Session 4.

3: Agricultural Chemicals
After viewing this presentation you should complete SAQ 4C

Tip: Open the SAQ and read the questions before you start
this presentation
Dr Liza Oates
Course Co-ordinator

RMIT UNIVERSITY

The Green Revolution

In the period following World War II there was a rapid development in the modernisation and

mechanisation of agriculture resulting in, amongst other things, the extensive use of chemical inputs,
in particular synthetic pesticides and fertilisers and veterinary medicines used for purposes other

than treating illness in livestock.

The practice of mixing antibiotics into stockfeed has led to concerns about rising rates of antibiotic

resistant bacteria.
In addition the use of hormones, growth promotants and synthetic fertilisers are also believed to
exert potentially harmful health effects.
However, it is the use of synthetic pesticides that raises the greatest concerns with regard to the use
of agricultural chemicals in food production.

On the farm produce is

exposed to chemicals
from agricultural
practices, pollution and
naturally occurring
secondary metabolites.

Examples:
Pesticides
Nitrates
Heavy metals
Antibiotics and
veterinary medicines
Hormones & growth
promoters
Mycotoxins
Secondary metabolites
3

Pesticide Use
The annual global use of pesticides is consistently around 2.56billion kg per year.
While pesticides have been credited with helping to ensure a more stable food supply, concerns

exist over the potential health implications of ingesting these chemicals in the food chain.
While toxicological studies focus on the acute effects of exposure to large amounts of individual
pesticides, the effects of ingesting multiple chemicals from various sources over a prolonged
time frame are largely unknown.

Pesticides
Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodentacides etc
Can be topical or systemic (translocated into the plant or animal).
Substances or mixtures of substances used to destroy, suppress or alter the life cycle of a pest.

Designed to be toxic to living organisms but not necessarily specific to their target species
Acute poisoning - 3 million accidental or intentional pesticide poisonings occur each year (~260,000
deaths) mostly in developing countries. These figures are considered to be an underestimation do not
account for

chronic or cumulative health effects

effects from exposure during critical periods of development

Resources: Gunnell 2007

http://primalhealth.co/whats-the-big-deal-with-pesticides/

Health effects of Pesticides

Given that the intended purpose of pesticides is to damage or kill living organisms, it is not
surprising that there are many published studies attesting to a link between pesticide exposure
and health risks.
In a systematic review conducted for the Ontario College of General Physicians in 2004 a positive
relationship was identified between exposure to pesticides and the development of many
cancers; as well as the risk of damage to genes, the immune, nervous and reproductive
systems; and an increased incidence of psychiatric and dermatological (skin) conditions.

The review was updated in 2012 and included multiple studies reporting associations between
pesticide exposure and asthma, chronic obstructive lung diseases and reduced lung function.
The updated review further highlighted specific concerns for elevated risk of preterm birth as
well as birth defects, and called for measures to reduce exposure of pregnant women to
pesticides. It also found that prenatal pesticide exposure is consistently associated with
measurable deficits in child neurodevelopment from impaired mental development in
newborns, to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and reduced IQ in older children.
Resources: Sanborn2007 & 2012

Critical periods of development

The risks of pesticide exposure may be of specific concern during critical periods of
development.
For example a Danish study (Anderson 2008) has demonstrated that, despite special measures
to protect pregnant farm workers, their sons are born with significantly shorter penis length, a
tendency to reduced testicle size and lower testosterone levels.
This indicates that current measures are insufficient to protect the developing foetus from the
hormone disrupting agents in pesticides. This study highlights a general concern about exposure
during critical periods such as preconception, pregnancy and early childhood.
Consistent research on the risks to children have led to calls to limit children's exposures to
pesticides as much as possible and a report for the American Academy of Pediatrics expressed
concern about the subclinical effects of long-term, low-dose exposure and recommended
ongoing research in this area.(Forman & Silverstein 2012)
Resources: Andersen 2008, Forman & Silverstein 2012

Long-term effects
The effects of ingesting multiple chemicals from various sources over a prolonged time frame
are largely unknown.
Long-term exposure to low levels of organophosphate pesticides, for instance, has been shown
to impair neurobehavioral function.
Studies in pesticide workers have demonstrated effects on neurotransmitters which are involved
in mood regulation.
Studies in animals have also demonstrated effects on immune function, sleep and weight control
mechanisms.

Dietary Exposure
It is generally accepted that diet is the primary source of pesticide exposure for the majority of
the population.
However, the effects of dietary pesticide exposure are difficult to trace as most people are
unaware of what pesticides they have ingested and in what amounts.
Currently most of the research on the toxic effects of pesticides is based on animal data, studies
of occupational exposure or reports of acute poisoning.
So it is unclear how much of an impact pesticides in the food chain may have.

Nitrates
Synthetic chemical fertilisers utilised in conventional farming are absorbed rapidly into the
plant and increase nitrite and nitrate levels
Organic vegetables contain around 50% less nitrates than their conventional counterparts
It is believed that bacteria in the mouth and gut reduce nitrate to nitrite, which may then
react with amines to form nitrosamines (?carcinogenic).
Associated with leukaemia and gastrointestinal cancers

Early associations with methylhaemoglobinaemia (probably due to faecal bacteria rather than
fertilisers)
Food sources: vegetables (especially green leafies), fruit (including juices), and processed
meats (as food additive)
Resources: Lairon 2010, Hassan 2012

10

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals can be present as impurities in fertilisers
A number of studies report lower levels of cadmium and lead in organic produce
Warning: Backyard soils may contain heavy metals
Aluminium
Sources: contaminated soil, water purification; sugar refining, brewing and wine making industries; food additives;
food packaging and cookware
Food sources: cakes (sponge and chocolate), pikelets and pancakes, English style muffins, chocolate cake, frozen
fish portions, battered or crumbed takeaway chicken, dried fruit cake, beef sausages (24th ATDS Phase 1); Tea,
infant formula, some non-alcoholic beverages, cakes, muffins and puddings (23rd ATDS)
Arsenic - cereal and grain based foods, infant cereal, rice and rice products, fish and seafood (23rd ATDS)
Cadmium - cereal and grain based foods, pasta, noodles, couscous; multigrain, wholemeal and rye breads; and
starchy root vegetables (e.g. potato) (23rd ATDS)
Lead water, infant formula, coffee (23rd ATDS)
Mercury fish, seafood, white bread, infant formula (23rd ATDS)

Resources: DAWR 2012, EFSA 2011, FSANZ 2011, FSANZ 2014, Smith-Spangler 2012
11

Antibiotics and Veterinary Medicines

Antibiotics

Used for:
growth promotion
control of infection in large-scale animal confinement operations
Concerns:
antibiotic resistant bacteria (prevalence conventional)
allergic reactions
disruption of gut microbiota
Contaminate groundwater affecting soil microbial activity

Widespread use
in Australia
Banned in
Europe 2006

Restricted under organic standards

Antibiotic residues have been reported in animal tissue samples.

Other Veterinary Medicines:

ractopamine (a beta-agonist used as a growth promoter) and anti-parasitics

Resources: Dolliver 2007, Smith Spangler 2012

12

Hormones and Growth Promoters

Several hormonal growth promoters (HGPs) are registered for conventional agricultural use in
Australia
Endogenous hormone production can also be disrupted by endocrine-disrupting chemicals
(EDCs) e.g. some synthetic pesticides
Concerns around the use of hormones/ hormone disruptors include:
early onset of puberty
hormone dependent cancers
weight gain

Children are particularly susceptible (no threshold below which there are no hormonal
effects)
Antibiotics, medicinal substances, growth promoters or any other substance intended to
stimulate growth or production is not permitted under organic standards (1.16.7)
Resources: Forman & Silverstein 2012, DAWR 2015
13

Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins (fungal toxins) are produced by microfungi (e.g. Fusarium, Aspergillus, Penicillium etc)
May cause acute toxicity or chronic health effects including cancer, kidney or liver toxicity and immune
suppression
Zearalenone, a metabolite of Fusarium spp.
potent oestrogenic activity
may occur naturally or be added to crops as the synthetic HGP known as zeranol (banned by the
European Union since 1989).

Mycotoxins are detected 50% more often and at levels twice as high in conventional compared to
organic food (due to nitrogen based fertilisers and synthetic fungicides)
Aflatoxin (due to fungal infestations of crops and dairy products)
Hepatotoxic
Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2 and M1), deoxynivalenol, fumonisins (B1 and B2), ochratoxin A, patulin and
zearalenone, were not detected in a limited number of foods tested in the 23rd ATDS
Resources: Benbrook 2005, FSANZ 2011

14

Naturally occurring (secondary metabolites)

Produced by plants to defend themselves against infection and predation and impart colour,
taste and smell
50,000 secondary metabolites have been elucidated in plants, yet the final number is likely to
exceed 200,000. Individual plants may contain 7,500-10,000
Not directly involved in normal functioning (e.g. growth, development or reproduction) but
may exert a physiological function
Generally higher in organic foods

Most are likely to be beneficial e.g. antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, antiinflammatory etc
Some are potentially of concern
Glycoalkaloids in potatoes and other nightshades- GIT irritant, neurotoxic, teratogenic
Glucosinolates in Brassicas goitrogens
Agaratine in mushrooms potential carcinogen (unlikely with usual intake)

Resources: Brandt 2011, Hounsome 2008

15

During transport and storage

chemicals may be used to reduce
deterioration and prolong shelf life
to minimise financial losses.

16

Chemicals used in Transport & Storage

During transport/ storage chemical treatments may be applied to produce
to:
promote ripening
minimise decay

reduce water loss

protect against microbial contamination and pest infestation

23rd ATDS 15 fungicides were detected in a variety of foods

e.g. iprodione in all apples sampled

Recommendation: Buy local e.g. Farmers Markets

Resources: Kader & Rolle 2004, FSANZ 2011

17

Irradiation
Food is exposed to gamma rays from a radioactive source to kill pests and micro-organisms
(including beneficial bacteria).
The Food Standards Code in Australia allows for the irradiation of a select number of products
including spices, herbs, herbal teas, and some tropical fruits
Concerns about nutrient impairment, effects on beneficial gut microbiota

and the use of nuclear technology

Use of ionising radiation during processing, storage or handling of

organic produce is prohibited under organic standards (DAWR 2015 2.3.8)

18

Now complete SAQ 4C

Dont forget to read:
Important information about the Self
Assessment Quizzes (SAQs)
It will give you lots of tips about the most
efficient way of approaching your SAQs
This can be located in your Learning
Guide or on the SAQ page in Blackboard.

Questions???
If you have any questions please post them under
the 'Assessment/ Course Questions' forum in the
'Discussion Board'.
You can access this forum by clicking on the
'Discussion Board' link on the left menu and
opening 'Assessment/ Course Questions'.

Further Reading
Andersen, HR., et al. (2008) Impaired reproductive development in sons of women occupationally exposed to pesticides
during pregnancy. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 566-572.
Babina, K., et al. (2012). Environmental exposure to organophosphorus and pyrethroid pesticides in South Australian
preschool children: a cross sectional study. Environ Int, 48, 109-120.
Benbrook, C. (2005). Breaking the Mold -- Impacts of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems on Mycotoxins in Food
and Livestock Feed. http://www.organiccenter.org/reportfiles/Mycotoxin_SSR.pdf

Bouchard, MF et al. (2011). Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and IQ in 7-year old children. Environ.
Health Perspect. doi:10.1289/ehp.1003185.
Bouchard, MF et al. (2010). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate
pesticides. Pediatrics 125, e1270-e1277.
Brandt, K., et al. (2011). Agroecosystem Management and Nutritional Quality of Plant Foods: The Case of Organic Fruits
and Vegetables. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 30(1-2), 177-197.

21

Further Reading
Braun, L. and M. Cohen (2015). Introduction to Food as Medicine. Herbs & natural supplements: an evidence based
guide. Australia, Elsevier. Vol.1: 54-77.
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (2015). National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce
Edition 3.6 February 2015. http://www.agriculture.gov.au/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic/nationalstandard
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (2012). National Residue Survey 2010-2011.
http://www.agriculture.gov.au/ag-farm-food/food/nrs/nrs-results-publications

Forman, J., & Silverstein, J. (2012). Organic Foods: Health and Environmental Advantages and Disadvantages. Pediatrics,
130(5), e1406-e1415.
Gunnell, D., et al. (2007) The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: Systematic review. BMC Public Health 7,
357

Hounsome, N., et al. (2008). Plant metabolites and nutritional quality of vegetables. J Food Sci, 73(4), R48-65.

Liza Oates PhD, Malvern Natural Health Care, www.mnhc.com.au

22

Further Reading
Hassan, SA., et al. (2012). Nitrate, ascorbic acid, mineral and antioxidant activities of Cosmos caudatus in response to
organic and mineral-based fertilizer rates. Molecules, 17(7), 7843-7853.
JECFA (2011) Safety evaluation of certain contaminants in food. WHO Food Additive Series 63. Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives, Geneva.
Kader, AA., & Rolle, RS. (2004). The role of post-harvest management in assuring the quality and safety of horticultural
produce. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5431e/y5431e00.htm

Lairon, D. (2010). Nutritional quality and safety of organic food. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development,
30(1), 33-41.
Oates L, Cohen M. (2011) Assessing Diet as a Modifiable Risk Factor for Pesticide Exposure. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health 8(6):1792-804
Oates, L., et al. (2014). Reduction in urinary organophosphate pesticide metabolites in adults after a week-long organic
diet. Environmental Research 132(0): 105-111
Richardson, JA et al. (1975). Catecholamine metabolism in humans exposed to pesticides. Environ. Res. 9, 290-294.

Liza Oates PhD, Malvern Natural Health Care, www.mnhc.com.au

23

Further Reading
Ritz B., et al. (2009) Dopamine transporter genetic variants and pesticides in Parkinsons disease. Environ. Health
Perspect. 117, 964-969.

Reuben SH. (2009) Reducing Environmental Cancer Risk: What We Can Do Now. The Presidents Cancer Panel 20082009 Annual Report: http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/advisory/pcp/annualReports/pcp08-09rpt/PCP_Report_08-09_508.pdf
Sanborn, M., et al. (2004). Systematic Review of Pesticide Human Health Effects: Pesticides Literature Review, Ontario
College of General Physicians.
Sanborn M, et al. (2007). Non-cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review and implications for family
doctors. Can Fam Physician 53(10):1712-20.
Sanborn, M., et al. (2012). 2012 Systematic Review of Pesticide Human Health Effects.
http://ocfp.on.ca/docs/pesticides-paper/2012-systematic-review-of-pesticide.pdf
Smith-Spangler, C., et al. (2012). Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives?: a systematic
review. Ann Intern Med, 157(5), 348-366.

Weichenthal, S., et al. (2010) A review of pesticide exposure and cancer incidence in the agricultural health study
cohort. Environ. Health Perspect., 118, 1117-1125
24