advanced Utility
Engineering Program. In 1969, he accepted a position
as a field application engineer in Los Angeles
responsible for transmission and distribution system
analyses, as well as generation planning studies for
General Electric's customer utilities in the Southwestern
states. In 1971 he joined GE's Power Distribution
Engineering Operation in New York where he was
responsible for distribution substations, overcurrent and
overvoltage protection, and railroad electrification for
customers all over the world. During this period he was
involved with the development of the MOV "riser pole"
arrester, the Power Vac Switchgear, the static
overcurrent
relay
and
distribution
substation
automation.
In 1978 Mr. Burke accepted a position at
Power Technologies Inc. (PTI) where he continued to
be involved with virtually all distribution engineering
issues. During this period he was responsible for the
EPRI distribution fault study, the development of the
first digital fault recorder, state-of-the-art grounding
studies, and numerous lightning and power quality
monitoring studies. In the area of railroad electrification
he was the project manager of the EPRI manual on
"Railroad Electrification on Utility Systems" as well as
project manager of system studies for the 25 to 60 Hz
conversion of the Northeast Corridor.
Until his
the
"Standard
Distribution Subcommittee
Switching
and
Overcurrent
Protection
Voltage Quality
first:
50,000 Volt Electrified Railroad
Microprocessor
based
Fault
Recorder
He
also
managed
numerous
projects
overcurrent
protection,
Electrical
for
EDUCATION
Handbook
Engineering."
Recipient
of
Herman
Halperin
overvoltage
119
G.E.
1.
PTI
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
23.
24.
25.
7.
8.
Transformers,
9.
volumes),
26.
10.
27.
28.
11.
12.
29.
13.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Failing
on
120
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
43.
44.
45.
46.
65.
47.
66.
48.
49.
67.
68.
50.
51.
69.
70.
71.
72.
52.
53.
54.
55.
121
95.
73.
96.
Maintaining
Reliability
In
a
De-regulated
Environment, T&D World 2000, April 26-28, Cincinnati,
Ohio.
74.
97.
98.
99.
76.
100.
77.
101.
78.
102.
79.
103.
104.
80.
105.
81.
82.
106.
83.
107.
84.
108.
85.
109.
110.
ABB
75.
Synergetic Design
86.
87.
88.
111.
89.
112.
113.
91.
114.
92.
115.
116.
117.
90.
93.
Rural Distribution System Design Comparison, (coauthors: H. Nguyen, S. Benchluch)- IEEE, WPM 2000,
Singapore.
94.
122
118.
119.
120.
InfraSource Inc.
121.
122.
123.
Quanta Technology
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
Impact of Transmission Lines on Stray Voltage (coauthors N. Abed, S. Saleem) IEEE SPM 2010
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
123