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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................1
2. OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................2
3. PARTS OF THE PV PLANT ...........................................................................2
4. BATTERY[1] .....................................................................................................3
i. How lead-acid batteries work ........................................................................3
ii. Types of Lead-acid battery ............................................................................5
iii. Operating Behavior and Characteristics of Lead-Acid Batteries ...........6
5. CHARGE CONTROLLERS ...........................................................................8
6. STRESS FACTORS ..........................................................................................8
7. REFERENCES ................................................................................................16
APPENDIX A .........................................................................................................17
APPENDIX B .........................................................................................................19
1. INTRODUCTION
The PV system that is set up in Bahirdar University is the first of its kind in our country. It is
rated capacity of 10kW. It is partly grid connected and partly functions as an off-grid backup
system in the case of power cuts. It is designed to fulfill a range of functions. Firstly, it
contributes to a reliable power supply for the university campus, given the frequent power cuts
lasting up to one day. Secondly, being the largest PV installation in Ethiopia so far, the system
functions as a University of Bahir Dar maiden project for the use of photovoltaic in Ethiopia.
Thirdly, it is equipped with sensors for research on PV at the IoT. Fourthly, it serves as a PV
teaching facility and demonstration plant for students.
Already, renewable energy is crucial for the Ethiopian electricity supply. While electricity
production is still extremely low compared to the industrialized countries of the western world,
85% of the installed capacity of 929MW consists of hydropower plants. Most the remaining 15%
are diesel generators which serve as back-up systems during power failures as well as for the
power supply in off-grid regions. Up to now, with its 6,000km of high-voltage transmission
lines, the grid mainly connects the economic centers with each other and with hydropower
plants. This leaves 85% of the population without a connection to the national power grid.
Furthermore, depending on the seasonal rainfall and the resulting water levels, the Ethiopian
Electricity Power Company (EEPCo) has to cut off customers from the power supply`
frequently. Yet, with an irradiance of between 5 & 7kWh/m2 per day, solar power appears to be
an ideal option to stabilize and supplement the national power supply and to replace costly diesel
generators, especially in regions without grid access.
2. OBJECTIVE
Main objective is to make analysis on the performance of battery storage system by gathering
data for different months when load demand varies, effect of outage of the grid supply, effect of
weather (temperature) variation.
Specific Objectives:
a) Level of utilization of the battery (average load status, length of operation cycles) for
variation in load demand
b) Comparison of the battery status for different weather conditions
c) Properties of the backup net without failures and during blackouts.
d) Influence of active and reactive power on battery time during a blackout
4. BATTERY[1]
Energy storage is required in hybrid systems particularly those involving solar cells, as energy
generation and consumption do not generally coincide. The solar power generated during the day
is very often not required until the evening and therefore has to be temporarily stored. Longer
periods of overcast weather also have to be considered. Most PV systems have batteries, an
exception being solar water pumping systems: the water is pumped when sufficient sunlight is
available and stored. The most common type of battery found in solar systems comprises
rechargeable lead-acid-batteries. These are the most cost-effective and can handle large and
small charging currents with high efficiency. In PV systems, the storage capacities are generally
in the range of 0.lkWh to 100 kWh
in the other direction (i.e. from the positive pole to the negative pole). This reverses the chemical
change that took place during discharging. The process is not completely reversible. Small
quantities of lead sulphate do not dissolve again (sulphation).The battery's capacity has lessened
slightly as a result of the discharging/charging process. This capacity loss is greater the deeper
the discharge was. If only part of the battery capacity is used, the decrease in capacity is
relatively small. Thus, if used in applications with small discharge capacities, the service life of
the battery - that is, the number of cycles - increases considerably.
Figure1 shows the relationship between discharge depth and number of cycles for a particular
battery supplied by HOPPECKE for the PV plant (OPzS 800 type). Batterys service life in terms
of cycles is normally specified for cycles with a given discharge depth and with a fully charged
battery in each cycle. The cycle life of a battery is defined as the attainable number of cycles
before the capacity in the charged state falls to 80 per cent of the rated capacity. After that point,
the battery can still be used; but the available capacity falls continuously and the risk of sudden
failure increases, particularly as a result of a short circuit.
Figure 2 Cross section through a tubular plate (left) and Components of OPzV battery (right) [1]
iii. Operating Behavior and Characteristics of Lead-Acid Batteries
Battery capacity, Voltage and Current
The capacity C of an accumulator is the quantity of electricity that can be discharged under the
respective discharge conditions until the battery is fully discharged. The nominal capacity is the
product of the constant discharge current In and the discharge time tn.
The nominal capacity is determined by the geometry and number of parallel-wired cells.
However, this is not a constant value. It depends upon the temperature, the discharge cut-off
voltage and, above all, upon the discharge current. With a low current discharge, the depositing
of sulphur in the plates takes place slowly. This achieves a greater penetration depth than with a
greater current discharge. With high current discharge, the sulphur molecules deposited at the
beginning block the rapid penetration of the following molecules. The result is that more power
can be discharged from a battery by discharging it slowly at low currents than by discharging it
rapidly at high currents. Hence, the manufacturer specifies a rated capacity (i.e. the electricity
that a battery can supply when fully charged) under defined conditions. The rated capacity
always stands in relationship to the associated discharge current or - as it is usually represented
in the trade - the discharge time that the capacity relates to. The usual rated capacities are C10 for
stationary, C20 for starter and Cm for so-called solar batteries. For the particular installation of
the battery bank (OPzS 800), the rated capacity is determined to be C10 = 800Ah, which is a
capacity, remained after 10% discharge of fully charged battery bank.
Like the capacity, the current is specified depending upon the charging or discharging period.
While the charge current is produced by the PV modules, the discharge current depends upon the
load.
Typical currents for a battery in a solar system are as follows.
Maximum charge current:
OPzS and OPzV batteries are generally offered as single cells each 2V. In operation, the voltage
at the electrodes fluctuates according to the operating conditions. To protect the battery, two
limit values are defined, which must be adhered to. During charging, the charge cut-off voltage is
the upper limit. For discharging, the discharge cut-off voltage is the permissible lower limit.
Another parameter is the gassing voltage, above which a battery starts gassing significantly in
the charging process.
The open-circuit or no-load voltage of a battery is called the resting voltage and cannot be
measured immediately after charging or discharging since a thermodynamic equilibrium has to
set in first. The resting voltage relies upon the electrolyte concentration. Depending upon the
state of charge and the battery type, it fluctuates somewhere between 1.96V and 2.12V per cell.
In practice, for example, it is somewhere between 12V and 12.7V for a 12V battery.
So-called solar batteries are usually subjected to a daily cycle characterized by charging in the
daytime and discharging during the night. A typical daily discharge may range from 2 per cent to
20 per cent of the battery capacity. In addition, there is a seasonal cycle. During the winter
months, the low solar irradiance results in a low level of energy generation. Depending upon the
discharge depth permitted by the charge controller, the battery's state of charge may fall to 20 per
cent of the rated capacity. During longer periods of time with low solar irradiance, it is possible
that the energy produced by the PV array will not be sufficient to recharge the battery fully and
the cycles take place at a low state of charge. In contrast, with high levels of irradiance in
summer, the battery is operated with a high state of charge, typically between 80 per cent and
100 per cent. Here, there is a risk of overcharging. Between the opposing requirements of
restoring the maximum state of charge as soon as possible in the seasonally variable charging
phase, but without overcharging the battery, the planner needs to set the maximum permissible
battery voltage at the charge controller. A typical threshold value for the maximum cell voltage
for lead-acid batteries is 2.4V for each cell. Some charge controllers enable this voltage to be
exceeded for short periods (e.g. equalization charging or fast charging).
5. CHARGE CONTROLLERS
The PV plant is also supplied with charge controller; XTH 6000-48, which is a series of products
being in market by STUDER INNOTEC with rated capacity of 5000VA and 48V at 25oC. It is
pretends to be a universal controller. This charge controller measures the battery voltage and
current and protects the battery against overcharging. This is achieved by switching out the PV
array when the charge cut-out voltage is exceeded. It also acts like a converter, so facilitating DC
to AC and AC to DC conversion between the battery, the grid or the load.
6. STRESS FACTORS
The battery will be affected in different ways depending on the conditions under which it is
operated. Certain features of the operating conditions have a particularly strong impact on the
damage mechanisms of the battery. These features are termed stress factors. Stress factors are
quantities that are derived from the voltage, current and temperature history of the battery
operation. This paper has identified the major stress factors and their impact on the damage
mechanisms. The major identified stress factors are:
[Ah] throughput
Level of usage
Temperature
Thanks to Xtender Data logger and analysis tools, one can easily collect data & process it. We
have collected data for 3 months (between March 30, 2011 and July 03, 2012) and the data
plotted (see the Appendix B) for battery voltage & current, AC current & voltage supplied to the
controller from the grid, power output from the controller and temperature of the battery. In our
case we used MATLAB to process the data and measured the above stress factors (see Appendix
A).
Discharge and Charge rate [A]: After writing snippet of a MATLAB code and
manipulating the data we obtained the average discharge current to be 4.7mA and the
charging current 3.4mA for this particular data. But the discharge time is larger than the
charging time. The damage on the battery due to sulphation is minimized since the
discharge current is at lower level so keeps the homogeneity of the current supplied by
the battery.
[Ah] throughput: We have also determined the total throughput of the battery and found
it to be 0.3161Ah during its operation for the three months. The capacity of the battery is
also 6.32mAh on average. Which means the discharge depth is around 0.0395% taking
the rated capacity of the battery 800Ah. The discharge depth is negligible and implies
that unlike standalone PV systems, Battery storage system built here will only supply
power when the grid outage is occurred and not operational at night time.
Level of usage: the battery has been used as a backup 50 times during the outage of the
grid to supply the load which is the Power lab. Total discharge time is 67.25Hr and total
charge time is 165.93Hr. This means that the battery is not much loaded compared to
90days of its null operation.
Average load status: the average load supplied by the battery is determined to be
0.232Watt. This is obtained by taking the average of the discharge current multiplied by
the battery voltage for each data set.
Total length of operation cycles [Hr]: The operation cycle is the time interval between
the battery discharge and recharging again to its rated capacity. It is the sum of the total
discharge and charge time. It is found to be 233.18Hr.
Temperature: The average temperature of the battery is about 42oC. This is above the
maximum allowable temperature for normal operation and life time of the OPzS 800
battery bank (Range of operation -20oC to +40oC). The temperature raise is most
probably is due to the ambient temperature of the battery room and during this season
(between March 30, 2011 and July 03, 2012) the outside temperature is as high as 36oC.
This might warn the need to have an additional ventilation system.
Taking another data set for the coldest weather condition between August 17, 2011 and
October 23, 2012, we calculated the average temperature of the battery and it is found to
be 38.8oC which is closer to the allowed operating temperature.
Taking worst case scenario between the warmest day (April 11) and the coldest day
(August 26) we have plotted these graphs as shown below in figure 3 & 4.
The plot for April 11 shows the highest battery temperature reached 50oC and average
daily battery temperature was 43.8oC and for the August 26 the maximum got to 40oC,
where the battery daily average was 36.6oC. For both cases, luckily the battery was not
operational. Only the stress caused by the external environment is considered.
10
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high as 1.77 and battery efficiency has dropped to 56.5%, which is a clear indication of
strong charging voltage as high as 54V and is around the gassing voltage so reducing the
efficiency.
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Another important factor involves the waveform and inductive loads or non-linear loads. As we
know our Power lab is equipped with computers and fluorescent lambs, most of the time it
consumes reactive power. Any waveform that is not a true sine wave (i.e. is a square, or
modified square wave) will be less efficient when powering inductive loads - the appliances may
use 20% more power than it would if using a pure sine wave.
Since the charge controller is programmable, "Sleep Mode" facility can be initiated to increase
overall efficiency. This involves a sensor within the controller sensing if AC power is required.
If not, it will effectively switch the inverter off, continuing to sense if power is required.
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7. REFERENCES
[1] Planning and Installing Photovoltaic Systems A guide for installers, architects and engineers
second edition, The German Energy Society (Deutsche Gesellshaft fur Sonnenenergie (DGS LV
Berlin BRB), 2008.
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APPENDIX A
I_bat=0;
P_out_bat=0;
I_bat_red_out=0;
U_bat_red_out=0;
P_in_bat=0;
I_bat_red_in=0;
U_bat_red_in=0;
s=0;
I_bat=reduced_total_datalog_value(2,:,1)
U_bat=reduced_total_datalog_value(1,:,1)
s=size(I_bat)
flg=0;
flg1=0;
hold_initial=0;
hold_final=0;
total_discharge_time=0;
l=0;
k=0;
for i=2:s(2)
if((I_bat(i)<0)&&(I_bat(i-1)>=0))
hold_initial=reduced_time_vector(i);
flg=flg+1;
end
if((I_bat(i)>=0)&&(I_bat(i-1)<0))
hold_final=reduced_time_vector(i);
flg1=flg1+1;
end
if ((flg==flg1)&&(I_bat(i-1)<0))
time_diff=hold_final-hold_initial;
total_discharge_time=total_discharge_time+time_diff;
end
end
hold_initial=0;
hold_final=0;
flg2=0;
flg3=0;
time_diff=0;
total_charge_time=0;
for i=2:s(2)
if((I_bat(i)>0)&&(I_bat(i-1)<=0))
hold_initial=reduced_time_vector(i);
flg2=flg2+1;
end
if((I_bat(i)<=0)&&(I_bat(i-1)>0))
hold_final=reduced_time_vector(i);
flg3=flg3+1;
end
if ((flg2==flg3)&&(I_bat(i-1)>0))
time_diff=hold_final-hold_initial;
total_charge_time=total_charge_time+time_diff;
end
end
for i=1:s(2)
if(I_bat(i)>0)
k=k+1;
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I_bat_red_in(k)=0.001*I_bat(i);
U_bat_red_in(k)=U_bat(i);
P_in_bat(k)=I_bat_red_in(k)*U_bat_red_in(k);
end
if(I_bat(i)<0)
l=l+1;
I_bat_red_out(l)=0.001*I_bat(i);
U_bat_red_out(l)=U_bat(i);
P_out_bat(l)=-1*I_bat_red_out(l)*U_bat_red_out(l);
end
end
P_in_bat;
P_out_bat;
I_bat_red_out;
I_bat_red_in;
U_bat_red_in;
U_bat_red_out;
I_bat_Outavg=mean(-1*I_bat_red_out)
I_bat_Outstd=std(-1*I_bat_red_out)
I_bat_Inavg=mean(I_bat_red_in)
I_bat_Instd=std(I_bat_red_in)
total_discharge_time
total_charge_time
number_of_times_BatDischarged=flg
number_of_times_BatCharged=flg2
Bat_cap=I_bat_Outavg*total_discharge_time
disp('%%during each discharge & recharge%%')
disp('%%it is assumed that the battery %%')
disp('%%will be recharged to its rated %%')
disp('%%Capacity(For HOPPECKe OPzS-800 %%')
disp('%%it is 800Ahr @10% discharge).
%%')
disp('%%Thus the discharge depth(%) will....')
discharge_depth=Bat_cap*100/800
P_inv_out=reduced_total_datalog_value(6,:,1);
l=0;
for i=1:s(2)
if(P_inv_out(i)>0)
l=l+1;
P_inv_out_red(l)=P_inv_out(i);
end
end
U_bat_avg=mean(U_bat_red_in)
P_inv_avg=mean(P_inv_out_red)
P_out_bat_avg=mean(P_out_bat)
P_in_bat_avg=mean(P_in_bat)
temp=reduced_total_datalog_value(8,:,1);
Temp_Avg=mean(temp)
Inv_efficiency=P_inv_avg*100/P_out_bat_avg
Charge_factor=(I_bat_Inavg*total_charge_time)/Bat_cap
Bat_efficiency=100/Charge_factor
%Temprature Vs. Ubat
%d=reduced_time_vector/24
%plot(d,temp,'-r',d,I_bat,'-b')
%hold on
%ylabel('Ibat(Blue), temp(red)')
%xlabel('Days')
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APPENDIX B
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